7 01

Sep04 / THTT
Copyright by SR Technics Switzerland

Corresponding with EASA Part-66
For training purposes only 7.1 - 1 Cat: B2
Basic Maintenance
Training Manual
Module 7 Maintenance Practices
7.1 Safety Precautions - Aircraft and Workshop
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Basic Maintenance
Training Manual
Safety Precaution
Safety is a keyword in aviation. The greatest possible care is taken to ensure safe-
ly; not only in the air, but also on the ground. And this is certainly the case at Air-
craft Maintenance Departments. The aircraft maintenance mechanic deals with a
large number of safety regulations in his work. This apply to working in and on the
aircraft as well as working in the workshop and in the hangar.
Everyone must cooperate to prevent accidents and injuries.
Your company has endeavored to provide adequate safe-
guards, but safety devices alone will not guarantee safety. Ac-
cident prevention depends upon the use of approved
practices and common sense.
Be on the alert. Report observed unsafe practices and condi-
tions immediately to your supervisor, since delay may result
in a serious injury.
Know the location of the nearest medical dispensary.
Instructions for handling hazardous materials must be fol-
lowed. Further information may be obtained from your safety
officer, or your supervisor.
Manuals
As explained before, airlines and its related companies such as maintenance de-
partments pay optimal attention to safety. This is expressed in all the manuals,
safety instructions and procedures. One of the important manuals used by the
maintenance department is the Maintenance Manual (AMM/MAI). This manual
contains a large number of general safety regulations.
Danger Signs
Within each Department, bulletin boards, signs and stickers have been installed
everywhere they are needed. Some of them refer to possible danger or indicate
escape routes in case of danger. These signs always have three components: col-
our, shape and symbol. The meaning of a sign is easy to understand. Figure 2 on
page 2
Colour
There are four main colours that are used for signs: Red, Yellow, Green and Blue.
In some cases these colours have been applied directly to the objects or instru-
ments. An example is the red colour of a fire extinguisher.
Figure 1: Colours
Shapes of Signs
Danger signs have three different shapes. Each shape has its own meaning:
Circular: prohibitory or mandatory sign
Triangular: warning
Rectangular: rescue, instruction or supplementary sign
Have a look at the four examples shown below.
Figure 2: Signs
-IMMEDIATE DANGER!
-PROHIBITORY SIGN
RED YELLOW
GREEN BLUE
-WATCH OUT!
-POSSIBLE DANGER
-ESCAPE ROUTES
-FIRST AID, RESCUE
-SIGN WITH INSTRUCTION
(MANDATORY)
s
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The Work Area
A clean and tidy area is safer than an untidy work area. It is your employers re-
sponsibility to provide and maintain a safe working environment.
Practice good house keeping in your work or by keeping the area clean, or-
dered and tidy.
Always immediately report damaged, worn or inoperative item, or any unsafe
conditions to your supervisor or health and safety representative.
Keep all passage ways, aisles and exits clear of obstructions.
Remove immediately any oils, paints, greases and other fluids that have been
split on the floor.
Keep your immediate work area clean and tidy and do not allow discarded
pieces of material to accumulate.
Do not leave tools and materials scattered about thoughtlessly.
Put away all the tools you are using.
Returning tools to their correct place is not only being safe, it is also being con-
siderate of your workmates who also need the tools.
Use the receptacles provided for waste and refuse.
Stack materials so that they cannot fall and so that they do not project dan-
gerously.
If you are working with oil materials and waste, bins with self closing and seat-
ing lids should be provided.
Figure 3: Work Area Handling
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Personal Protective Clothing and Devices
It is the employers responsibility to provide clothing and equipment. Work clothes
and specially designed protective clothing are designed for your protection. Wear
the correct clothing and equipment to protect your self from possible serious injury.
Do not interfere with or misuse any item provided by your employer for health and
safety.
Wear plain, tough clothes that are close-fitting, and keep them buttoned up.
Loose sleeve, unbuttoned or torn shirts, or sweaters, ties or loose belts can
easily become caught in revolving machinery.
Your work clothes should be cleaned regularly.
Wear cuffless trousers.
Trouser cuffs may cause you to trip or they may catch sparks or they may
catch sparks or harmful substances.
Wear suitable footwear and keep it in good repair.
