INTRODUCTION

Space-based solar power (SBSP) is the concept of collecting solar

power in space (using an "SPS", that is, a "solar-power satellite" or a "satellite power
system") for use on Earth. It has been in research since the early 1970s.
SBSP would differ from current solar collection methods in that the means used to
collect energy would reside on anorbiting satellite instead of on Earth's surface. Some
projected benefits of such a system are a higher collection rate and a longer collection
period due to the lack of a diffusing atmosphere and night time in space.
Part of the solar energy is lost on its way through the atmosphere by the effects
of reflection and absorption. Space-based solar power systems convert sunlight to
microwaves outside the atmosphere, avoiding these losses, and the downtime (and cosine
losses, for fixed flat-plate collectors) due to the Earth's rotation.
Besides the cost of implementing such a system, SBSP also introduces several
new hurdles, primarily the problem of transmitting energy from orbit to Earth's surface
for use. Since wires extending from Earth's surface to an orbiting satellite are neither
practical nor feasible with current technology, SBSP designs generally include the use of
some manner of wireless power transmission. The collecting satellite would convert solar
energy into electrical energy on board, powering a microwave transmitter or laser emitter,
and focus its beam toward a collector (rectenna) on Earth's
surface. Radiation and micrometeoroid damage could also become concerns for SBSP.
HISTORY
In 1941, science fiction writer Isaac Asimov published the science fiction short
story "Reason", in which a space station transmits energy collected from the Sun to
various planets using microwave beams.
The SBSP concept, originally known as satellite solar-power system (SSPS), was
first described in November 1968.
[1]
In 1973Peter Glaser was granted U.S. patent number
3,781,647 for his method of transmitting power over long distances (e.g. from an SPS to
Earth's surface) using microwaves from a very large antenna (up to one square kilometer)
on the satellite to a much larger one, now known as a rectenna, on the ground.
Glaser then was a vice president at Arthur D. Little, Inc. NASA signed a contract
with ADL to lead four other companies in a broader study in 1974. They found that,
while the concept had several major problems chiefly the expense of putting the
required materials in orbit and the lack of experience on projects of this scale in space it
showed enough promise to merit further investigation and research.
[3]

Between 1978 and 1986, the Congress authorized the Department of Energy (DoE)
and NASA to jointly investigate the concept. They organized the Satellite Power System
Concept Development and Evaluation Program.
[4][5]
The study remains the most
extensive performed to date (budget $50 million).
[6]
Several reports were published
investigating the engineering feasibility of such an engineering project. They include:
Resource Requirements (Critical Materials, Energy, and Land)
[7]


Artist's concept of Solar Power Satellite in place. Shown is the assembly of a microwave
transmission antenna. The solar power satellite was to be located in a geosynchronous
orbit, 36,000 miles above the Earth's surface. NASA 1976
Financial/Management Scenarios
Public Acceptance
State and Local Regulations as Applied to Satellite Power System Microwave
Receiving Antenna Facilities
Student Participation
Potential of Laser for SBSP Power Transmission
International Agreements
Centralization/Decentralization
Mapping of Exclusion Areas For Rectenna Sites
Economic and Demographic Issues Related to Deployment
Some Questions and Answers
Meteorological Effects on Laser Beam Propagation and Direct Solar Pumped Lasers
Public Outreach Experiment
Power Transmission and Reception Technical Summary and Assessment
Space Transportation
The project was not continued with the change in administrations after the 1980 US
Federal elections.
The Office of Technology Assessment concluded
Too little is currently known about the technical, economic, and environmental
aspects of SPS to make a sound decision whether to proceed with its development and
deployment. In addition, without further research an SPS demonstration or systems-
engineering verification program would be a high-risk venture.
In 1997 NASA conducted its "Fresh Look" study to examine the modern state of
SBSP feasibility.
[25]
In assessing "What has changed" since the DOE study, NASA
asserted that:
US National Space Policy now calls for NASA to make significant investments in
technology (not a particular vehicle) to drive the costs of ETO [Earth to
Orbit] transportation down dramatically. This is, of course, an absolute requirement of
space solar power.
Conversely, Dr. Pete Worden claimed that space-based solar is about five orders
of magnitude more expensive than solar power from the Arizona desert, with a major cost
being the transportation of materials to orbit. Dr. Worden referred to possible solutions as
speculative, and that would not be available for decades at the earliest.
[26]


