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I I I . Ener gy Syst ems and Ener gy Ut i l i zat i on
1. Over vi ew of ener gy syst ems
Di gest i bl e ener gy:
- Portion of gross energy that is digested is called di gest i bl e ener gy.
- Energy system currently used for swine diet formulation because all DE of feed ingredients
listed in NRC tables are obtained by direct balance studies.
Met abol i zabl e ener gy:
- Portion of gross energy that i s usef ul f or met abol i sm.
- Energy system currently used in avian diet formulation because fecal and urinary losses occur together.
- Energy system to be used consistently in the future for swine as more and more feed ingredients listed
in NRC tables will be determined for ME by direct balance studies. A lot of the ME of feed ingredients
listed in NRC are derived from DE by calculations.
Net ener gy:
- Portion of metabolizable energy that i s usef ul f or mai nt enanc e and pr oduc t i ve f unc t i ons.
- Would be the system of choice for all species, but certainly for ruminants due to diet composition
and rumen fermentation.
- Not practical and very difficult to have a heat production measurement for all level of feed intake
and feed ingredients.
Heat i nc r ement :
a) Heat production as a consequence of feeding. Heat increment is useful in winter
for animals raised in a non-confinement system or exposed to environmental temperature below
the thermo neutral comfort zone, but harmful in summer with hot environmental conditions.
b) Composed of:
Energy cost of eating or ruminating
Heat of fermentation (ruminants or hind gut fermenters)
Work of digestion
Work of nutrient metabolism (principle component)
c) Factors affecting Heat increment:
1. Level of feed intake
2. Nutritional balance of the diet
3. Composition of feed ingredients
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Examples:
1. Forages have higher HI than grains
2. The work of digestion and fermentation is higher with fiber
3. Fat has lower HI than carbohydrate or protein
d) In ruminants, HI may be as high as 40% of ME
HI from protein may be 30% of ME
HI from CHO may be 10-15% of ME
HI from fat may be maximum of only 5 % of ME
The " ex t r a c al or i c ef f ec t " of di et ar y f at i s pr esumed t o be:
1. Largely due to the reduced heat increment
2. Improved absorbability of the non-fat portion of the diet by reducing rate of passage

Max i mi zi ng ener gy absor bed f r om t he gut , i .e., r educ i ng f ec al ener gy l oss of f eed
i ngr edi ent s by:
Processing of feed ingredients, for example, decreasing particle size
Decreasing rate of passage (review factors affecting gut motility and rate of passage)
Max i mi zi ng t he ener gy nec essar y f or met abol i c f unc t i ons, i .e., mi ni mi zi ng heat l oss
or heat i nc r ement " of f eed i ngr edi ent s by:
Feeding more fat in summer time
Avoiding excess protein intake
Feeding a balanced diet to optimize post-gut nutrient utilization

2. Ener gy ut i l i zat i on: Mai nt enanc e and basal ener gy ex pendi t ur e
Basal met abol i sm:
- The minimum energy expended by an animal under specific conditions of fasting, resting, and thermo-
neutrality.
- The minimum net energy needs
- Function of body surface area, also called metabolic body size: BW.75 kg
**Basal energy metabolism is 70 x (BW.75 kg) kcal across species**
a. Service functions (and % of basal Energy Expenditure)
Nervous system (10-15%)
Heart (9-11%)
Liver (5-10 %)
Kidneys (6-7%)
Respiration (6-7%)
Total 36-50 %
b. Cell "maintenance"
Protein synthesis (protein turnover) (9-12%)
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Ion transport (Na/K pump, ATP dependent) (30-40 %)
Lipid re-synthesis (2- 4%)
Total 40-56 %
Pr oduc t i ve f unc t i ons (ani mal out put )
a. Growth- Protein and lipid accretion
b. Milk
c. Eggs
3. Measur ement of heat pr oduc t i on
1. Fac t or s det er mi ni ng heat pr oduc t i on
a) Body size (weight)
b) Heat increment of feeding (a function of ME intake)
c) Activity
d) Work of thermoregulation
Under conditions of "confinement housing" characterized by thermally comfortable conditions
(thermo neutral zone) and minimal activity, work of thermo regulation is nil and HP is determined
by food intake (heat increment of feeding) and body size.
2. Met hods of det er mi ni ng ener gy c ont ent or pr oduc t i on:
a. Bomb c al or i met r y (heat of c ombust i on)
To determine the amount of energy in an organic substance or feed
Pr i nc i pl e:
O2 + sampl e= Combust i on " heat r el ease"
The rise in H2O temperature leads to calculation of GE value
b. Di r ec t c al or i met r y (ani mal heat l oss)
- To measure the minimum requirements for maintenance. Animal must be fasted.
Hence also referred as "fasting heat production".
- Pitfall: Not a good measure of energy metabolism in the highly productive animal for which
fasting is "unphysiological".
c . I ndi r ec t c al or i met r y (r espi r at i on c al or i met r y)
- Measures heat production based on gaseous exchange (O2, CO2)
- Uses the concept of R.Q. i.e. Respiratory quotient (CO2/O2)
- Heat produced is based on caloric equivalent of O2 at a particular RQ
- Caloric equivalent of O2 = 1L O2 = 4.839 kcal
HP = Cal equivalent x L O2