Stout soles or steel midsoles protect against injury form sharp Metal and pro-
truding nails. Good uppers protect against burning from hot turnings, drops of
molten metal, etc. Safety shoes and boots have reinforce toe-caps to protect
against heavy falling objects.
Keep long hair under a tight-fitting cap or net, as required by regulations.
It is you employers duty to ensure machines have guards to Protect employees
who work closely to the machine. Even so, if your hair is long, it could easily be
caught in machinery, such as drilling machine. Many people have been scalped in
this type of accident.
Do not wear rings or wrist watches on the job.
Because such items can be caught in moving machinery, it is extremely dan-
gerous to wear them in certain types of work. you could lose fingers.
Do not wear earrings, neck chains, pendants and bracelets.
All items or personal jewelry worn at work have the potential to cause an ac-
cident, or aggravate an injury sustained in an accident.
Wear personal protective equipment suited to the work to be done as shown
in Figure 5 on page 5.
Learn the purpose of each item in the wide rage of protective Devices availa-
ble.
Figure 4: Protective Clothing
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Figure 5: Protecting Devices Care in the use of Tools
As it is your employers duty to maintain safe working conditions, always report any
damaged or worn tools to your supervisor. Tools can cause injuries when and in-
correct, improvised or defective tool is used. Also, when the correct tool is not used
carefully or not put away safely, there is a danger of injury.
Make sure you select the correct type and size of tool for the job.
Check the condition of any tool before you use it.
Do not use tools that are worn out or damaged.
Maintain tools in good condition and remember that cutting tools need to be
sharp to be safe.
Make sure you use each tool in the correct manner.
Store and carry your tools safely.
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Danger Tags
All workers must be familiar with the use of warning or danger tags.
Danger tags are used to indicate valves or switches that must NOT be operated,
as operation could result in injury to workers or damage to equipment.
The tags should be placed on machines or equipment while they are being in-
spected, serviced or cleaned to inform another person NOT to operate the related
system.
The person working on the machine must attach a Danger tag to the control
switch that supplies power or other input to the machine or work area. The
worker writes his or her name and signature, together with the date of placement,
on the Danger tag. When the work is completed, the technician who had attached
the Danger tag removes it.
If more than one person are working on the same equipment, each attaches their
own Danger tag. This is to ensure that the equipment is not turned on until the last
tag is removed.
Only the worker whose name and signature appear on the Danger tag, or the su-
pervisor, can remove the Danger tag.
It is a good practice to advise your supervisor and other workers in the area of your
intended use of the Danger tag.
The same procedure should be used for lock-out, using an individual padlock to
isolate equipment to be worked on.
Figure 6: Warning Tag
1.045
Danger
DO NOT
OPERATE
Danger
DO NOT REMOVE THIS TAG
REMARKS:
Sign:
Date:
Frontside Backside
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Safety with Fuels, Oils and Chemicals
Safety in and around your place of work is vital to ensure that accidents to people
and equipment are prevented. It is essential that all notices and warnings placed
near machines are strictly obeyed.
Precautions should be taken to protect your skin by the application of barrier
cream or gloves prior to practical work, especially if handling oils, chemicals and
greases which can cause irritation. Containers should be tagged with a label as
shown in Figure 7 on page 7.
After completion of work ensure all traces are removed by washing. If you are
working with oil materials and waste, bins with self closing and seating lids should
be provided.
All accidents, no matter how small, should be reported to your supervisor.
The nature of the accident and the treatment received should be entered in
a book to record the accident. Evaluation these data gives more information if any
other action is required.
Figure 7: Labels
flammable oxidizer
poisonous irritant/harmful
corrosive explosive
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Aviation Fuels
The main safety hazard relates to the risk of fire or explosion with aviation fuels
and methanol/water mixtures. The information in this part is intended to act as a
guide to users. It is of a very general nature and is not intended to replace any local
regulations.
Flash Point Classification
To apply safeguards to the storage, transport and handling of petroleum liquids,
international organisations and authorities classify these liquids according to their
flammability. These classifications sometimes vary slightly from country to coun-
try. They are classified according to their closed cup flash points in conformance
with the most widely used system. The classification and guidance is as follows:
Class I
Products with a closed cup flash point below 21C should be stored and handled
in accordance with local regulations for highly flammable liquids and all sources of
ignition excluded. Electrical equipment used must satisfy the requirements of the
Institute of Petroleum Electrical Safety Code or its local equivalent.