SERT sandwich concept.NASA
On Nov 2, 2012, China proposed space collaboration with India that mentioned
SBSP, " may be Space-based Solar Power initiative so that both India and China can
work for long term association with proper funding along with other willing space faring
nations to bring space solar power to earth."
[27]

SERT
In 1999, NASA's Space Solar Power Exploratory Research and Technology
program (SERT) was initiated for the following purposes:
Perform design studies of selected flight demonstration concepts.
Evaluate studies of the general feasibility, design, and requirements.
Create conceptual designs of subsystems that make use of advanced SSP technologies
to benefit future space or terrestrial applications.
Formulate a preliminary plan of action for the U.S. (working with international
partners) to undertake an aggressive technology initiative.
Construct technology development and demonstration roadmaps for critical Space
Solar Power (SSP) elements.
SERT went about developing a solar power satellite (SPS) concept for a
future gigawatt space power system, to provide electrical power by converting the Suns
energy and beaming it to Earth's surface, and provided a conceptual development path
that would utilize current technologies. SERT proposed
an inflatablephotovoltaic gossamer structure with concentrator lenses or solar heat
engines to convert sunlight into electricity. The program looked both at systems in sun-
synchronous orbit and geosynchronous orbit.
Some of SERT's conclusions:
The increasing global energy demand is likely to continue for many decades resulting
in new power plants of all sizes being built.
The environmental impact of those plants and their impact on world energy supplies
and geopolitical relationships can be problematic.
Renewable energy is a compelling approach, both philosophically and in engineering
terms.
Many renewable energy sources are limited in their ability to affordably provide the
base load power required for global industrial development and prosperity, because of
inherent land and water requirements.
Based on their Concept Definition Study, space solar power concepts may be ready to
reenter the discussion.
Solar power satellites should no longer be envisioned as requiring unimaginably large
initial investments in fixed infrastructure before the emplacement of productive
power plants can begin.
Space solar power systems appear to possess many significant environmental
advantages when compared to alternative approaches.
The economic viability of space solar power systems depends on many factors and
the successful development of various new technologies (not least of which is the
availability of much lower cost access to space than has been available), however, the
same can be said of many other advanced power technologies options.
Space solar power may well emerge as a serious candidate among the options for
meeting the energy demands of the 21st century. Space Solar Power Satellite
Technology Development at the Glenn Research CenterAn Overview] James E.
Dudenhoefer and Patrick J. George, NASA Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio.
Launch costs in the range of $100$200 per kilogram of payload to low Earth
orbit are needed if SPS are to be economically viable.
[6]

JAXA
The May 2014 IEEE Spectrum magazine has a lengthy article "It's Always Sunny
in Space" by Dr. Susumu Sasaki.
[28]
"Its been the subject of many previous studies and
the stuff of sci-fi for decades, but space-based solar power could at last become a
realityand within 25 years, according to a proposal from researchers at theJapan
Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)."
METHODS OF SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTION
The most realistic methods of harnessing solar radiation in space fall into two
categories: the Solar Power Satellite (SPS), and the Solar Tower. The conceptual SPS
would be placed in geostationary orbit to ensure constant antenna geometry, and collect
solar radiation through amplifying mirrors and currently-available solar cells, and
subsequently beam the stored energy back to earth through an electromagnetic beam. On
earth, a ground segment comprised of a large photovoltaic array would capture the
microwave beam, convert it into electricity, and distribute it to the local grid. (See Fig. 1.)
Alternative methods of capturing energy from solar rays in space include the "Sun
Tower," a tethered array of solar concentrators in low orbit channeling solar energy to an
electromagnetic beam transmitter. (See Fig. 2.) Subsequently, the microwaves would be
sent back to earth to be collected by a terrestrial passive array of photovoltaic cells. [1]

Fig. 2: Frontal view of the architecture of the sun tower, including solar concentrators
and "backbone." (Courtesy of NASA. Source:Wikimedia Commons)
The tethering system would be made of a superconducting "backbone" used to transport
energy from the solar concentrators to the beam transmitter. Predictions of a sample Sun
Tower placed at 6,000 km at 30 degree inclination orbits would produce an average of
250 MW, producing the same amount of energy as the maximum capacity of the
California Valley Solar Ranch, the United States' largest passive photovoltaic cell array.

Solar Power Satellite. Mirrors concentrate solar radiation, which is beamed back to
earth via a microwave beam, and subsequently collected and diverted to an external
circuit.



