1 Vol. 18 Aug 2014 IJP RE 125 Paper 1

Savant et al., IJP, 2014; Vol. 1(8): 472-484.
ISSN: 2348-3962
International Journal of Pharmacognosy 472
IJP (2014), Vol. 1, Issue 8 (Review Article)

Received on 28 June, 2014; received in revised form, 23 July, 2014; accepted, 29 July, 2014; published 01 August, 2014
IMPORTANCE OF ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS FROM PLANTS IN PRESENT SCENARIO: A
REVIEW
Chetan Savant*, Venkatesh
1
, Basheerahmed Abdulaziz Mannasaheb
2
and Hanumanthachar Joshi
3

Sarada Vilas College of Pharmacy, Krishnamurthypuram
1, 3,
Mysore, Karnataka, India
East West College of Pharmacy, Anjana Nagar
2
, Bangalore, Karnataka, India-
ABSTRACT: Since human exist on earth, plants are being used for
the treatment of various diseases. The specific uses of plants are
mentioned in the traditional system of medicines like Ayurveda, Sidda,
Unani etc. Now a days plants are getting more importance as
medicines because plants having less side effects, cost effective, long
effective life span and safe etc. The present review covers the brief
history of antimicrobials and list of plants as antimicrobials, approved,
and banned antimicrobial drugs. In the present scenario the use of
herbal drugs is increasing progressively worldwide. Hence this review
shows useful data for researchers to develop new antimicrobials from
plant origin.

INTRODUCTION: According to the WHO, over
80% of the worlds population relies on traditional
forms of medicine, largely plant based to meet
primary health care needs. In India, the collection
and processing of medicinal plants and plant
products contributes a major part each year to the
national economy, as a source of both full and part
time employment. Plants are one of the most
important sources of medicines. The application of
plants as medicines has date back to prehistoric
period. In India the references to the curative
properties of some herbs in the Rig-Veda seems to
be the earliest records of use of plants in medicines.
The medicinal plants are extensively utilized
throughout the world in two distinct areas of health
management; traditional system of medicine and
modern system of medicine.
1

QUICK RESPONSE CODE

DOI:

10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.IJP.1(8).472-84
Article can be accessed online on:
www.ijpjournal.com
DOI link: http://dx.doi.org/10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.IJP.1(8).472-84

Clinical microbiologists have two reasons to be
interested in the topic of antimicrobial plant
extracts. First, these phytochemicals will find their
way into the arsenal of antimicrobial drugs
prescribed by physicians; several are already being
tested in humans. It is reported that, on average,
two or three antibiotics derived from
microorganisms are launched each year.
2
After a
downturn in that pace in recent decades, the pace is
again quickening as scientists realize that the
effective life span of any antibiotic is limited.
Worldwide spending on finding new anti-infective
agents (including vaccines) is expected to increase
60% from the spending levels in 1993.
3

New sources, especially plant sources, are also
being investigated. Second, the public is becoming
increasingly aware of problems with the over
prescription and misuse of traditional antibiotics. In
addition, many people are interested in having
more autonomy over their medical care.
A multitude of plant compounds (often of
unreliable purity) is readily available over-the-
counter from herbal suppliers and natural-food
Keywords:
Approved Antimicrobial Drugs,
Banned Antimicrobial Drugs,
Antimicrobial Plants, And Bacterial
Resistance
Correspondence to Author:
Chetan Savant
Dept of Pharmacology, Sarada Vilas
College of Pharmacy
Krishnamurthypuram, Mysore,
Karnataka- 570004, India
E mail: chetan.savant@yahoo.com
Savant et al., IJP, 2014; Vol. 1(8): 472-484. ISSN: 2348-3962
stores, and self-medication with these substances is
commonplace.

Brief History
Approximately 3000 plants species are known to
have medicinal properties in India. The Rigveda
(3700 B.C.) mentions the use of medicinal plants.
Our traditional systems of medicines, viz.,
Ayurveda, Yunani, Siddha and Homeopathy etc.
use herbs for treatment.
1
It is estimated that there
are 250,000 to 500,000 species of plants on Earth.
4

A relatively small percentage (1 to 10%) of these is
used as foods by both humans and other animal
species. It is possible that even more are used for
medicinal purposes.
5
Hippocrates (in the late fifth
century B.C.) mentioned 300 to 400 medicinal
plants.
6
In the first century A.D., Dioscorides wrote
De Materia Medica, a medicinal plant catalog
which became the prototype for modern
pharmacopoeias. The Bible offers descriptions of
approximately 30 healing plants. Frankincense and
myrrh reported to have antiseptic properties; they
were even employed as mouthwashes.

