4.

TURBINE PARTS
4.1 Turbine blades
Cylindrical reaction blades for HPIP!"P turbine.
#$%S blades in initial sta&es of HP ! IP turbine to reduce secondary losses.
T'isted blade 'it( inte&ral s(roud in last sta&es of HP IP and initial sta&es of "P
turbine to reduce )rofile and ti) lea*a&e losses.
1. +ree standin& "P ,o-in& blades ti) section 'it( su)ersonic desi&n.
.. +ir$tree root.
#. +la,e$(ardenin& of t(e leadin& ed&e.
Banana ty)e (ollo' &uide blade.
1. Ta)ered and for'ard leanin& for o)ti,i/ed ,ass flo' distribution.
.. Suction slits for ,oisture re,o-al.
4.. TURBINE CASIN0
Casin&s or cylinders are of t(e (ori/ontal s)lit ty)e. T(is is not
ideal as t(e (ea-y flan&es of t(e 1oints are slo' to follo' t(e te,)erature c(an&es of t(e
cylinder 'alls. Ho'e-er for asse,blin& and ins)ection )ur)oses t(ere is no ot(er
solution. T(e casin& is (ea-y in order to 'it(stand t(e (i&( )ressures and te,)erature. It
is &eneral )ractice to let t(e t(ic*ness of 'alls and flan&es decrease fro, inlet to e2(aust
end.
T(e casin& 1oints are ,ade stea, ti&(t 'it(out t(e use of &as*ets
by ,atc(in& t(e flan&e faces -ery e2actly and -ery s,oot(ly. T(e bolt (oles in t(e
flan&es are drilled for s,oot(ly fittin& bolts but do'el )ins are often added to secure
e2act ali&n,ent of t(e flan&e 1oint. %ouble casin&s are used for -ery (i&( stea,
)ressures. T(e (i&( )ressure is a))lied to t(e inner casin& '(ic( is o)en at t(e e2(aust
end lettin& t(e turbine e2(aust to t(e outer casin&s.
4.# TURBINE R3T3RS
T(e desi&n of a turbine rotor de)ends on t(e o)eratin& )rinci)le of
t(e turbine. T(e i,)ulse turbine 'it( )ressure dro) across t(e stationary blades ,ust
(a-e seals bet'een stationary blades and t(e rotor. T(e s,aller t(e sealin& area t(e
s,aller t(e lea*a&e4 t(erefore t(e stationary blades are ,ounted in dia)(ra&,s 'it(
labyrint( seals around t(e s(aft. T(is construction re5uires a disc rotor. Basically t(ere
are . ty)es of rotors.
%ISC R3T3RS

All lar&er disc rotors are no' ,ac(ined out of a solid for&in& of
nic*el steel4 t(is s(ould &i-e t(e stron&est rotor and a fully balanced rotor. It is rat(er
e2)ensi-e as t(e 'ei&(t of t(e final rotor is a))ro2i,ately 678 of t(e initial for&in&.
3lder or s,aller disc rotors (a-e s(aft and discs ,ade in se)arate )ieces 'it( t(e
discs s(run* on t(e s(aft. T(e bore of t(e disc is ,ade 7.18 s,aller in dia,eter t(an
t(e s(aft. T(e discs are t(en (eated until t(ey easily are slide alon& t(e s(aft and
located in t(e correct )osition on t(e s(aft and s(aft *ey. A s,aller clearance bet'een
t(e discs )re-ents t(er,al stress in t(e s(aft.
%RU9 R3T3RS

T(e first reaction turbines (ad solid for&ed dru, rotors. T(ey 'ere
stron& &enerally 'ell balanced as t(ey 'ere ,ac(ined o-er t(e total surface. :it( t(e
increasin& si/e of t(e turbine t(e solid rotors &ot too (ea-y )ieces. +or &ood balance t(e
dru, ,ust be ,ac(ined bot( outside and inside and t(e dru, ,ust be o)ened at one
end. T(e second )art of t(e rotor is t(e dru, end co-er 'it( t(e s(aft.
