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COURSE DESCRIPTION
Principles and procedure of technical research and report writing; attention to analyzing audience
and purpose, organizing information, designing graphic aids, and writing such specialized forms
as abstracts, instructions, and proposals.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
o demonstrate knowledge of and familiarity with the nature of technical writing and the
qualities of technical style;
o apply the principles of letter writing various types of technical communications
o demonstrate a knowledge of writing various types of short reports;
o gather, analyze, and organize needed data for writing a formal research report;
o use graphics effectively in required technical documents;
o analyze writing situations to understand your audiences and your purposes for writing
o create documents that fulfill your purposes and your audiences needs
o develop skills with technologies like email, computer graphics, and the web
Introduction
Technical-writing introduce you to some of the most important aspects of writing in the
world of science, technology, and businessin other words, the kind of writing that scientists,
nurses, doctors, computer specialists, government officials, engineers, and other such people do
as a part of their regular work.
To learn how to write effectively for the world of work, you'll study common types of
reports, special format items such as lists and headings, simple techniques for putting graphics
into reports, and some techniques for producing professional-looking final copy.
However, the focus for technical-writing is not necessarily career as a technical writer
but an introduction to the kinds of writing skills you need in practically any technically oriented
professional job. No matter what sort of professional work you do, you're likely to do lots of
writingand much of it technical in nature. The more you know about some basic technical-
writing skills, which are covered in this guide and in technical-writing courses, the better job of
writing you're likely to do. And that will be good for the projects you work on, for the
organizations you work in, andmost of allgood for you and your career.
Characteristics of Technical Writing
Technical writing presents and explains a subject matter in a clear, objective, accurate,
concise, and unemotional manner.
Technical writing uses a relatively high concentration of certain complex and important
writing techniques particularly description of a mechanism, description of process, clarification,
cause and effect, comparison and contrast, analogy and interpretation.
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Technical writing highly utilizes technical vocabulary. It utilizes tables, graphs and
figures to clarify and support textual discussion. It uses the conventional report forms.
Purpose of Technical Writing
The following are the primary purposes of technical writing.
1. To inform
It is written to make another person understand or to do something. It is designed to fulfil
a need to tell and a need to know.
2. To analyze events and their implications
It will explain how certain systems failed. This system may include education,
socioeconomic, political and the needed change.
3. To persuade and influence decisions
It will show how a business or an industry succeeds.
Technical writing is ideally characterized by the maintenance of impartiality and
objectivity, by extreme care to convey information accurately and concisely and by the absence
of any attempt to arouse emotions.
Functions of Technical Writing
Below are the functions of Technical Writing:
1. To serve as a basis for management decision
2. To furnish needed information.
3. To give instructions
4. To explain techniques
5. To report achievements
6. To analyze problem areas
7. To determine design and system requirements
8. To serve as a basis for public relation
9. To provide report to stockholders of companies
10. To develop a product
11. To provide service
12. To record business through proposals
13. To procure business through proposals

5 Basic Principles of Good Technical Writing
1. Understanding the reader
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2. Knowing the purpose of each article or report
3. Knowing the subject matter
4. Organizing the material
5. Writing objectively
6. Using correct format
7. Adopting ethical standards

5.1 Understanding the Reader
A basic consideration in technical writing is to know the target audience. The technical writer
should know how to adapt his writings and terminologies of the type of the intended audience or
readers. Difficult technical terms used must be carefully defined so that the reader will easily
understand the information being presented. If the reader fails to understand what he reads, the
writer fails in his mission. The technical writers should know how important his readers are. The
target readers help the writer to know what to write about and how to write it.
5.2 Knowing the Purpose of Each Technical Report
The technical paper must be organized around a central theme. The reader should understand
the main purpose after reading the paper. The purpose maybe is to describe a thing, to report on a
specific problem or project, or to analyze and solve a problem.
5.3 Knowing the Subject Matter
A technical writer must have a thorough knowledge of the subject he is to write about. If the
report is on the result of a technical experiment, the writer who writes the report should explain
what the problem is all about, what causes the problem and how the problem is solved.
5.4 Writing Objectively
A good technical writer must emphasize the facts and the data. The impersonal style is basic
to an effective technical writer. He represents facts, figures and statistics skillfully woven around
the subject matter or central theme and written in an impersonal manner.
5.5 Using Correct Format
The format and style of a report attract the attention of the readers first. Companies require
neatly-typed communications, reports and project proposals and feasibility studies. The current
trends require that such communication be computerized or typed.