OVERALL ARCHITECTURE
The architecture of this system is composed of four components:
Solar-Collecting Satellites
Inter-Satellite Power Beaming
Space-Based Collectors and Beamers
Receiving Stations on Earth
By using distributed satellites, each of these components can be distinctly separate
from each other, with the exception of the inter-satellite beaming devices, which exist as
modules that are installed onto each of the receiving satellites. The design under
consideration aims to generate 10 MW of power in space, a nontrivial result that still
maintains the smaller scale necessary for a trial case. This design requires 195 satellites
spread among 2 central beaming satellites. The geometry of the distributed satellite
system consists of a large power beaming satellite surrounded by 10 sub-beamer satellites
that beam the power collected from the collectors to the beamer and are arranged along a
circle of radius 350 meters centered on the main beamer. Each of the sub-beamers in turn
has line-of-sight (LOS) contact with 12 collector satellites arranged on a circular arc of
radius 105 meters. The collector satellites are at least 35 meters apart from each other.
This design is to create a redundant array of beamers, ensure LOS for all the collectors,
and avoid shadows. The beaming antennae on the collector satellites are have a radius of
2m. Two clusters of up to 120 satellites each will be placed in orbit.

A key constraint in a workable arrangement of collector and beaming satellites in
a spoke configuration is the possibility of interference among microwave beams. The
ideal geometry should negate any destructive interference. Alternatively, beaming events
can be scheduled to avoid interference.
Power beaming is used at three levels in this design: between collector satellites
and the sub-beamers, sub-beamers to beamers, and the main beaming satellite and the
ground station. To this end, a higher frequency radiation (5.8 GHz) is used for
transmission between satellites and a lower frequency radio-band radiation (2.45 GHz) is
used for transmission to a ground station. This satellite constellation is intended for
geostationary orbit so that it can remain above a particular ground station and eliminate
the need for batteries during eclipse.
The ground station consists of an array of rectennas (rectifying antenna) that
capture and convert the incident microwave beam from the space satellite into DC power.
The geostationary location of the beaming satellite ensures that the ground station will
rarely need to change the orientation of its rectennas. Also, the location of the ground
station should preferably be in an area free of electromagnetic interference. The rectenna
array at the ground station will be spread over an area of 2 square kilometers.
Another key aspect of the installation of this architecture is that of lifting the
satellites into geostationary orbit. To that end, the collector satellites will be designed to
utilize ESPA class launch slots, which allow them to share a ride with larger satellites on
Atlas or Delta rockets. ESPA refers to the EELV Secondary Payload Adapter standard of
the U.S. Department of Defense.
Beaming satellites, being significantly larger, are assumed to launch on SpaceXs
Falcon 9. Given that the number of ESPA slots available will likely remain far too small
to support the number of satellites needed to reach orbit, it will be necessary to develop
secondary lift capability in-house. Fortunately, ESPA-class satellites can also be launched
in bulk on a Falcon 9.
Finally, the development, fabrication, and testing of this design must also be
considered in the formation of a business plan. The current design assumes outsourcing
of solar array design and assembly; however this work must eventually be brought in-
house to significantly reduce cost. In short, this plan assumes a baseline workforce of 300
employees and associated facilities over a time period of 5 years.
The expected pay-off period of this approximately $900M program is about 80
years, using this configuration. Although such a time frame is unacceptable, economies
of scale and learning effects leading to new technologies and greater efficiencies can be
expected that will reduce payback time, especially with larger versions of the
demonstration system proposed.