6.C3NSTRUCTI3NA" +EATURES 3+ A B"A%E
T(e blade can be di-ided into # )arts;
1. T(e )rofile '(ic( con-erts t(e t(er,al ener&y of stea, into *inetic ener&y 'it(
a certain efficiency de)endin& u)on t(e )rofile s(a)e.
.. T(e root '(ic( fi2es t(e blade to t(e turbine rotor &i-in& a )ro)er anc(or to t(e
blade and trans,ittin& t(e *inetic ener&y of t(e blade to t(e rotor.
#. T(e da,)in& ele,ent '(ic( reduces t(e -ibrations '(ic( necessarily occur in
t(e blades due to t(e stea, flo'in& t(rou&( t(e blades. T(ese da,)in& ele,ents
,ay be inte&ral 'it( blades or t(ey ,ay be se)arate ele,ents ,ounted bet'een
t(e blades.
Eac( of t(ese ele,ents 'ill be se)arately dealt 'it( in t(e follo'in& sections.
6.1 HP B"A%E PR3+I"ES
In order to understand t(e furt(er e2)lanation a fa,iliarity of t(e
ter,inolo&y used is re5uired. T(e follo'in& ter,inolo&y is used in t(e subse5uent
sections.
If circles are dra'n tan&ential to t(e section side and )ressure side
)rofiles of a blade and t(eir centers are 1oined by a cur-e t(is cur-e is called t(e ca,ber
line. T(is ca,ber line intersects t(e )rofile at . )oints A and B. T(e line 1oinin& t(ese
)oints is called c(ord and t(e len&t( of t(is line is called t(e c(ord len&t(. A line '(ic( is
tan&ential to t(e inlet and outlet ed&es is called t(e bi$tan&ent line. T(e an&le '(ic( t(is
line ,a*es 'it( t(e circu,ferential direction is called t(e settin& an&le. Pitc( of a blade is
t(e circu,ferential distance bet'een any )oint on t(e )rofile and an identical )oint on t(e
ne2t blade.
6.. C"ASSI+ICATI3N 3+ PR3+I"ES
T(ere are . basic ty)es of )rofiles$i,)ulse and reaction. In t(e i,)ulse
ty)e of )rofiles t(e entire (eat dro) of t(e sta&e occurs only in t(e stationary blades. In
t(e reaction ty)e of blades t(e (eat dro) of t(e sta&e is distributed al,ost e5ually
bet'een t(e &uide and ,o-in& blades.
T(rou&( t(e t(eoretical i,)ulse blades (a-e /ero )ressure dro) in t(e
,o-in& blades )ractically for t(e flo' to ta*e to ta*e )lace across t(e ,o-in& blades
t(ere ,ust be a s,all )ressure dro) across t(e ,o-in& blades also. T(erefore t(e i,)ulse
sta&es in )ractice (a-e a s,all de&ree of reaction. T(ese sta&es are t(erefore ,ore
accurately t(ou&( less 'idely described as lo'$reaction sta&es.
T(e )ressure used reaction )rofiles are ,ore efficient t(an t(e i,)ulse
)rofiles at )art loads. T(is is because of t(e ,ore rounded inlet ed&e for reaction )rofiles.
%ue to t(is e-en if t(e inlet an&le of t(e stea, is not tan&ential to t(e )ressure$side
)rofile of t(e blade t(e losses are lo'.
Ho'e-er t(e i,)ulse )rofiles (a-e one ad-anta&e. T(e i,)ulse )rofiles
can ta*e a lar&e (eat dro) across a sin&le sta&e and t(e sa,e (eat dro) 'ould re5uire a
&reater nu,ber of sta&es if reaction )rofiles are used t(ereby increasin& t(e turbine
len&t(.
T(e stea, turbines use t(e i,)ulse )rofiles for t(e control sta&e <1
st
sta&e= and t(e reaction )rofiles for subse5uent sta&es.