5.6 Adopting Ethical Standards
A technical writer should undertake comprehensive research work; accumulate the
required data through interviews, surveys, referrals and related publications. He must have to
present facts and figures as gathered and required, using only those that are pertinent to the
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report. A good technical writer also acknowledges the help he receives from others and cities
sources of reference materials.
Style in Technical Writing
Style is the writers way of writing, a manner in which he expresses his thoughts and
feelings in a language. Below are guidelines for clear technical writing.
1. Be selective, focus on the essential information and the significant details.
2. Develop a clean, direct style; avoid inflated language and scrambling sentences.
3. Use examples and comparisons to clarify descriptions and explanations.
4. Repeat words and phrases for clarify or emphasis or to ease transitions, but avoid
needless repetitions.
5. Delete unnecessary words and phrases, but avoid short cuts that sacrifice meaning.

Sentence Structure and Length
Technical writing should use the natural word order, simple sentence structure and good
short sentences. Since technical subject matter requires the use of complex, technical vocabulary
and the expression of complex ideas, the use of shorter words and sentences, simple in structures,
will help a lot in the readability of difficulty material.
Paragraph Structure and Length
In technical writing, the topic sentence should come first in the paragraph or at the very
latest part after whatever transitional sentences appear. Sometimes the writer does the opposite
by giving the details at the beginning and then concludes by stating the main idea. The use of one
or more very short paragraphs achieves an especially forceful effect.
Scientific Attitude
Judicious weighing of evidence is very important in a technical report. The best evidence
is one which is the most ample, the most pertinent and the simplest in explaining the facts with
the least additional evidence and most in harmony with the rest of the available evidence. The
conclusion or recommendation should include all evidences in which the judgment is made.
The technical writer must know when he would say enough, and not overwrite. As a
writer of his materials, he should know what to present, what to amplify, what to rewrite and
what to emphasize.
Generalization
When the technical writer makes generalizations, he is giving probable conclusions
derived from the observation of factors. Since the report is based on generalizations, it is
necessary to describe the circumstances surrounding the report. Provide enough evidence, data
and samples to enable the reader to evaluate the generalizations for himself.
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To be certain that you have followed ground rules and not Jumping to conclusions, test
the validity of your data and samples. Here is the suggested checklist (Nem Singh and Calixihan
1994)
1. Can I prove its accuracy?
2. Can I show the direct bond between the facts and generalizations?
3. Is it fact and not opinion?
4. Do I have all the facts?
5. Are they up to date?
6. Is the generalization verifiable? Would I get the same result it I do it again?
7. Is it significant?
The principles to be observed in organizing the material as cited by Alvarez (1980) are as
follows:
1. To organize the material of a subject, first break it down into the component aspects.
2. To organize a report or paper, choose a suitable approach and make an outline that
implements it.
3. The basic unit of organization is the paragraph.
4. Use these paragraphs to present related data, graphs to show trends and visual to clarify
description.
5. Plan a report or paper thoroughly before starting to write it.
6. Gather the necessary data through basic library research and primary services.
7. Write a first draft.
8. Revise and rewrite as often as necessary
9. Write a final draft
10. Place footnotes to acknowledge references and include a bibliography at the end of a
report or paper.

Other attributes of good technical report writing are:
1. appropriateness
2. functional
3. informative
4. factual
5. efficient
6. correct

Hallmarks of an Effective Technical Writer
The hallmarks of an effective technical writer is represented by this
acronym REPORTER (Mosura and Tenorio, 1999)
R - Resourceful
E - Energetic
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P - Patient
O - Observant
R - Responsible
T - Trustworthy
E - Evaluative
R - Responsive