Class II
Products with a closed cup flash point from 21C to 55C inclusive should be
stored and handled in accordance with local regulations for flammable products
and stored in closed containers and all sources of ignition excluded. Electrical
equipment used must satisfy the requirements of the Institute of Petroleum Elec-
trical Safety Code or its local equivalent.
Class III
Products having a closed cup flash point above 55C up to and including 100C.
Unclassified
Products having a closed cup flash point above 100C.
Aviation gasolines and methanol/water mixtures are Class I products. Their
very low flash points mean that any spillage or leak is a severe fire and/or explo-
sion hazard. They must be stored at ambient temperatures away from ignition
sources and only in equipment or containers designed specifically for their use.
Containers must be properly labelled and kept closed when not in use. Hot work,
such as cutting or welding, must not be carried out on any container used for these
products unless it has been made safe. Containers, such as drums, containing
residues of these products must be disposed of safely according to local regula-
tions.
Aviation turbine kerosines are Class II products, which are flammable and
should be stored in closed containers and all sources of ignition excluded. Any
spillage should be treated as a potential fire hazard and/or explosion hazard.
Aviation lubricants and hydraulic fluid are unclassified products which are
combustible and should be stored at ambient temperature away from ignition
sources.
Fire Extinguishing
In the event of fire, extinguish using dry powder, foam or, for small fires, carbon
dioxide.
The use of BCF/halon extinguishers is environmentally unacceptable. Water
(as a fine spray or mist) should only be used as a protective screen and/or to
cool adjacent tanks.
In some instances, products which are exposed to fire may produce toxic fumes
during thermal decomposition.
Specially Hazardous Circumstances
Aviation Fuel Spillages
If fuel is spilled in a confined space, dangerously high concentrations of vapour are
produced; great care must be taken to reduce fire hazard and to prevent the seri-
ous consequences of inhalation in such circumstances by wearing the appropriate
respiratory protection.
Aviation Fuel Tank Cleaning
Special precautions must be taken during cleaning or maintenance on storage
tanks. Special precautions are also necessary when sludge from these tanks is be-
ing removed or disposed of.
General Health Aspects
Aviation fuels (gasolines and kerosines) are complex mixtures of distillate fractions
of petroleum. They are manufactured to a technical specification and their hydro-
carbon make-up varies considerably, depending on crude oil source, processing
and intended application. They generally contain low concentrations of perform-
ance additives.
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Exposure
Under normal conditions of use, exposure to aviation fuels is likely to be confined
to inhalation of mists or vapours generated during handling or incidental skin con-
tact. Accidental skin contact with methanol/water mixtures may also occur during
maintenance. Inhalation exposure or accidental ingestion or eye contact is also
possible.
Exposure to lubricants and hydraulic oil is most likely to occur due to incidental
skin contact during top-up or routine maintenance procedures.
Effects of Exposure Inhalation
The volatility and vapour pressure of aviation fuels and methanol/water mixtures
means that inhalation exposure may occur to vapours and mists evolved during
handling. Such exposure to high concentrations may cause irritation of the respi-
ratory tract. In common with many hydrocarbons, exposure to high vapour concen-
trations may cause drowsiness or loss of consciousness. Aviation fuels are
complex mixtures which can contain small amounts of dangerous components. In-
halation, therefore, presents a potential hazard in that this could result in absorp-
tion into the bloodstream and possibly systemic damage.
Under normal conditions of use, inhalation of aviation lubricants and hydraulic oil
are unlikely. However, if the products are heated or used in situations where aer-
osolisation is likely then exposure to mists may occur. Apart from transient irritation
of the respiratory tract, such exposure is not expected to cause any particular
health effects. Overheating of the products may, however, result in hazardous de-
composition products being evolved.
Skin
Frequent or prolonged skin contact with fuels and lubricants will de-fat the skin,
leaving it dry and susceptible to fissuring, dermatitis and subsequent infection. Ex-
posure to fuels may also cause chemical burns particularly if contact is prolonged
or the affected area is occluded for example by clothing.
Skin exposure to used lubricants should be avoided as they may have a potential
to cause serious irreversible skin disorders, such as warty growths and cancer,
due to the presence of small amounts of harmful contaminants.
Injections through the skin arising from contact with high pressure/velocity sprays
are SERIOUS MEDICAL EMERGENCIES.