COLLECTION SATELLITE DESIGN
The purpose of the collector satellites is to capture the suns energy and convert it
into an RF beam that can be passed either to another similar satellite or directly to a
beaming satellite.
In this design, power conversion from solar energy to electricity is done using Copper
Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS) solar cells. These cells, which are being manufactured
commercially, are thin-film cells providing 19.5% efficiency. Thissuch efficiency is
better than what other thin film cells can provide, but is still much lower than the
efficiency provided by triple junction cells, such as those manufactured by Emcore or
Spectrolab. These cells are both significantly cheaper and less massive.
Another advantage in using thin-film cells is that they can be purchased in sheets,
which can be unrolled when on-orbit. Ordinarily, it is very difficult to deliver spacecraft
with large solar arrays on orbit while keeping the solar arrays intact, but thin-film arrays
tend to be much less susceptible to damage in loading for launch. It must be noted that
the spacecrafts structures and mechanisms are generally limited by launch loading,
rather than by in-space constraints.
Thin-film cells allow the structural mass fraction of the solar arrays to be reduced
significantly. This is important since each satellite will require arrays 25m in length and
width. Given that the two key hindrances to a successful SSP design are high power to
mass and power to cost metrics, the use of these relatively cheap, mass-producible solar
arrays that can be supported with relatively minimal structure is a step forward.
A detailed structural design of the spacecraft is beyond the scope of this paper, but
a simplified model was necessary in order to provide the costing model necessary for this
paper. The primary requirements on the structure are the ESPA dimensions, which are
35.5x28x24. Due to the small space constraints and the relatively high power
requirements for the SSP solution being addressed, a significant number of satellites must
be deployed to complete the final solar array. A central frame will house the support
equipment, such as communications, attitude control, and avionics. A truss will extend
from this central bus, providing the supporting structure from which the rolls of solar
cells may be uncoiled and extended.
Since each solar cell only captures a small amount of solar radiation, which is
primarily the visible spectrum, a
significant amount of heat energy is absorbed into the arrays. This excess heat must be
radiated into space. The backs of the solar arrays serve as effective radiators since they
are always pointing toward deep space. This design proposes a coat of Z93 paint with
sufficient emissivity to serve as a reflective surface. Further thermal analysis will be
necessary to determine how much of the panels will require painting.
Some amount of the power from the solar arrays will need to be routed to the
auxiliary equipment. This will be done with a Maximum Peak Power Tracker, Lithium
Polymer batteries, and the necessary power converters and fuses. It must be noted that, at
GEO, the satellite constellation is nearly always in daylight, so a constant input of power
means that power conditioning equipment should be minimal.
Attitude Determination and Control is necessary not only to move the satellites
from delivery orbit to final configuration but to keep the constellation of satellites in
formation. Although launch vehicles can insert very reliably, it will be necessary to make
small adjustments in position and attitude. Initial positional changes will be performed
with a cold gas thruster system. Station-keeping maneuvers will be performed with a
combination of reaction wheels (which can affect attitude) and cold gas thrusters (which
can affect position and de-saturate the reaction wheels). Attitude and position
determination is performed with an inertial measurement unit, sun sensors, and a GPS
receiver.
In order to control the activities of each of the satellites, a powerful network of
avionics and communications systems is necessary. Each satellite is controlled by a
radiation-tolerant commercial, off-the-shelf flight computer supported by a
microcontroller, which serves as an interface host between the board and all sensors,
actuators, and communications equipment. Communication with Earth is handled via the
central beaming satellites. As a result, communication between collection satellites can
be performed at lower power levels and with components of much lower cost and mass.
In this design, 802.11 technology in the 5 GHz range, namely 802.11n, will be used.
Since the 5.8 GHz band used for inter-satellite beaming is narrow and monochromatic, it
will not interfere with communication signals.
The cost and mass breakdowns for each collector satellite can be seen in Figure 2
and Figure 3. The power system accounts for most of the mass of each satellite and
nearly all of the cost, which supports the theory that a distributed constellation doesnt
significantly add to the total mass and cost of the system.


BEAMING SATELLITE DESIGN
The beaming satellites serve as the hub for both the in-space power and
communications grids. For power, they collect the energy being relayed from each of the
collectors/sub-beamers and redirect that energy toward Earth using a much more
powerful rectenna array that has a considerably large area. For communications, the
beaming satellites relay signals not only between the different spokes of the system, but
also decipher which telemetry and commands must be relayed to and from the Earth.
The most prominent feature of the beaming satellite is the downlink rectenna
array. In the system proposed, each collector satellite beams its power to one rectenna
array slot. This one-to-one correspondence is designed to minimize interference between
the beams of individual collector satellites. The rectenna array on-board the beaming
satellite is similar to the one at the ground station, except for the fact that it is optimized
to collect beams of a higher frequency and hence is smaller in size.
The support equipment of the beaming array is, in fact, very similar to that of the
collection satellites. The notable exception is that less structural support for solar arrays is
needed. Due to the large size of the collection array, however, the beaming satellites are
significantly larger than the collection satellites. The communications equipment aboard
the beaming satellites must be more sophisticated to ensure that it can provide sufficient
relay capabilities and downlink to Earth. Moreover, the reliability of components on the
beaming satellite must be significantly higher (with redundant components on-board)
since a loss of capability on a beaming satellite would cripple the grid.
POWER BEAMING BETWEEN SATELLITES
The power beaming between satellites will take place at a higher (5.8Ghz)
frequency, to ensure that the rectennas on board are smaller and that there is no
interference with beaming to the ground. The power conversion efficiency at this stage is
assumed to be up to 70%. The photovoltaic DC to microwave conversion efficiency is
83% [1] and the microwave to DC conversion at the rectenna of the sub-beamer is around
85%[2]. (McSpadden et al achieved a DC conversion efficiency of 82% for 5.8 GHz
rectennas in 1998, [8]) DC to microwave conversion is accomplished through magnetrons
or similar devices. Semiconductor devices like various field-effect transistors do not
provide comparable efficiency at this point it is generally below 50%. [3]. The collector
satellites will transmit their power to the beaming satellite and the geometry of the
satellite cluster ensures that the beams dont interfere with another collectors beams.
Occasionally, inter or intra spoke beaming can be used for station-keeping or for
changing the orientation of satellites within the cluster.
Another aspect of power beaming between satellites is the re-use of wasted power
during transmission. It has been shown that ambient microwave energy can be reused by
a rectenna array with an efficiency of 20% (up to 60% in certain cases) [4]. This recycled
energy can be specifically used for the station-keeping needs of the satellite cluster. The
incorporation of this feature would be an optional measure for squeezing out maximum
overall efficiency from the system.