The Holistic Guide to Technical Writing
For effective technical writing, the ABCs of report writing given by (Zall 1980) can be
considered in-depth.
Accuracy
A report writer must be tactful in the recording of data, statement or calculating
mathematical figures. He must check every statement in its final form. An error committed and
an illogical statement written can create confusion as well as doubts over the whole text. A writer
should always aim to be understood.
Brevity
Being brief is a courtesy to the reader. The reader should find it easy to group the main
idea of the report. In the same manner, accuracy of the statements can easily be maintained. The
reader can get the essence of your thinking in a compressed form.
Confidence
A good report writer must have the quality of self-confidence. He cannot only
communicate but he has to be also decisive or sure of what he is writing about. After finishing
the last page of his report, he is an authority.
Dignity
Dignity is courtesy to your readers as professionals. This is an ethical standard. The
writer must be certain that all grammatical constructions are correct. In report writing, you need
to be formal with words and how these words are used. You should be sure that the ideas or
information are well organized, simplified, summarized and expressed in straightforward
manner.
Facility
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This refers to the devices used by the writer, to make his report easy to read and
understand. In most cases, report writing depends more on pacing, sequence, arrangement and
continuity of ideas as well as information. A grammatical correction is important. He should
make his writing straightforward, logical and clear. The thought from one part to another should
be clearly established, illustrated or stated.
Emphasis
The writer has to feel what is important to the reader and should never expect how the
reader finds it out for himself. He has to lead him from point to point, clearly marking every step,
directs the reader to the right way and gives him the reason for stopping at a particular portion.
Honesty
Honesty is expected in a report. When a writer has borrowed some statements, ideas or
quotations, he has to acknowledge them either in footnotes, endnotes or cite the source or author
of the borrowed ideas or statements within the running text.
Illustration
Illustration materials such as charts, graphs, diagram and photos are always helpful. The
writer should use them to clarify and support the text. They can be used to show situations or
trend or movement.
Judgement
The writer should qualify the date and information gathered by judicious weighing. This
can be done by the following these criteria:
1.) Most ample
2.) Most pertinent or relevant
3.) The simplest in explaining the facts with the least additional evidence
4.) Most harmonious with the rest of the data and information.
In every case, the evidence used as a basis of judgement (as in conclusions and
recommendations) should be included in the report.
Knowledge
The communication of knowledge is the primary objective of the report, but knowledge is
not only a collection of data or information. It involves interpretation and information of
conclusions. Without sound interpretation, the data will become useless.
Logic
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Logic is chiefly a process or classification. It is putting things in their proper places. It
shows the relations among groups of things and classes of groups. By thinking logically, one can
avoid the following trouble areas:
1.) Statements must not contradict each other.
2.) Words must be used in consistent sense
3.) Statements must move in one direction whether space, time or relation.
4.) Statements must make sense.
5.) Judgements must not be based on few data.
6.) Cause and effect should be clearly distinguished from simple sequence.
7.) Conclusions should not be inferred if they have no connections with the data.
8.) An authority should not be accepted if he is biased or he is not an expert in the particular
field.
Mechanical Neatness
This is the general appearance of the report. It must be neatly encoded or typed, properly
margined, free from typographical errors, erasures crossing-outs and smudges.
Headings and subheadings and indentions are mechanical devices, which help make the
organization of the content clear.
Normal Procedure
The report is easier to understand if it conforms to the standards practices. The writer
must follow the acceptable arrangement of the different parts of a report. If the writer deviates
from the normal procedure, he should inform his readers by explaining his reasons for doing it.
Objectivity
In technical writing, the writer should consider himself as another person, uninterested
observer or an innocent bystander. In this instance, the third person point of view is preferred.
The writer should treat his subject matter the way he sees or observes it. Technical reports avoid
the use of the first person (I,me,my).
Planning
This is primary in all activities. This gives the purpose and directions to what the
technical writer has to write. This involves thinking ahead of what one has to do, when to do it
and who is to do it. This will be reflected in a well-organized report.
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Qualification
The technical writer should select only those statements that have direct relationship with
the topic being discussed. The writer should evaluate the ideas or statements he will include in
the writing of the report.
Revision
This consists of more than merely correcting the spelling, punctuations, spacing and
margin errors. The writer must also check every statement for sense and relevance and be sure
that he has said all that must be said. An effective report is all that is require to perfection. The
secret of good writing is rewriting.
Straight Sentences
Sentences carry the full weight of the meaning in a report. The sentence to be employed
must be limited to only one idea or to closely related ideas. To avoid monotony, vary your
sentence structure and employ appropriate transitional devices. By employing such devices, there
will be a smooth transition from sentence to sentence. They will show the readers the writers
thoughts leading him to what the writer wants to communicate.
Thoroughness
The writer should treat well his subject matter. The writer should check the thoroughness
of his report from initial thinking to final submission. The writer is obliged to go over the
subject, analyze and investigate it, organize and interpret the results and draw conclusions
whether it is positive or negative.
Unity
A report is unified when everything is clearly relevant to the main point under discussion.
Nothing should be left hanging. No question should be left unanswered. After all, the main
objective of a unified report is to let the readers feel that they have read everything essential to
the subject undertaken.
Viewpoint
A report is written from a certain viewpoint: that of a reporter, proponent, researcher or
an author. The viewpoint is established in the first sentence and should be maintained
consistently throughout the report. Voice unity should also be observed.
Word Choice
The writer should choose the words that are fit to the readers understanding. Avoid
words which are difficult to understand.
Zest
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Write only about things that are worth writing and which are invigorating. Write as
though you were performing a service that only you can perform. Writing should not be regarded
as something difficult but something that is enjoyable and pleasurable.
The important end products of technical writing:
1. Technical Report
2. Abstract
3. Feasibility Report
4. Business Letter
5. Brochure
6. Contract
7. Instructional Manual
8. Proposal
9. Progress Report
10. Policy
11. Article for a Technical Journal
12. Monograph
13. Memorandum
14. Graphic Aids
15. Specification
16. Printed Action Memo
17. Survey Report
18. Letter Report
19. Laboratory Report
20. Technical Paper