Injuries may not appear serious at first but within a few hours tissue becomes swol-
len, discoloured and extremely painful with extensive subcutaneous necrosis.
Emergency surgical exploration and thorough cleansing of the wound and under-
lying tissue is necessary to minimise necrosis and tissue loss.
Eyes
Eye contact with liquid products and their vapours may cause transient irritation
but no lasting effects. Irritant effects are likely to be more pronounced with prod-
ucts of low viscosity and high aromatic content, such as some aviation gasolines.
Aspiration
Aspiration means the introduction of liquid into the lungs. Products such as avia-
tion gasolines and kerosines can enter the lung causing rapidly developing inflam-
mation (chemical pneumonitis) which may prove fatal.
Preventive Measures Inhalation
Inhalation of mists and vapours should be avoided as far as possible, and expo-
sures should be reduced to the lowest practicable level. Good local and general
ventilation should be provided.
Appropriate personal protective equipment should be available. If operations are
such that exposure to vapour, mist or fume may be anticipated, then suitable ap-
proved respiratory equipment should be worn. The use of respiratory equipment
must be strictly in accordance with the manufacturers instructions and any statu-
tory requirements governing its selection and use.
Skin Contact
Skin contact with fuels and lubricating oils of various types is a common route of
industrial exposure. Adverse effects can be prevented by the use of good industrial
and personal hygiene measures such as:
the wearing of adequate protective clothing and the frequent laundering of
overalls;
the provision of disposable wipes (oily rags or tools should never be kept in
overall pockets);
good washing facilities should be available with hot and cold water, propri-
etary hand-cleansers and clean towels (barrier creams and reconditioning
creams may be beneficial).
Skin Care When Using Petroleum Products
To minimise the possibility of skin problems arising during handling fuels and lu-
bricants, it is important that good hygiene (industrial and personal) practices are
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Basic Maintenance
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followed. This section provides general advice on the prevention of occupational
skin diseases when using petroleum products. The appropriate BP Materials Safe-
ty Data Sheet should be consulted for specific advice on safe handling precautions
and emergency procedures for particular Air BP products.
Healthy Skin
The skin is the main barrier protecting the body from harmful substances in the en-
vironment and comprises a thin outer layer (the epidermis) and a thicker inner lay-
er (the dermis which contains sweat glands, hair follicles and blood vessels). The
epidermis consists of a layer of dead cells (cells being the basic structural and
functional building blocks of the body) bound together by natural oils to form an
impervious barrier. The natural oils present are important in retaining water and
their loss (known as defatting) can lead to dehydration of the skin which becomes
stiff and cracks open exposing the underlying living cells to harmful substances or
infection.
Effects of Petroleum Products on the Skin
Frequent or prolonged contact with mineral oil products can cause various skin
conditions which may occur singly or in combination:
Irritant Contact Dermatitis is inflammation of the skin resulting from contact with
an irritant material. The response of individuals to irritant materials may vary. Pe-
troleum products, particularly those of low viscosity, may defat the skin leaving it
dry and susceptible to dermatitis and infection. Irritant dermatitis is the most com-
mon skin condition caused by frequent or prolonged skin contact with petroleum
products.
Allergic Contact Dermatitis occurs only in individuals who have become allergic
(sensitised) to particular materials as a result of previous exposure. The inflam-
mation of the skin in such cases is the same as in irritant contact dermatitis except
that severe inflammation may be caused by even trivial contact with small amounts
of the material.
In both irritant and allergic contact dermatitis, inflammation causes the skin to be-
come red and itchy. Small watery blisters may develop and burst, leaving the skin
surface dry and flaky which may result in cracking and in some cases bleeding.
Dermatitis developing over a long period may result in skin which is thickened and
scaly. Occupational contact dermatitis commonly affects forearms, backs of hands
and between fingers, but may affect any exposed areas of skin. Although it may
occur at any age it arises most often in middle age, sometimes after exposure to
the same material for twenty years or more. Once contact dermatitis has devel-
oped, the skin does not always return to a normal healthy condition even if all con-
tact with the offending material(s) is avoided. Prevention of contact dermatitis
developing must, therefore, be the primary consideration.