The fall of ancient civilizations forestalled Western
advances in the understanding of medicinal plants,
with much of the documentation of plant
pharmaceuticals being destroyed or lost.
7
During
the Dark Ages, the Arab world continued to
excavate their own older works and to build upon
them. Asian cultures were also busy compiling
their own pharmacopoeia. In the West, the
Renaissance years saw a revival of ancient
medicine, which was built largely on plant
medicinals. North Americas history of plant
medicinal use follows two strandstheir use by
indigenous cultures (Native Americans), dating
from prehistory
8
and an alternative movement
among Americans of European origin, beginning in
the 19
th
century. Native American use of plant
medicinal has been reviewed extensively in a series
of articles by Moerman.
5
He reported that while
1,625 species of plants have been used by various
Native American groups as food, 2,564 have found
use as drugs.
9

According to his calculations, this leaves
approximately 18,000 species of plants which were
used for neither food nor drugs. Speculations as to
how and why a selected number of plant species
came into use for either food or drugs. In 1861
Holmes wrote, If the whole materia medica as
now used could be sunk to the bottom of the sea, it
would be all the better for mankindand all the
worse for the fishes. In 1887 alternative
practitioners compiled their own catalogs, notably
the Homeopathic Pharmacopoeia of the United
States. Mainstream medicine is increasingly
receptive to the use of antimicrobial and other
drugs derived from plants, as traditional antibiotics
(products of microorganisms or their synthesized
derivatives) become ineffective and as new,
particularly viral, diseases remain intractable to this
type of drug.

Another driving factor for the renewed interest in
plant antimicrobials in the past 20 years has been
the rapid rate of (plant) species extinction.
(10)
There
is a feeling among natural-products chemists and
microbiologists alike that the multitude of
potentially useful phytochemical structures which
could be synthesized chemically is at risk of being
lost irretrievably.
11
There is a scientific discipline
known as ethnobotany (or ethnopharmacology),
whose goal is to utilize the impressive array of
knowledge assembled by indigenous peoples about
the plant and animal products they have used to
maintain health. Lastly, the ascendancy of the
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has spurred
intensive investigation into the plant derivatives
which may be effective, especially for use in
underdeveloped nations with little access to
expensive Western medicines.
12

Development of antibiotics
There are two broad routes to drug discovery: the
natural product and the synthetic route.

Natural route
The antibiotic discovery from natural source began
with the discovery of penicillin from a mold by
Alexander Fleming in 1928. Natural drug discovery
involves the exploration of natural sources such as
soil, bacteria, mold and trees for new chemical
entities which could be further developed and
licensed for clinical use. Majority of the antibiotics
used worldwide are of natural origins.
13-15
In this
method, natural products or extracts from the herbs,
bacteria and so forth are first tested for antibacterial
activity, followed by purification and
characterization of promising candidates.
(16)

However, the ease with which pathogens acquire
resistance to antibacterial compounds has resulted
in continuous search for a lasting solution.

Semi-Synthetic route
The semi-synthetic route was ventured into due to
antibiotic resistance to natural antibiotics and
instability to acidic medium.
17
Following the
purification and identification of the
pharmacophore of penicillin
18
and the
understanding of the mechanism of resistance by
lactamase enzymes
19-20
the pharmaceutical
companies began to modify the antibiotic
molecules in such a way as to retain activity while
resisting inactivation by microbial enzymes. This
method became possible when the structure of the
beta-lactam ring which is the pharmacophore of
penicillin was determined. After it was discovered
that the beta lactamase enzymes hydrolyse the -
lactam bond to render the pharmacophore inactive
20
attempts were made to introduce a moiety that
would stabilize the pharmacophore against the
attack of the enzymes. Aminopenicillins and
methicillin are also examples of derivatives
produced by the synthetic route.
18

The modification affected the properties of the
compounds as it pertains to acid and alkaline
stability and stability to degradation by bacterial
enzymes. Aminopenicillin is stable to stomach acid
and can be administered orally while methicillin is
stable against the beta-lactamase enzyme. Thus
methicillin (carboxypenicillin) and ticarcillin were
fashioned from penicillin for the treatment of
infections due to resistant staphylococcus and
pseudomonas respectively.
13
The synthesis of other
semi-synthetic antibiotics was also reported.
Minocycline and doxycycline are both tetracycline
analogues.
19
Second and third generation
cephalosporins were possible through semi-
synthesis.
21-22

Semi-synthesis was not, however, very effective in
combating the dynamic resistance posed by the
microbial world. Cross resistance between different
antibiotics of the same family was a major
problem. It was thought that the ease with which
bacteria develop resistance to natural compounds
could be due to co-evolution between the organism
and the antibacterial. The companies thought of
introducing xenobiotics which are compounds that
are not known to nature.
23

Synthetic route
The sulphonamides were the first antibiotics that
were synthesized. Prontosil, a component of a dye
which was prepared for use in the textile industry
was accidentally found to be active against
microorganisms by a German chemist.
24
The next
product of pure synthesis did not arrive until 1962
when the quinolones were synthesized. It took
about 40 years for another synthesized compound
Linezolid (oxazolidinone) to be approved for
clinical use.
25

The rapid development and promises of the
synthetic route was thought to pull the
pharmaceutical industry away from the natural drug
discovery route. Combinatorial chemistry has
played a large role in the search for drug leads but
it was not until 2005 when the first product of
combinatorial chemistry as mode of drug discovery
was approved for clinical use. Sorafenib (Nexavar)
was approved by the FDA for the treatment of
advanced renal cancer and it received its marketing
license in Europe in 2006.
26, 27