T(ere are # reasons for usin& i,)ulse )rofile for t(e 1
st
sta&e
a= 9ost of t(e turbines are )artial arc ad,ission turbines. If t(e 1
st
sta&e is a reaction
sta&e t(e lo'er (alf of t(e ,o-in& blades do not (a-e any inlet stea, and 'ould
-entilate. T(erefore ,ost of t(e sta&e (eat dro) s(ould occur in t(e &uide blades.
b= T(e (eat dro) across t(e 1
st
sta&e s(ould be (i&( so t(at t(e '(eel c(a,ber of t(e
outer casin& is not e2)osed to t(e (i&( inlet )ara,eters. Incase of 4$turbines t(e
inner casin& )artin& )lane stren&t( beco,es t(e li,itation and t(erefore re5uires
a lar&e (eat dro) across t(e 1
st
sta&e.
c= No//le control &i-es better efficiency at )art loads t(an t(rottle control.
d= T(e nu,ber of sta&es in t(e turbine s(ould not be too (i&( as t(is 'ill increase t(e
len&t( of t(e turbine.
T(ere are e2ce)tions to t(e rule. Turbines used for CCPs and B+P dri-e
turbines do not (a-e a control sta&e. T(ey are t(rottle$&o-erned ,ac(ines. Suc( desi&ns
are used '(en t(e inlet )ressure slides. Suc( ,ac(ines only (a-e reaction sta&es.
Ho'e-er t(e inlet )assa&es of suc( turbines ,ust be so desi&ned t(at t(e inlet stea, to
t(e first reaction sta&e is )ro)erly ,i2ed and occu)ies t(e entire #>7 de&rees. T(ere are
also cases of controlled e2traction turbines '(ere t(e "P control sta&e is an i,)ulse
sta&e. T(is is eit(er to reduce t(e nu,ber of sta&es to ,a*e t(e turbine s(ort or to
increase t(e )art load efficiency by usin& no//le control '(ic( ,ini,i/es t(rottle losses.
6.# HP. B"A%E R33TS
T(e root is a)art of t(e blade t(at fi2es t(e blade to t(e rotor or stator. Its
desi&n de)ends u)on t(e centrifu&al and stea, bendin& forces of t(e table. It s(ould be
desi&ned suc( t(at t(e ,aterial in t(e blade root as 'ell as t(e rotor ?stator dra' and any
fi2in& ele,ent are in t(e safe li,its to a-oid failure. T(e roots are T$root and +or*$root.
T(e +or*$root (as a (i&(er load carryin& t(an t(e T$root it 'as found t(at ,ac(inin& t(is
T$root 'it( side &ri) is ,ore of a )roble,. It (as to be ,ac(ined by broac(in& and t(e
broac(in& ,ac(ine a-ailable could not (andle t(e si/e of t(e root. T(e ty)ical roots used
for t(e HP ,o-in& blades for -arious stea, turbine a))lications are s(o'n in t(e
follo'in& fi&ure4
6.4 "P B"A%E PR3+I"ES
T(e "P blade )rofiles of ,o-in& blades are t'isted and ta)ered. T(ese blades are
used '(en blade (ei&(t$to$,ean sta&e dia,eter ratio <(?%,= e2ceeds 7...
6.6 "P B"A%E R33TS
T(e roots of "P blades are as follo's
. bladin&4
T(e roots of bot( t(e "P sta&es in $. ty)es of "P bladin& are T$roots
# bladin&4
T(e last sta&e "P blade of H@ S@ and "@ blades (a-e a for*$root. S@
blades (a-e 4$for* roots for all si/es. H@ blades (a-e 4$for* roots u) to si/e
'(ere ,odified )rofiles are used. Beyond t(is si/e H* blades (a-e # for* roots
"@ blades (a-e #$for* roots for all si/es. T(e roots of t(e "P blades of )rocedin&
are of T$roots.
6.> %ANA9ICS IN B"A%E
T(e e2citation of any blade co,es fro, different sources. T(ey are;
Nozzle-passing excitation; As t(e blades )ass t(e no//les of t(e sta&e t(ey
encounter flo' disturbances due to t(e )ressure -ariations across t(e &uide blade
)assa&e. T(ey also encounter disturbances due to t(e 'a*es and eddies in t(e flo'
)at(. T(ese are sufficient to cause e2citation in t(e ,o-in& blades. T(e e2citation
&ets re)eated at e-ery )itc( of t(e blade. T(is is called no//le$)assin& fre5uency
e2citation. T(e order of t(is fre5uency B no. of &uide blades 2 s)eed of t(e
,ac(ine. 9ulti)les of t(ese fre5uency are considered for c(ec*in& for resonance.