Oil Folliculitis (blocking of hair follicles) and/or Oil Acne (blocking of sebaceous
and/or sweat glands) may develop as a result of prolonged skin contact with min-
eral oil products (particularly where oil-soaked clothing has been allowed to remain
in prolonged contact with the skin). The first sign is normally the appearance of
blackheads but more susceptible individuals may suffer from boils or even car-
buncles.
Frequent and prolonged skin contact with some lubricants and fuels, especially if
accompanied by poor standards of personal hygiene, may lead to localised thick-
ening of the skin (keratosis) or to warty growths.
Rarely, a warty growth may become malignant (cancer). In addition, small growths
or malignant ulcers may develop on otherwise normal skin. These occur most fre-
quently on exposed areas (hands, forearms) but may also appear on other areas
where the skin is habitually chafed by oil-impregnated clothing. The scrotum is par-
ticularly susceptible and therefore oily rags or tools should never be put into trou-
ser pockets. Work clothes should be cleaned regularly and changed promptly if
they become contaminated. It is essential to maintain high standards of personal
hygiene.
Skin cancers may not appear for many years (usually more than twenty) after ex-
posure. Early medical treatment is essential. Personnel with prolonged occupa-
tional exposure to petroleum products should be advised by management to
examine themselves regularly, for example when bathing. Handling instructions
for materials suspected of being able to cause skin cancer should be followed
carefully at all times. Anyone who develops a skin sore or ulcer which does not
heal quickly (even though they have not handled petroleum products for many
years) should consult a physician.
Prevention of Skin Contamination
The best way to protect the skin from any harmful effects of petroleum products is
to prevent skin contamination. Personal protection is less effective than properly
engineered containment. Work practices must be adopted to minimise contact and
prevent the accumulation of material on the skin. Only disposable wipes should
be used workers should never put oily rags or tools in pockets.
Protective clothing: cotton or polyester/cotton overalls normally provide ade-
quate protection where only intermittent or occasional contact is likely. Where a
higher degree of contact is possible additional impermeable protective clothing,
such as gloves, aprons, oil-resistant footwear, should be worn as appropriate.
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Clothes should be changed regularly (immediately if impregnated) and laundered
before re-use. Saturated clothing should not be allowed to chafe against the skin.
Barrier Creams may help to prevent grime becoming ingrained into the skin but
offer little or no protection against harmful substances. Petroleum products should
be washed off the skin using soap or proprietary skin cleansers and warm water.
Fuels, such as gasoline or kerosine, or solvents, such as white spirit, should never
be used as they themselves may cause dermatitis if used repeatedly. Workers
should be encouraged to wash regularly, particularly before eating. Skin cleansers
(moisturising creams) may be used, for example at the end of each shift, as they
can help replace natural oils and prevent defatting.
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Electrical Safety
Every aircraft maintenance shop uses electrical power for day to day activities.
While electricity performs many useful functions, you must remember that it can
injure or kill if mishandled. Consider that the aircrafts structure is conductive and
there is always a certain amount of fuel in the tanks. On aircrafts, electrical power
should only be used to illuminate the work area. Electrical equipment such as drill-
ing machines are not allowed since they produce sparks (equipped with carbon
brushes). Pneumatically actuated equipment can be used as an alternative. Gen-
erally, electrical equipment must be approved and periodically checked for proper
condition. When plugging elect. equipment, make sure the outlet is equipped with
a fault current breaker.
It is the responsibility of everyone that uses electrical power to be aware of the
safety procedures regarding it.
Extension Cords of adequate Capacity
Do not use cords that are frayed, or that have any of the wires exposed, and
be sure to replace any plugs that are cracked.
The human body conducts electricity. Electrical current passing through the body
disrupts the nervous system and causes burns at the entry and exit points. Com-
mon 220/240-Volt AC house current is particularly dangerous because it affects
nerves in such a way that a person holding a current carrying wire is unable to re-
lease it.
Since water conducts electricity, you must avoid handling electrical equipment
while standing on a wet surface or wearing wet shoes. The water provides a path
to ground and heightens the possibility of electric shock.
Understand how common hand tools can create an electrical hazard.
Consider a typical electric drill that has an AC motor inside a metal housing, one
wire is connected to the power terminal of the motor, and the other terminal con-
nects to ground. If there are only two wires in the cord and the power lead becomes
shorted to the housing, the return current flows to ground through the operator's
body.
However, if the drill motor is wired with a three conductor cord, return current flows
through the third (yellow) wire to ground. To minimise the risk of shock, make sure
that all Electrical equipment is connected with three-wire.