Antimicrobial resistance
Resistance in bacteria
WHOs 2014 report on global surveillance of
antimicrobial resistance is happening right now,
across the world, and is putting at risk to treat
common infections in the community and hospitals
(Fig 1).
The treatment with third-generation
cephalosporins has been failure for
gonorrhea in many countries due to which
there is increased complications like
infertility, adverse pregnancy outcomes and
neonatal blindness.
E. coli caused urinary tract infections
becomes resistance to fluoroquinolones is
also very widespread.
The severe infections caused by
Staphlylococcus aureus becomes resistance
to first-line antibiotics in many populations.
In most of the countries, life-threatening
infections caused by common intestinal
bacteria are resistant to carbapenem
antibiotics.

FIGURE 1: PERCENTAGE OF NEW TB CASES WITH MULTIDRUG RESISTANT TUBERCULOSIS.

Resistance in HIV
Resistance is a pressing concern for treatment of
HIV infection, after the rapid expansion in access
to antiretroviral drugs in recent years; national
surveys are underway to detect and monitor
resistance.

At the end of 2011, more than 8 million people
were receiving antiretroviral therapy in low- and
middle-income countries to treat HIV. Although it
can be minimized through good programmed
practices, some amount of resistance to the
medications used to treat HIV is expected to
emerge.

Analysis of data from WHO surveys that target
people who have been recently infected with HIV
indicates increasing levels of resistance to the non-

nucleoside reverse transcriptase (NNRTI) class of
drug used to treat HIV. This increase is particularly
noticeable in Africa, where the prevalence of
resistance to NNRTI reached 3.4% in 2009.

There is no clear evidence of increasing levels of
resistance to other classes of HIV drugs. Of 72
surveys of transmitted HIV drug resistance
conducted between 2004 and 2010, 20 (28%) were
classified as having moderate (between 5% and
15%) prevalence of resistance.

Available data suggest that there is an association
between higher levels of coverage of antiretroviral
therapy and increased levels of HIV drug
resistance.
28

TABLE 1: THERE ARE NUMEROUS PLANTS WHICH ARE PROVED FOR THEIR ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY
29

Sl No. Plant name Part used Extract Active against
1 Stephania glabra Rhizome Ethanol,
Staphylococcus mutans, Staphylococcus
epidermidis, Escherichia coli,Klebsiella
pneumonia
2
Woodfordia
fruticosa
Stem and
flowers
Petroleum ether,
Chloroform,
Diethyl ether and
Acetone.
Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtili,
Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas
aeruginosa.
3 Betula utilis Bark
Petroleum Ether,
Chloroform,
Methanol,
Ethanol and
Water
Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia,
Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
Salmonella paratyphi, Salmonella typhi,
Salmonella typhimurium, Shigella flexneri,
Shigella sonnei, Staphylococcus aureus,
Streptococcus faecalis, Shigella boydii,
Citrobacter sp.,Salmonella paratyphi B and
Shigella boydii
4
Calotropis
gigantean
Latex Ethanol
Candida albicans,Saccharomyc
escerevisiae,Trichophyton mentagrophytes,
Trichophyton rubrum,Aspergillus
fumigates,Aspergillus lavus, Aspergillus
niger, Penicillium chrysogenum.
5 Nelumbo nucifera
Flowers.
(Both white
and pink)
Hydroethanolic
extract
Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis,
Staphylococcus aureus
6 Hemidesmus indicus Roots Ethanol
Propionibacterium acnes and
Staphylococcus epidermidis
7 Eclipta alba Fruits Ethanol
8
Coscinium
fenestratum

Stems Ethanol
9 Curcubito pepo Seeds Ethanol
10
Tephrosia
purpurea
Roots Ethanol
11 Mentha piperita Leaves Ethanol
12 Pongamia pinnata Seeds Ethanol
13
Symplocos
racemosa

Barks Ethanol
14 Euphorbia hirta Roots Ethanol
15
Tinospora
cordyfolia
Roots Ethanol
16 Thespesia populnea, Roots Ethanol
17 Jasminum officinale Flowers Ethanol
18
Albizia
lebbeck (L.),
Leaf
Benzene, water,
acetone.
Escherichia coli (MDR),
Staphylococcus aureus (MDR), Klebsiella
pneumoniae, Bacillus cereus, Vibrio cholerae
and Candida albicans.
19
Cleistanthus
collinus (Roxb.).,
Leaf
Benzene, water,
acetone.
Escherichia coli (MDR),
Staphylococcus aureus (MDR), Klebsiella
pneumoniae, Bacillus cereus, Vibrio cholerae
and Candida albicans.
20
Emblica officinalis
(Phyllanthus
emblica L.),
Leaf
Benzene, water,
acetone.
Escherichia coli (MDR), Staphylococcus
aureus (MDR), Klebsiella pneumoniae,
Bacillus cereus, Vibrio cholerae and Candida
albicans.
21
Eucalyptus deglupta
(Eucalyptus
tereticornis),
Leaf
Benzene, water,
acetone.
albicans.
22
Eupatorium
odoratum
(Chromolaena
odorata ),
Leaf
Benzene, water,
acetone.
albicans.
23
Oxalis corniculata
L.,
Leaf
Benzene, water,
acetone.
albicans.
24
Hevea brasiliensis
and
Leaf
Benzene, water,
acetone.
albicans.
25 Lantana camara L Leaf
Benzene, water,
acetone.
albicans.
26
Acacia nilotica,