POWER BEAMING FROM SPACE TO EARTH
The efficiency for power transmission through free-space has been shown to
approach 100% and its dependence on various factors can be characterized by the
following dimensionless quantity [7]:

Rt = Radius of transmitting antenna
Rr = Radius of receiving antenna
Z = distance
= wavelength
This result is derived by treating electromagnetic beams as Gaussian beams, [9],
[10]. Experimental results, in [2], about the relationship of efficiency with X/2, clearly
support the theoretical predictions of the Gaussian beam model. The Gaussian beam used
in this design will have a power tapering (ratio of power density at the center of
transmitting antenna to that at the edge) of 10-15 db.
The area of the rectenna arrays in space and on the ground will be optimized
according to this relation. In this design, the total transmitter aperture in space is ~0.8
km2 and the rectenna array occupies ~1.5 km2 on earth. The main beamers have huge
transmitter antenna arrays, which span the overall geometry of the satellite network. The
2.45 GHz frequency range has been widely studied for the purpose of space solar power
transmission. This frequency is thought to be optimal both in terms of efficiency and
transmission. A power conversion efficiency of up to 85% has been obtained by
rectennas operating at 2.45 GHz. [5] This region of the electromagnetic spectrum is also
free


WORKING
Self-assembling satellites are launched into space, along with reflectors and a microwave
or laser power transmitter. Reflectors or inflatable mirrors spread over a vast swath of
space, directing solar radiation onto solar panels. These panels convert solar power into
either a microwave or a laser, and beam uninterrupted power down to Earth. On Earth,
power-receiving stations collect the beam and add it to the electric grid.
The two most commonly discussed designs for SBSP are a large, deeper space
microwave transmitting satellite and a smaller, nearer laser transmitting satellite.


ADVANTAGES
The SBSP concept is attractive because space has several major advantages over the
Earth's surface for the collection of solar power.
There is no air in space, so the collecting surfaces could receive much more
intense sunlight, unobstructed by the filtering effects of atmospheric gasses, cloudcover,
there is no night, dust to be cleaned, clouds and other weather events. Consequently, the
intensity in orbit is approximately 144% of the maximum attainable intensity on Earth's
surface.
A satellite could be illuminated over 99% of the time, and be in Earth's shadow a
maximum of only 72 minutes per night at the spring and fall equinoxes at local
midnight.
[29]
Orbiting satellites can be exposed to a consistently high degree of
solar radiation, generally for 24 hours per day, whereas the average earth surface solar
panels currently collect power for an average of 29% per day.
[30]

Power could be relatively quickly redirected directly to areas that need it most. A
collecting satellite could possibly direct power on demand to different surface locations
based on geographical baseload or peak load power needs. Typical contracts would be for
baseload, continuous power, since peaking power is ephemeral.
Elimination of plant and wildlife interference.