Figure 8: Electrical Hazard
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Compressed Gases
Usage and Safety
Compressed gases are found in all aircraft maintenance shops. We use com-
pressed air to operate pneumatic drill motors, rivet guns, paint spray guns,
cleaning guns.To inflate tires, shock struts and accumulators use nitrogen only.
Most shop compressed air is held in the tanks and lines under a pressure of about
100 psi. If a concentrated stream of compressed air is blown across a cut in your
skin, it is possible for the air to enter your bloodstream and cause severe injury or
death. For this reason, air dusting guns are equipped with a restrictor that reduces
the pressure at their discharge to 30 psi or less.
Be very careful when using compressed air that you do not blow dirt or chips into
the face of anyone standing nearby. Always keep air hoses and fittings in good
condition.
Far too many accidents occur when inflating or deflating tires. A safety cage used
for inflation will reduce the danger in case of a wheel failure during inflation. Always
use tire gauges, and make certain to use a regulator that is in good working con-
dition.
High-pressure compressed gases are especially dangerous if they are mishan-
dled. Oxygen and nitrogen are often found in aviation maintenance shops, stored
in steel cylinders under pressure of around 3,000 psi. If a cylinder falls over and
the valve is knocked off, the escaping high-pressure gas will propel the tank like a
rocket. Be sure that all gas cylinders are properly supported, that the cap is
screwed securely on any tank that is not connected into a system, to protect the
valve from damage.
A common method of securing high pressure cylinders in storage is by chaining
them to a wall.
It is extremely important that oxygen cylinders be treated with special care. Not
only do they have all of the problems inherent with other high-pressure gases, as
oxygen will cause the oil to ignite spontaneously and burn. Never use an oily rag,
or tools that are oily or greasy, to install a fitting or a regulator on an oxygen cylin-
der.
Never use a petroleum based thread lubricant on fittings. Use only an approved
MIL Specification thread lubricant for oxygen systems.
New Colour Coding on Gas Cylinders
New colour coding on gas cylinders have been introduced. In Figure 9 on page 13
you can see the four different types of gas mainly used in the aircraft business. The
letter N indicates that the colour has become a new one. Keep in mind that the
colour coding on gas cylinder heads does not exactly describes the gas com-
pound. There must be a label on the cylinder for precise differentiation. For medi-
cal use, the bodies are painted white.
Figure 9: New Colour Codes for Compressed Gases
N
N
N
Colours
Old New
Air
Nitrogen N
Oxygen
tech. &
medical
O
brown
green
blue
green-yellow
intense black
pure white
N Acetylene CH orange oxide red
Type of Gas
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Fire Protection
Fire protection begins with a knowledge of the types of fires, what materials are
involved, and which extinguishing materials will work best for each type.
Classification of Fires
There are different classification systems all over the world. We only discuss
the system mainly used in europe and the USA.
The very nature of aircraft makes them highly susceptible to fire. They carry large
amounts of highly flammable fuel, as well as oxygen under high pressure and to
complicate matters, smoking is allowed in many aircraft.
In order to understand fires and fire protection, we should look at the classification
of fires as defined by National Fire Protection Association.
American System
Class A fires are those in which solid combustible materials such as wood, paper,
or cloth burn. Aircraft cabin fires are usually of this class. (Symbol: Green Triangle)
Class B fires involve combustion liquids such as gasoline, oil, turbine fuel and
many of the paint thinners and solvents. (Symbol: Red square)
Class C fires are those in which energised electrical equipment is involved. Spe-
cial care must be exercised in the selection of a fire extinguisher for class C fires.
(Symbol: Blue circle)
Class D fires are those in which some metal, such as magnesium, is burning. The
use of the improper type of extinguisher can intensify these fires, rather than ex-
tinguish them. (Symbol: Yellow star)
European System
Class A fires are those in which solid combustible materials such as wood, paper,
or textiles burn. Aircraft cabin fires are usually of this class.
Class B fires involve combustion liquids such as gasoline, oil, turbine fuel and
many of the paint thinners and solvents.
Class C fires are those in which escaping gas is involved.
Class D fires are those in which some metal, such as magnesium, is burning. The
use of the improper type of extinguisher can intensify these fires, rather than ex-
tinguish them.