Leaf, root,
bark
Methanol
Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli,
Pseudomonas fluorescens, Staphylococcus
aureus and Xanthomonas axonopodis pv.
Malvacearum
27 Sida cordifolia
Leaf, root,
bark
Methanol
Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli,
Pseudomonas fluorescens, Staphylococcus
aureus and Xanthomonas axonopodis pv.
Malvacearum
28
Tinospora
cordifolia
Leaf, root,
bark
Methanol
Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia
coli,Pseudomonas fluorescens,
Staphylococcus aureus and Xanthomonas
axonopodis pv. Malvacearum
29 Withania somnifer
Leaf, root,
bark
Methanol
30 Ziziphus mauritiana
Leaf, root,
bark
Methanol
31 Adhatoda vasica, Leaves Aqueous extract M. tuberculosis, M. fortuitum
32 Acalypha indica, Leaves Aqueous extract M. tuberculosis, M. fortuitum
33 Allium cepa, -------- Aqueous extract M. tuberculosis, M. fortuitum
34 Allium sativum Bulb Aqueous extract M. tuberculosis, M. fortuitum
35 Aloe vera gel Aqueous extract M. tuberculosis, M. fortuitum
36
Mikania
glomerata,
_______ 70% methanol Staphylococcus aureus strains
37
Syzygium
aromaticum
_______ 70% methanol Staphylococcus aureus strains
38 Allium sativum ------------ 70% methanol Staphylococcus aureus strains
39
Cymbopogon
citratus
------------ 70% methanol Staphylococcus aureus strains
40 Zingiber officinale ------------ 70% methanol Staphylococcus aureus strains
41 Baccharis trimera ------------ 70% methanol Staphylococcus aureus strains
42 Mentha piperita ------------ 70% methanol Staphylococcus aureus strains
43
Arnebia
Nobilis,
Crude extract Ethanol
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus
aureus
positive, Escherichia coli,
Staphylococcus aureus negative and fungi
Candida albicans.
44 Garcinia indica, Crude extract Ethanol
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus
aureus positive, Escherichia coli,
Staphylococcus aureus negative andfungi
Candida albicans.
45 Boehavia diffusa, Crude extract Ethanol
Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus
Candida albicans.
46 Solanum albicaule Crude extract Ethanol
Pseudomonas
Candida albicans.
47 Vitex negundu Crude extract Ethanol
Pseudomonas
Candida albicans.
48
Bunium
persicum
Crude extract Ethanol
Pseudomonas
Candida albicans.
49 Acacia concinna Crude extract Ethanol
Pseudomonas
Candida albicans.
50 Albizia lebbeck Crude extract Ethanol
Pseudomonas
Staphylococcus aureus negative and fungi
Candida albicans.
51 Lantana indica roxb Leaves
Ethyl acetate and
methanol
Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus
subtilis, Steptococcus pyrogens, Escherichia
coli,
Proteus vulgaris, Klebsiella pneumoniae,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella
typhi,Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans
52 Jatropha curcas Stem Bark
Crude ethanolic,
methanolic
andwater extracts.
Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, Escherichia coli,Streptococcus
faecalis, Staphylococcus epidermidis,
Shigelladysenteriae, Micrococcus kristinae
53 Azadirachta indica Leaves, seed, Hexane, Escherichia, Klebsiella pneumonia, Proteus
linn oil Chloroform and
Methanol.
vulgaris, Micrococcus luteus,Bacillus
subtilis, Enterococcus faecalis and
Streptococcus faecalis
54 Ficus carica Leaves Methanol
Streptococcus mutans, Streptococcus
sanguinis, Streptococcus sobrinus,
Streptococcus ratti , Streptococcus criceti,
Streptococcus anginosus and Streptococcus
gordonii, Aggregatibacter
actinomycetemcomitans, Fusobacterium
nucleatum, Prevotella intermedia and
Porphyromonas gingivalis
55
Bidens
pilosa,
Whole plant
parts
Ethanol, Water
and Hexane
Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus
hemoltic, Bacillus cereus, Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli,and one
yeast Candida albicans
56 Bixa orellana
Whole plant
parts
Ethanol, Water
and Hexane
57 Cecropia peltata
Whole plant
parts
Ethanol, Water
and Hexane
58
Cinchona
officinalis
Whole plant
parts
Ethanol, Water
and Hexane
59 Gliricidia sepium,
Whole plant
parts
Ethanol, Water
and Hexane
60
Jacaranda
mimosifolia
Whole plant
parts
Ethanol, Water
and Hexane
61 Justicia secunda
Whole plant
parts
Ethanol, Water
and Hexane
62 Piper pulchrum
Whole plant
parts
Ethanol, Water
and Hexane
63 P.paniculata
Whole plant
parts
Ethanol, Water
and Hexane
64
Spilanthes
americana
Whole plant
parts
Ethanol, Water
and Hexane
aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli, and one