DISADVANTAGES
The SBSP concept also has a number of problems.
The large cost of launching a satellite into space
Inaccessibility: Maintenance of an earth-based solar panel is relatively simple, but
construction and maintenance on a solar panel in space would typically be done
telerobotically. In addition to cost, astronauts working in GEO orbit are exposed to
unacceptably high radiation dangers and risk and cost about one thousand times more
than the same task done telerobotically.
After being decommissioned, parts of it may stay in orbit and become space
debris. This space debris can create trouble for other space satellites.
The space environment is hostile; panels suffer about 8 times the degradation they
would on Earth.
[31]

Space debris is a major hazard to large objects in space, and all large structures
such as SBSP systems have been mentioned as potential sources of orbital debris.
[32]

The broadcast frequency of the microwave downlink (if used) would require
isolating the SBSP systems away from other satellites. GEO space is already well used
and it is considered unlikely the ITU would allow an SPS to be launched.
[33]

The large size and corresponding cost of the receiving station on the ground.
from the effects of attenuation in the atmosphere, thereby making the SSP system
immune from the effects of weather.
Attenuation begins to affect transmission after 3GHz and spikes afterward, making
the 2.45 GHz region our best choice for SSP. [6]. Studies by [7] have shown that power
loss in the atmosphere is less than 1% for this frequency. A rectenna array on the ground
converts the microwave energy into DC power, which can then be converted into AC and
fed to the power grid infrastructure on Earth.

LAUNCHING SYSTEM INTO SPACE
Launching the SSP constellation into orbit is one of the most difficult aspects of
the program. Launch vehicles are expensive, operationally difficult to use, and provide a
harsh environment for the health of transported satellites during launch. Some aspects of
this architecture, however, help to mitigate these problems:
A large number of small satellites can fit into a single launch vehicle.
Modularity of the system means scope can be expanded or reduced to fit available
launch vehicle payload capabilities.
The lack of a monolithic structure eliminates the need for Saturn V or higher-class
heavy-lift launch vehicles.
This architecture calls for designing spacecraft to fit the EELV Secondary Payload
Adapter standard. The ESPA Program is sponsored by the DoD Space Test Program and
provides secondary rides to orbit for 180 kg vehicles at a cost of about $1M each. It must
be noted that use of ESPA is not viable in the long term due to the limited number of
ESPA rides available on a regular basis, but this approach serves as an optimal way to
prove out the initial steps of the system.
ESPA type adapters can be developed to launch as many as 25 satellites at a time
on a Falcon 9 or similar rocket. Due to the larger size of the beaming satellites, they will
be launched on Falcon 9 or similar launch vehicles; it is expected that two beaming
satellites (and collecting satellites if space and mass allows) will fit on each Falcon 9
launch. SpaceX vehicles are baselined due to the significantly lower cost over other
providers and the likely further reductions available once reusability is incorporated into
the design.

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT COSTING
Often neglected in initial trade studies, the cost of design and development must
also be considered. In this paper, this aspect is analyzed in terms of employees and
facilities. First, it is assumed that development work will be performed by 300 engineers,
management, fabrication, test, and support staff over a period of 5 years. These people
will operate a facility that will be used for design and manufacture at a rent of $2M per
year and will require about $30M of startup cost for machinery, tooling, office supplies,
etc. These estimates are based on the experiences of small space start-ups and Silicon
Valley companies, such as SpaceX.

CONCLUSION
Space energy is not the only option for solving the worlds future energy needs,
but it is one of the most promising. The idea of satellites sending clean continuous power
from the sun may still sound like science fiction, but many of todays technological
marvels in the past likely did as well. The realization of SBSP will not happen overnight;
in fact it is an idea over 40 years in the making. Launch costs need to be lowered. The
international legal regime needs to develop further to accommodate SBSP. SBSP will
likely also require substantial cooperation between different countries and private
companies. All are difficult challenges but will be rewarded with a worthy prize.

REFERENCES
[1] J. Mankins, "A Fresh Look at Space Solar Power: New Architectures, Concepts and
Technologies" Acta Astronautica 41, 347 (1997).
[2] J. C. Mankins, "A Technical Overvew of the 'Suntower' Solar Power Satellite
Concept," Acta Astronautica 50, 369 (2002).
[3] P. E. Glaser, "Solar Power from Satellites," Physics Today 30, No. 2, 30 (1977).
[4] M. Nagatomo, "An Approach to Develop Space Solar Power as a New Energy
System for Developing Countries," Solar Energy 56, 111 (1996).
[5] Y. Gilboa and X. Guo, "Real Option Analysis of a Large-scale Space Solar Power
Venture," Michigan J. Business 4, No. 2, 121 (2011).
[6] J. C. Mankins, "New Directions for Space Solar Power," Acta Astronautica 65, 146
(2009).