Class E fires are those in which energised electrical equipment is involved. Spe-
cial care must be exercised in the selection of a fire extinguisher for Class E fires.
Requirements for Fire
Chemically, a fire is a reaction between a material and oxygen, in which the mate-
rial is reduced to its elements with the release of a great deal of heat. For example,
paper is an organic material composed basically of hydrogen and carbon. When it
is heated to its kindling temperature, it will unite with the oxygen in the air and will
be changed into carbon dioxide and water. Other elements in the paper and in-
complete combustion will result in a residue we know as ash, or black carbon.
From the explanation, we can see that there are three requirements for fire to take
place. We must have fuel, which is any material that will combine with oxygen; we
must have the oxygen with which the fuel can combine; and we must have some
means of increasing the temperature of the fuel to its kindling point; the point at
which combustion can occur.
Different types of fuel have different kindling temperatures. For example, gasoline,
when raised to a relatively low temperature, will combine with oxygen. Some ma-
terial, such as wood, must reach a temperature considerably higher than that of
gasoline before it will ignite.
The concentration of the oxygen also determines the combustibility of the material.
A petroleum product, such as oil or grease, will ignite at room temperature if it is
blanketed with pure oxygen.
Figure 10: Fire Triangle / Three Elements of Fire
Types of Fire Extinguishers
In order to extinguish a fire, we must either lower the temperature of the material
below its kindling temperature, or deprive it of oxygen. All of the fire extinguishers
we have in common use work on one or the other of these principles.
1.060
Heat
F
u
e
l
O
x
y
g
e
n
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Water Extinguishers
Water can only be used for Class A fires, such as aircraft cabin fires, where elec-
tricity is not involved. Most modern water-type extinguishers consist of a container
of water in which some antifreeze material has been mixed. The water is propelled
from the extinguisher by a charge of carbon dioxide. Once the extinguisher is ac-
tivated, all of the propellant will be discharged and a new cartridge must be in-
stalled when the extinguisher is serviced.
Foam Extinguishers
Foam Extinguishers are ideal where both Class A & B fire risks exist. AFFF (Aque-
ous Film Forming Foam) is particularly suited to class B fires caused by the com-
bustion of materials that liquefy such as petrol, oils, fats, paints, tar etc.
Carbon Dioxide Extinguisher - CO
Carbon dioxide CO, is an inert gas that is contained in a steel cylinder under
pressure. When the gas is released, it expands to many times its compressed vol-
ume, its temperature drops, and it blankets the fire in a form of a white snow. The
carbon dioxide gas excludes the air containing oxygen from the fire and the fire
dies out. CO fire extinguishers are available from the small two pound units that
may be mounted in brackets in the cockpits of small aircraft, to the large units that
are mounted on wheels and rolled around the shop as they are needed.
For this type of extinguisher to be used, the valve is opened and the CO is direct-
ed at the base of the fire from a horn attached to the valve. Carbon dioxide is heav-
ier than air and is electrically non-conductive. It is effective for both Class B and
Class C fires. Never use CO fire extinguishers on Class D fires. The cooling effect
of the carbon dioxide on the metal can cause an explosive reaction of the metal.
Halogenated Hydrocarbon Extinguishers
A halogen element is one of the group that contains chlorine, fluorine, bromine, or
iodine. When some of the hydrocarbons are combined with halogens, very effec-
tive fire extinguishing agents are produced. Since this extinguisher agent is very
harmful to the environment, they are only used for special aircraft applications.
Halogenated hydrocarbon fire extinguishers are most effective on Class B and
Class C fires, but can be used on Class A and D fires, although somewhat less ef-
fective.
The most popular fire extinguishing agent for cabin fires in modern aircraft is
Halon1301 (also known as Freon13), which is most useful as a fire extin-
guishment. It is not harmful to humans in concentrations as high as 203 parts by
volume. In addition to its use for cabin fires, Halon 1301 is extremely effective for
extinguishing fires in engine compartments of both piston and turbine powered air-
craft. In engine compartment installations, the Halon 1301 container is pressurised
by compressed nitrogen and is discharged through spray nozzles in the engine
compartment.
Dry-Powder Extinguishers
Bicarbonate of soda, ammonium phosphate, or potassium bicarbonate are used
as dry-power extinguishants. Their main effectiveness is with Class B, -C, and -D
fires: that is, fires liquids and fires in which electrical circuits are energised. They
are also the most effective type of an extinguishant for metal fires, such as fires
involving burning magnesium.