Excitation due to non-uniformities in guide-blades around t(e )eri)(ery. T(ese
can occur due to ,anufacturin& inaccuracies li*e )itc( errors settin& an&le
-ariations inlet and outlet ed&e -ariations etc.
+or HP blades due to t(e t(ic* and cylindrical cross$sections and s(ort blade
(ei&(ts t(e natural fre5uencies are -ery (i&(. No//le$)assin& fre5uencies are
t(erefore necessarily considered since resonance 'it( lo'er natural fre5uencies
occur only 'it( t(ese orders of e2citation.
In "P blades since t(e blades are t(in and lon& t(e natural fre5uencies are lo'.
T(e e2citation fre5uencies to be considered are t(erefore t(e first fe' ,ulti)les of
s)eed since t(e no//le$)assin& fre5uencies only &i-e resonance 'it( -ery (i&(
,odes '(ere t(e -ibration stresses are lo'.
T(e HP ,o-in& blades e2)erience relati-ely lo' -ibration a,)litudes due to t(eir
t(ic*er sections and s(orter (ei&(ts. T(ey also (a-e (i&( inte&ral s(rouds of ad1acent
blades but a&ainst eac( ot(er for,in& a continuous rin&. T(is rin& ser-es . )ur)oses C
it acts as a stea, seal and it acts as a da,)er for t(e -ibrations. :(en -ibrations
occur t(e -ibration ener&y is dissi)ated as friction bet'een s(rouds of ad1acent
blades.
+or HP &uide blades of :esel desi&n t(e s(roud is not inte&ral but a s(roud and
is ri-eted to a nu,ber of &uide blades to&et(er. T(e function of t(is s(roud band is
,ainly to seat t(e stea, in so,e desi&ns HP &uide blades ,ay (a-e inte&ral s(rouds
li*e ,o-in& blades. T(e )ri,ary function re,ains stea, sealin&.
In industrial turbines in "P blades t(e resonant -ibrations (a-e (i&( a,)litudes
due to t(e t(in sections of t(e blades and t(e lar&e len&t(s. It ,ay also not al'ays be
)ossible to a-oid resonance at all o)eratin& conditions. T(is is because of . reasons.
+irstly t(e "P blades are standardi/ed for certain ran&es of s)eeds and turbines ,ay
be selected to o)erate any'(ere in t(e s)eed ran&e. T(e entire desi&n ran&e of
o)eratin& s)eed of t(e "P blades canDt be outside t(e resonance ran&e. It is of course
)ossible to desi&n a ne' "P blade for eac( a))lication but t(is in-ol-es a lot of
desi&n efforts and ,anufacturin& cycle ti,e. Ho'e-er 'it( t(e )resent day co,)uter
)ac*a&es and t(e ,anufacturin& ,et(ods it (as beco,e feasible to do so. Secondly
t(e dri-en ,ac(ine ,ay be a -ariable s)eed ,ac(ine li*e a co,)ressor or a boiler
feed )u,). In t(ese case also it is not )ossible to a-oid resonance. In suc( cases
'(ere it is not )ossible to a-oid resonance a da,)in& ele,ent is to be used in t(e "P
blades to reduce t(e dyna,ic stresses so t(at t(e blades can o)erate continuously
under resonance. T(ere ,ay be blades '(ic( are not ade5uately da,)ed due to
,anufacturin& inaccuracies. T(e need for a da,)in& ele,ent is t(erefore eli,inated.
In case t(e fre5uencies of t(e blades tend to'ards resonance due to ,anufacturin&
inaccuracies tunin& is to be done on t(e blades to correct t(e fre5uency. T(is tunin&
is done by &rindin& off ,aterial at t(e ti) <'(ic( reduces t(e inertia ,ore t(an
stiffness= to increase t(e fre5uency and by &rindin& off ,aterial at t(e base of t(e
)rofile <'(ic( reduces t(e stiffness ,ore t(an inertia= to reduce t(e natural fre5uency.