TABLE 2: LIST OF ANTIMICROBIAL DRUGS APPROVED SINCE 2000 BY FDA
30

Year
Approved
Drug
Name
Class
Bacteria
Type
Lead
source
NP-Lead source
organism
2000 Linezolid Oxazolidinone G +ve S ---------------
2001 Telithromycin Macrolide G +ve/G -ve NP derived Actinomycete
2002 Biapenem Carbapenem G +ve/G -ve NP derived Actinomycete
2002 Ertapenem Carbapenem G +ve/G -ve NP derived Actinomycete
2002 Prulifloxacin Fluoroquinolone G +ve/G -ve S -------------
2002 Pazufloxacin Fluoroquinolone G +ve/G -ve S -------------
2002 Balofloxacin Fluoroquinolone G +ve/G -ve S -------------
2003 Daptomycin Lipopeptide G +ve NP derived Actinomycete
2004 Gemifloxacin Fluoroquinolone G +ve/G -ve S -------------
2005 Doripenem Carbapenem G +ve/G -ve NP derived Actinomycete
2005 Tigecycline Tetracycline G +ve/G -ve NP derived Actinomycete
2007 Retapamulin Pleuromutilin G +ve NP derived Fungus
2007 Garenoxacin Quinolone G +ve/G -ve s -------------
2008 Ceftobiprole medocaril Cephalosporin G +ve/G -ve NP derived derived Fungus
2008 Sitafloxacin Fluoroquinolone G +ve/G -ve S -------------
2009 Tebipenem pivoxil Carbapenem G +ve/G -ve NP derived Actinomycete
2009 Telavancin Glycopeptide G +ve NP derived Actinomycete
2009 Antofloxacin Fluoroquinolone G +ve/G -ve S -------------
2009 Besifloxacine Fluoroquinolone G +ve/G -ve S -------------
2010 Ceftaroline fosamil Cephalosporin G +ve/G -ve NP derived Fungus
2011 Fidaxomicin Tiacumicin G +ve NP derived Actinomycete
2012 Bedaquiline Diarylquinoline G +ve (TB) S -------------

Recently approved anti microbial drugs
Flublok (seasonal influenza vaccine);
Protein Sciences; For the active
immunization against influenza virus
subtypes A and type B, Approved January
2013
Luzu (luliconazole) Cream 1%; Valeant
Pharmaceuticals; For the treatment of
interdigital tinea pedis, tinea cruris, and
tinea corporis, November of 2013
Olysio (simeprevir); Janssen Therapeutics;
For the treatment of hepatitis C, November
of 2013
Sitavig (acyclovir) buccal tablets;
BioAlliance Pharma; For the treatment of
recurrent herpes labialis in adults, Approved
April 2013
Sovaldi (sofosbuvir); Gilead Sciences; For
the treatment of hepatitis C, December of
2013
VariZIG, Varicella Zoster Immune
Globulin (Human); Cangene; For the post-
exposure prophylaxis of varicella zoster
(chickenpox), Approved January 2013
Vibativ (telavancin); Theravance; For the
treatment of hospital-acquired and
ventilator-associated bacterial pneumonia
caused by staph aureus, Approved June
2014
Dalvance (dalbavancin); Durata
Therapeutics; For the treatment of acute
bacterial skin and skin structure infections,
Approved May 2014
Impavido (miltefosine); Knight
Therapeutics; For the treatment of visceral,
cutaneous and mucosal leishmaniasis,
Approved March 2014
Jublia (efinaconazole) 10% topical gel;
Valeant Pharmaceuticals; For the treatment
of onychomycosis of the toenails, Approved
June 2014
Metronidazole 1.3% Vaginal Gel; Actavis,
Inc.; For the treatment of bacterial
vaginosis, Approved April 2014.
31

Government of India to ban over-the-counter
sale of 92 antibiotics
Resistance to antibiotics is becoming a serious
threat for India because of popular habit to pop
pills at will. Even the World Health
Organization (WHO) recently warned that the
world is staring at a post-antibiotic era, when
common infections will no longer have a cure.

WHO director general Dr Margaret Chan had said,
"The world is on the brink of losing these miracle
cures." Even director of Centres for Disease
Control Atlanta chief Dr Thomas R Frieden, who
was in India said that drug resistance due to
irrational use of antibiotics, will increase in the
future.

Drug Controller General of India (DCGI) Dr G N
Singh has written to the Union health minister to
notify a new schedule H1 in the Drugs and
Cosmetics Rules. Once notified, following
clearance from the law ministry, these drugs cannot
be sold without prescription. The drugs will also
have to carry a prominent label in red color on the
left corner with the following warning: "It is
dangerous to take this prescription except in
accordance with medical advice and not to be sold
by retail without the prescription of the registered
medical practitioner." He added, "These drugs will
only be sold against a prescription that the chemist
will have to retain.