Dry powder is expelled from the container by compressed nitrogen and blankets
of fire, excluding oxygen from the fuel, and preventing a refresh that would re-ig-
nite the fuel after it has been extinguished. Dry powder extinguishers are not rec-
ommended for aircraft because of the potential damage to systems components
from the loose powder, as well as the difficulty involved in cleaning the aircraft after
a dry extinguisher is discouraged.
Table 1: Toxicity Number
Toxicity Group Extinguishing Agent
6 (least toxic) Halon 1301 (Bromatrifluoromethane)
5a Carbon dioxin
5 Halon 1211 (Bromochlorodfluoromethane)
4 Halon 1202 (Dibromodifluoromethane)
3 Halon 1011 (Bromochloromethane)
2 Halon 1001 (Methyl bromide)
Sep04 / THTT
Basic Maintenance
Training Manual
Figure 11: Different Hand Fire Extinguishers
Figure 12: Illustrated Fire Classification
Correct behaviour in case of Fire
The correct behaviour in case of a fire is very important and decisive to protect
people and material assets. Unfortunately, the fire brigade is often called to late,
after an unsuccessful attempt to extinguish the fire. Valuable minutes are therefore
lost.
The following steps explain the correct procedure:
Alarm
Immediately call the Fire Brigade. You should always know the local emer-
gency numbers. They will ask you about the location, your name and the gen-
eral situation.
Inform endangered persons.
Save Live
Avoid panic.
Save live of peoples and animals and bring them out of danger.
Shut windows and doors.
Leave the scene of the fire. Do not use elevators.
In case of a smoky staircase or corridor, stay in the most save room with the
doors and windows closed and wait for the fire brigade.
Fight the Fire
Fight the fire with available equipment such as fire extinguishers, stationary
fire extinguish equipment or fire blankets. (see Title Classification of Fires on
page 14)
Unplug burning electrical equipment before extinguishing.
Pay attention to your own safety.
Be always aware of the escape route.
After leaving the scene of fire, you should go to an emergency meeting point and
wait for further instructions.
Water or Foam Powder Carbon Dioxide CO
2
B
Metal
B E
Water
Foam
Powder
CO
Types of extinguishers
suitable for different
classification of fire
Flammable
Liquids
Flammable
Gas
Flammable
Metals
Energized
Electrical
Equipment
Wood,
Paper and
Textiles

Halon
A C D
Sep04 / THTT
Basic Maintenance
Training Manual
Figure 13: Fight the Fire
Spilled Oil and Grease
Oil, grease, and other substances spilled on hangar or shop floors should be im-
mediately cleaned or covered with an absorbent material to prevent fire or person-
al injury. Drip pans should be placed beneath engines and engine parts whenever
dripping exists. Waste oil and dirty cleaning fluid should be stored in containers for
future salvage. Under no circumstances should oil or cleaning fluid be emptied into
floor drains. Fumes from this type of disposal may be ignited and cause severe
property damage.
Aircraft Tyre Mounting
To prevent possible personal injury, tyre dollies and other appropriate lifting and
mounting devices should be used in mounting or removing heavy aircraft tyres.
When inflating tyres on wheels equipped with locking rings, tyre cage guards
should always be used.
Where possible, all tyres should be inflated in tire cage guards. Because of possi-
ble personal injury, extreme caution is required to avoid over inflation of high-pres-
sure tyres. Pressure regulators should be used on high pressure air bottles to
eliminate the possibility of over inflation of tyres.
Tyre cages can not be used when adjusting pressure in tyres installed on air-
craft. Therefore make sure that the hose between the pressure adjusting
equipment and the tyre is long enough to stay in a safe zone while servicing the
tyre.
Welding
Welding should not be performed except in designated areas. Any part to be weld-
ed should be removed from the aircraft, if possible. Repair would then be accom-
plished in the welding shop under controlled environment.
A welding shop should be equipped with proper tables, ventilation, tool storage,
and fire prevention and extinguishing equipment. Welding on an aircraft should be
performed outside if possible.
Fight the fire in direction of the wind.
Watch the scene of the fire.
In case of an extensive fire, start
extinguishing from the front.
Use more than one extinguisher at
the same time, if ever possible.
Sep04 / THTT
Basic Maintenance
Training Manual

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