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4. Det er mi ni ng ener gy r equi r ement s
1. Ener gy f or mai nt enanc e (EM)
a) Amount of ME i nt ak e w hi c h ex ac t l y bal anc e HP, and pr oduc es no l oss or gai n
i n ener gy r et ent i on
Because of the difficulty in using FHP as a basis for maintenance, EM has been derived
by "extrapolation" to zero energy retention by regression analysis. This is the preferred
method for estimating energy requirements for maintenance, particularly for production
animals
(See figure)
b) Fac t or s af f ec t i ng mai nt enanc e ener gy
1) Heat stress: mostly a secondary effect resulting from decreased energy consumption and
thus reducing heat produced (HIF)
2) Cold stress: direct effect on HP. As temp decreases, animal increases metabolic activity
and thus HP to maintain homeothermy.
2. Ener gy f or ac t i vi t i es
Maintenance requirement presumes that animals are kept under confinement.
Because animals are raised under extensive conditions, maintenance requirement is
increased
due to increased activity.
Because NRC maintenance requirement may be an average of many studies, some costs of
associated with different activities are taken into account to some extent.
3. Ener gy f or pr oduc t i on
a) Ener gy i n ac c r et ed t i ssue
-The energy requirement above maintenance is to supply the gross energy of the accreted tissue, i.e. fat
and protein.
GE value of protein is 5.64 kcal/g
GE value of fat is 9.4 kcal/g
-As water is associated with protein in the body, as "lean body mass" is accreted, there is a
"bonus" in animal production when protein is deposited; hence the concept that
production of lean meat is more efficient than the production of fat carcass.
b) Ener gy c ost of ac c r et ed t i ssue synt hesi s
ATP synt hesi s
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- One mole ATP requires 18 kcal of ME
Pr ot ei n synt hesi s
- ATP for AA activation, peptide and synthesis, translational processes, etc...
- Cost of protein synthesis is 27.2 KJ ME/g protein
- Theoretical efficiency of protein synthesis is therefore
23.7 / 27.2 = 87%
- Live animal, efficiency of protein synthesis is about 54%
- The reduced efficiency is due to protein turnover, indicating that protein synthesized
is also degraded. So much more protein is synthesized than is actually deposited.
- This cost protein turnover represents a drain on energy utilization and is a source of
metabolic inefficiency in farm animals.
Fat synt hesi s
- Theoretical efficiency of fat synthesis from dietary lipid is 99%
**This high efficiency indicates that dietary fatty acids can be directly incorporated
into body fat, avoiding energy losses associated with degradation and re-synthesis of
specific fatty acids**
- Theoretical efficiency of fat synthesis from carbohydrate is 85%
- Theoretical efficiency of fat synthesis from protein is 69 %
- In the live animal fed a normal mixed diet, efficiency of fat synthesis is about 74%
Summar y:
Cost of depositing 1 kg of protein would be 43.9 MJ ME (23.7/.54)
Cost of depositing 1 kg of fat would be 53.5 MJ ME (39.6/.74)
c . Appr oac hes t o det er mi ne ener gy r equi r ement f or pr oduc t i ve f unc t i on
1. Empirical approach
Based on biological responses to energy intake and involves measurement of:
Daily gain
Feed conversion
Protein deposition or nitrogen retention (lean tissue gain)
**In animal production, the most suitable criterium to evaluate energy requirement
would be the response in nitrogen retention**
The empi r i c al appr oac h i n est i mat i ng ener gy r equi r ement i s si mpl e t o do:
There are 2 types of response when feeding various levels of energy, depending if
you are dealing with a mature animal or growing animal (see figures)
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2. Factorial approach
Sum the known source of energy expenditure and energy retention.
Examples:
Growth:
Kg of lean and fat tissue dissected in carcass at different time points
Lactation:
Amount of milk produced per day and energy content in milk
Gestation:
Body weight gain during gestation and energy content of weight gain (25% fat and 15%
protein)
Energy cost of conceptus