The drugs to come under H1 includes
Moxifloxacin, Meropenem , Imipenem, Ertapenem,
Doripenem, Colistin, Linezolid , Cefpirome,
Gentamicin, Amikacin, Pencillin, Oxacilin,
Zolpidem, Cefalexin, Norfloxacin , Cefaclor,
Cefdinir, Tigecycline , Tobramycin, Tramadol and
Vancomycin.
32

List of Banned Drugs in India
Furazolidone: Furazolidoneb is
a nitrofuran antibacterial. It was marketed
by Roberts Laboratories under the brand
name Furoxone and by GlaxoSmithKline
as Dependal - M.
Nitrofurazone: Nitrofurazone is bactericidal
for most pathogens that commonly cause
surface skin infections, including
Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus,
Escherichia coli, Clostridium perfringens,
Enterobacter aerogenes, and Proteus
organisms. It was marketed with brand name
Furacin Soluble Dressing; Furacin Topical
Cream; Furacin Topical Solution.
Quiniodochlor: it was antibacterial and
antibiotic marketed with brand names
Betnovate-C (20 gm), Enteroquinol, Dermican,
Dexaquin, Quinoderm, Skycet Gel,
Dexaquin.
33

Importance of Plants as Antimicrobial
Hong-Xi Xu

et al 2001
34
in their research work
showed, thirty eight plant-derived flavonoids
representing seven different structural groups were
tested for activities against antibiotic-resistant
bacteria using the disc-diffusion assay and broth
dilution assay. Among the flavonoids examined,
four flavonols (myricetin, datiscetin, kaempferol
and quercetin) and two flavones (flavone and
luteolin) exhibited inhibitory activity against
methicillin - resistant Staphylococcus aureus
(MRSA).

Myricetin was also found to inhibit the growth of
multidrug-resistant Burkholderia cepacia,
vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) and other
medically important organisms such as Klebsiella
pneumoniae and Staphylococcus epidermidis.
Myricetin was bactericidal to B. cepacia. The
results of the radiolabel incorporation assay showed
that myricetin inhibited protein synthesis by B.
cepacia.

Ortega-Ramirez LA et al
35
and Seow YX et al
36

proposed, medicinal plants traditionally used to
treat health disorders and to prevent diseases, as a
source of bioactive compounds having food
additive properties. Medicinal plants are rich in
terpenes and phenolic compounds that present
antimicrobial and antioxidant properties and also
the essential oils derived from plants exhibit
biological activities, including antioxidant,
anticancer, and antimicrobial activity, use of these
substances as antimicrobials in food products,
factors that affect their efficacy, synergism between
components or with available food preservatives as
well as the challenges and future directions of using
essential oils and phytochemicals as natural food
preservatives.

A study was done by Nautiyala et al. in which it
was observed that 1 hr treatment with medicinal
smoke, released by burning wood and mixture of
odoriferous and medicinal herbs, lead to 94%
reduction of bacterial counts by 60 min. Absence of
pathogenic bacteria (Corynebacterium urealyticum,
Enterobacter aerogenes, Enterobacter aerogenes,
Klebsiella mobilis, Kocuria rosea, Pseudomonas
syringae pv. persicae, Staphylococcus lentus) in the
open room even after 30 days is indicative of the
bactericidal potential of the medicinal smoke
treatment. Medicinal smoke from natural herbal
products has a potential for use as a
smoke/inhalational form of drug delivery.
37
Plant based antimicrobials represent a vast
untapped source for medicines. Continued and
further exploration of plant antimicrobials needs to
occur. Plants based antimicrobials have enormous
therapeutic potential. They are effective in the
treatment of infectious diseases while
simultaneously mitigating many of the side effects
that are often associated with synthetic
antimicrobials. They are effective, yet gentle. Many
plants have tropisms to specific organs or systems
in the body. Phytomedicines usually have multiple
effects on the body. Their actions often act beyond
the symptomatic treatment of disease. An example
of this is Hydrastis canadensis. Hydrastis not only
has antimicrobial activity, but also increases blood
supply to the spleen promoting optimal activity of
the spleen to release mediating compounds.
38

Market of Herbal product of selected countries
in 2014 India
Herbal/traditional products continued to grow at a
strong rate of 13% in terms of value in 2013. This
was due to consumers continued trust in these
products as they have no side effects.
Herbal/traditional products are expected to grow at
by a value CAGR at constant 2013 pieces of 7%
during the forecast period of 2013-2018. This is
expected to be driven by herbal/traditional vitamins
and dietary supplements, topical analgesics and
dermatologicals.
39

USA
The herbal/traditional products category continues
to be dominated by dietary supplements, with a
68% share of value sales in 2013. Following this
was herbal/traditional cough, cold and allergy
remedies with a 17% value share and digestive
remedies with 5%. Together these categories
account for 90% of category value sales.