T(e da,)in& in any blade can be of any of t(e follo'in& ty)es;
a= Material damping; T(is ty)e of da,)in& is because of t(e in(erent da,)in&
)ro)erties of t(e ,aterial '(ic( ,a*es u) t(e co,)onent.
b= Aerodynamic damping; T(is is due to t(e da,)in& of t(e fluid '(ic(
surrounds t(e co,)onent in o)eration.

c= Friction damping; T(is is due to t(e rubbin& friction bet'een t(e co,)onents
under consideration 'it( any ot(er ob1ect.
3ut of t(ese da,)in& ,ec(anis,s t(e ,aterial and aerodyna,ic ty)es
of da,)in& are -ery s,all in ,a&nitude. +riction da,)in& is enor,ous as co,)ared to
t(e ot(er . ty)es of da,)in&. Because of t(is reason t(e da,)in& ele,ents blades
&enerally incor)orate a feature by '(ic( t(e -ibrational ener&y is dissi)ated as frictional
(eat. T(e frictional da,)in& (as a )articular c(aracteristic. :(en t(e frictional force
bet'een t(e rubbin& surfaces is -ery s,all as co,)ared to t(e e2citation force t(e
surfaces$sli) resultin& in friction da,)in&. Ho'e-er '(en t(e e2citation force is s,all
'(en co,)ared to t(e frictional force t(e surfaces donDt sli) resultin& in loc*in& of t(e
surfaces.
T(is condition &i-es /ero friction da,)in& and only t(e ,aterial and
aerodyna,ic da,)in& e2ists. In a )eriodically -aryin& e2citation force it ,ay fre5uently
(a))en t(at t(e force is less t(an t(e friction force. %urin& t(is )(ase t(e da,)in& is -ery
less. At t(e sa,e ti,e due to t(e loc*in& of t(e rubbin& surfaces t(e o-erall stiffness
increases and t(e natural fre5uency s(ifts drastically a'ay fro, t(e indi-idual -alue. T(e
res)onse t(erefore also c(an&es in t(e loc*ed condition. T(e resonant res)onse of a
syste, t(erefore de)ends u)on t(e a,ount of da,)in& in t(e syste, <'(ic( is
deter,ined by t(e relati-e duration of sli) and stic* in t(e syste, i.e. t(e relati-e
,a&nitude of e2citation and friction forces= and t(e natural fre5uency of t(e syste,.
6.E B"A%IN0 9ATERIA"S

A,on& t(e different ,aterials ty)ically used for bladin& are 47# stainless
steel 4.. stainless steel A$.F> Haynes Stellite Alloy Nu,ber #1 and titaniu, alloy. T(e
47# stainless steel is essentially t(e industryDs standard blade ,aterial and on i,)ulse
stea, turbine it is )robably found on o-er G78 of all t(e sta&es. It is use because of its
(i&( yield stren&t( endurance li,it ductility tou&(ness erosion and corrosion resistance
and da,)in&. It is used 'it( in a brinell (ardness ran&e of .7E$.4F to ,a2i,i/e its
da,)in& and corrosion resistance. T(e 4.. stainless steel is a))lied only on (i&(
te,)erature sta&es <#E1$4F.HC= '(ere its (i&(er yield endurance cree) and ru)ture
stren&t(s are needed.
T(e A$.F> ,aterial is nic*el based su)er alloy t(at is &enerally used in (ot
&as e2)anders 'it( sta&e te,)eratures bet'een 4F. and >.1HC. T(e Haynes Stellite
Alloy Nu,ber #1 is a cobalt based su)er alloy and is used on 1et e2)anders '(en
)recision cast blades are needed. T(e Haynes Stellite Alloy Nu,ber #1 is used at sta&e
te,)eratures bet'een 4F. and >4GHC. Anot(er blade ,aterial is titaniu,. Its (i&(
stren&t( lo' density and &ood erosion resistance ,a*e it a &ood candidate for (i&( s)eed
or lon&$last sta&e bladin&.