Herbal/traditional products are expected to grow by
14% to reach US$5.3 billion by 2018. Some
consumers, afraid of complex chemical and drug
interactions, will continue to look for more natural
remedies and products and therefore the category
can be expected to maintain a modest momentum
with a CAGR of 3% in value sales at constant 2013
prices over the forecast period. As in the previous
year, pediatrics dietary supplements are expected to
witness the fastest value growth over the forecast
period.
40

China
Herbal/traditional products are expected to see a
constant value CAGR of 7% in the forecast period.
Such healthy growth momentum is anticipated to
be driven by consumers steady demand for such
products, with rising health-consciousness, in
pursuit of more natural cures for health problems.
Herbal/traditional topical analgesics are likely to
continue to see the strongest value growth, due to
the demand to relieve pain with milder products.
Due to the long presence of herbal/traditional
products in the market, consumers have developed
a preference for such products, mainly due to their
fewer side-effects and mild product nature.
41

Australia
Herbal/traditional products grew by 8% in current
value terms throughout 2013 to reach a market size
of A $498 million. Consumer sentiment has
continued to shift over the review period to become
more accepting of herbal alternatives as the health
benefits have become widely publicised. Although
some concerns remain surrounding the efficacy of
herbal alternatives, Australian consumers shift
towards healthier lifestyle choices has moved
demand towards products perceived as more
natural. This trend has been magnified by the rise
of ethnic populations in Australia, with an
increased emphasis on herbal and traditional
products and remedies.

Herbal and traditional products will grow at a
constant value CAGR of 4% over the forecast
period. Australian consumers desire to minimise
artificial ingredients will see them lean towards
herbal/traditional products they see as having
adequate efficacy.
42

United Kingdom
Herbal/traditional products remained stagnant in
current value terms in 2013. The implementation of
recent EU regulations on herbal and medicinal
products, coupled with the declining interest from
consumers in herbal/traditional remedies,
contributed to the poor performance of the
category.

According to the trade sources interviewed, no
major regulatory developments are expected to be
implemented during the forecast period which will
affect the industry the way the European
Traditional Herbal Medicinal Product Directive
did. The category is expected to continue to
become more concentrated and less dynamic as a
result of the implementation of the EU regulation.
43

CONCLUSIONS: In the beginning of 21
st
century,
the widespread emergence of antimicrobial
resistance has made the current antimicrobials
ineffective. Various efforts have been made to
combat this resistance so that newer targets can be
identified and next generation of effective
antimicrobials be produced. There is urgent need
for complete understanding of the various aspects
of drug resistance in microbes which can help in
the choice of good targets, vital for discovery of
new antibacterial drugs obtained from plant origin.
In the near future, the next challenge will be to
identify newer agents for the treatment of
multidrug resistant pathogens which are emerging
at a rapid rate. As the synthetic antimicrobials soon
become resistant to pathogen this made more
emphasis on antimicrobials from plant origins
which are having long duration of effectiveness.
Hence the present review concludes the importance
of plant drugs as antimicrobials over the synthetic
drugs.
REFERENCES:
1. Mohd. Mazid, Taqi Ahmed Khan, Firoz Mohammad,
Medicinal Plants of Rural India: A Review of Use by
Indian Folks. Indo Global Journal of Pharmaceutical
Sciences, 2012; 2(3): 286-304
2. Clark, A. M. 1996. Natural products as a resource for new
drugs. Pharm. Res. 13:1996
3. Alper, J. 1998. Effort to combat microbial resistance lags.
ASM News 64:440441.
4. Borris, R. P. 1996. Natural products research: perspectives
from a major pharmaceutical company. J.
Ethnopharmacol. 51:2938.
5. Moerman, D. E. 1996. An analysis of the food plants and
drug plants of native North America. J. Ethnopharmacol.
52:122.
6. Schultes, R. E. 1978. The kingdom of plants, p. 208. In W.
A. R. Thomson (ed.), Medicines from the Earth. McGraw-
Hill Book Co., New York, N.Y.
7. Stockwell, C. 1988. Natures pharmacy. Century
Hutchinson Ltd., London, United Kingdom.
8. Weiner, M. A. 1980. Earth medicine-earth food: plant
remedies, drugs and natural foods of the North American
Indians. Macmillan, New York, N.Y.
9. Klink, B. 1997. Alternative medicines: is natural really
better? Drug Top. 141:99100.
10. Lewis, W. H., and M. P. Elvin-Lewis. 1995. Medicinal
plants as sources of new therapeutics. Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard.
82:1624.
11. Borris, R. P. 1996. Natural products research: perspectives
from a major pharmaceutical company. J.
Ethnopharmacol. 51:2938.
12. Marjorie Murphy Cowan, Plant Products as Antimicrobial
Agents. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 1999;12(4):564
82.
13. Singh SB, Barrett JF. Empirical antibacterial drug
discovery-foundation in natural products. Biochemical
Pharmacology. 2006; 71 (7): 1006-1015.
14. Cragg GM, Newman DJ, Snader KM. Natural products in
drug discovery and development. Journal of natural
products. 1997; 60 (1): 52-60.
15. Newman DJ, Cragg GM, Snader KM. Natural products as
sources of new drugs over the period 1981-2002. Journal
of Natural Products: 2003; 66 (7): 1022-1037
16. Li JWH, Veederas JC. Drug Discovery and Natural
Products: End of An Era or An Endless Frontier? Science.
2009; 325: 161-165.
17. Clardy J, Fischbach MA, Walsh CT. New antibiotics from
bacterial natural products. Nat Biotech. 2006; 24 (12):
1541-1550.
18. Rolinson GN, Geddes AM. The 50
th
anniversary of the
discovery of 6-aminopenicillanic acid (6-APA).
International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents: 2007; 29
(1):3-8.
19. KIRBY WMM. Extraction of a highly potent penicillin
inactivator from penicillin resistant staphylococci. Science.
1944; 99 (2579): 452-453.
20. Majiduddin FK, Materon IC, Palzkill TG. Molecular
analysis of beta-lactamase structure and function.
International Journal of Medical Microbiology. 2002;
292(2):127-37.
21. Phourcq F, Jarry C. Determination of third-generation
cephalosporins by high-performance liquid
chromatography in connection with pharmacokinetic
studies. Journal of Chromatography A. 1998; 812(1-
2):159-78.
22. Bryskier A, Procyk T, Labro MT. Cefodizime a new 2-
aminothiazolyl cephalosporin: physicochemical properties,
toxicology and structure-activity relationships. Journal of
Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 1990; 26(SplC):1-8.
23. Cassell GH, Mekalanos J. Development of antimicrobial
agents in the era of new and reemerging infectious
diseases and increasing antibiotic resistance. JAMA: The
Journal of the American Medical Association. 2001;
285(5):601-5.
24. Otten H. Domagk and the development of the
sulphonamides. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy.
1986; 17(6):689-90.
25. Walsh C. 2003. Antibiotics: actions, origin, resistance.
ASM Press.
26. http://www.thefreelibrary.com/FDA+Approves+Nexavar(
R)+for+Treatment+of+Patients +with+Advanced...-
a0139964558.
27. Medical News Today 2007. Nexavar (Sorafenib)
Launched in UK for hepatocellular carcinoma. Medical
News Today,
http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/87657.php
(accessed 20/1/010).
28. http://who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/112647/1/WHO_HSE_
PED_AIP_2014.2_eng.pdf?ua=1
29. Hemraj Vashist, Anil Jindal. Antimicrobial Activities of
Medicinal Plants: Review, International Journal of
Research in Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences,
2012;3(1).
30. Mark S Butler, Mark A Blaskovich, Matthew A Cooper,
Antibiotics in the clinical pipeline in 2013, The Journal of
Antibiotics 2013;66:57191.
31. http://www.centerwatch.com/drug-information/fda
approved-drugs/year/2014
32. Kounteya Sinha. Government to ban over-the-counter sale
of 92 antibiotics. The Economic Times TNN Sep 4, 2012,
11.04AM IST.
33. Full List of Banned Drugs in India. In Business
Health on November 1 2012 at 12:03.
34. Hong-Xi Xu, Song F Lee.

Activity of plant flavonoids
against antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Phytotherapy
Research 2001; 15(1):39-43.
35. Ortega-Ramirez LA, Rodriguez GI, Leyva JM, Cruz-
Valenzuela MR, Silva-Espinoza BA, Gonzalez-Aguilar
GA, et al. Potential of medicinal plants as antimicrobial
and antioxidant agents in food industry: a hypothesis. J
Food Sci. 2014; 79(2):129-37.
36. Seow YX, Yeo CR, Chung HL, Yuk HG. Plant essential
oils as active antimicrobial agents. Crit Rev Food Sci
Nutr. 2014; 54(5):625-44.
37. Nautiyal CS, Chauhan PS, Nene YL. Medicinal smoke
reduces airborne bacteria. J Ethnopharmacol 2007;
114:44651.
38. Murray, M. 1995. The healing power of herbs. Prima
Publishing. Rocklin, CA. p. 162-71.
39. http://www.euromonitor.com/herbal-traditional-products-
in-india/report may 2014 page no-38
in-the-us/report may 2014 page no-47
in-china/report may 2014 page no-54.
in-australia/report may 2014 page no 31.
in-the-united-kingdom/report may 2014 page no-31

All 2014 are reserved by International Journal of Pharmacognosy. This Journal licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License.
This article can be downloaded to ANDROID OS based mobile. Scan QR Code using Code/Bar Scanner from your mobile. (Scanners are
available on Google Playstore)

How to cite this article:
Savant C, Venkatesh, Mannasaheb BA

and Joshi H: Importance of Antimicrobial Agents from Plants in Present Scenario: A Review.

Int J
Pharmacognosy 2014; 1(8): 472-484. .doi: 10.13040/IJPSR. 0975-8232.IJP.1(8). 472-484.

1 Vol. 18 Aug 2014 IJP RE 125 Paper 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

1 Vol. 18 Aug 2014 IJP RE 125 Paper 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Savant et al., IJP, 2014; Vol. 1(8): 472-484.

You might also like