Technical Report
This provides useful information about a complete program of work, for reference and
permanent record.
Contract
This is a formal agreement between two or more persons; organization or parties to do
something on mutually agreed terms.
Feasibility Report
This represents facts and information intended to make the reader realize that the
proposed project or plan is financially, economically, and technically, significant as well as
beneficial.
Business Letter
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This is written communication or message used to transact business which cannot be
conveniently conducted orally.
Brochure
This is pamphlet or printed information material given to a customer in order to convince
or persuade him to take action on the companys services, ideas or products offered.
Abstract
This is a summarized form of resume of a long piece of writing.
Instructional Manual
This contains directions for work procedure or policies, or for the use of technical
equipment or appliances. Instruction relies on clear, specific, complete directions presented in
sequential order. Directions of complicated step-by-step procedures should be accompanied by
graphic illustration.
Proposal
This contains suggestions for actions, usually involving change or performance. It may be
solve a problem, suggest a new project site, revise a policy or initiate a researcher report project
or terminate a project.
Progress Report
This contains an account of what has been accomplished on a project over a specific
period of time and what may be expected in the next period.
Policy
A plan of action adopted or preserved by an individual, government, party business and
industry or it may be a document containing a contract of insurance.
Articles for a Technical Journal
A technical paper which will be published in a journal. It contains an abstract , an
introduction, discussion and summarizing, concluding sentence or paragraph.
Monograph
This is a thorough textbook treatment which requires full illustration and documentation.
Memorandum
This is an important form of written communication circulated within the company and
its branches which is used to disseminate a message or information.
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Graphic Aids
This refers to all pictures, graphs, diagrams and other materials used in illustrating
important details in a report.
Specification
This contains detailed information about performance courses, materials for construction,
theory of operations, sample calculations, table and operating data and information.
Printed Action Memo
This prepared form requires only a check mark in an appropriate square to indicate its
message.
Survey Report
This is a thorough study of any subject. Some subjects of surveys are potential markets
from products, labor policies, market punctuation, public opinions and community resources.
Examples are poll surveys on the study of a possible site for a new plant.
Trip Report
An account of a business or professional trip. It records specific and significant places,
events, conversations and people met. It attempts to answer where, when , what ,why and how
also. It may have recommendation section.
Laboratory Report
A record of procedures and results of laboratory test. It describes the scope of a project,
the equipment utilized, the procedures used, the results of test and the conclusion and
recommendation.
Technical Paper
A research paper written for a professional journal or magazine. Technical papers usually
describe a theory or new development. They assemble technical reports in the most respects. The
main difference lies on the fact that the audience for a technical paper is wider and more diverse.
Communication
Communication is one of the basic functions of management in a firm and its importance
in a business cannot be taken for granted. One cannot have good human relations with his
colleagues if communication is not effective. If the relationship of the boss or employee with his
colleagues is harmonious, then it can be said that the business relationship is also good and will
result to a successful business.
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Channels of Communication (Structures)
1. Formal communications follows the same line of organizational chart.
2. Informal communications is an unstructured from which the lines change as the personal
relationships among the members of the organizational change.

Considering a company or firms organizational set-up or chart is helpful in determining
the proper channels of communication. The illustration below provides the basic communication
lines in a functional management.
Based on the figure above, the communication flow is from the rank-and-file employees
to the staff management, from the administration to the top management.
3 Importance of written communication
As mentioned in the previous paragraph, communication may be verbal or written. In
verbal or oral communication, listeners can make out what the speakers are trying to say, but in
written communication, it will be difficult for the reader to decipher what the writer really means
in his letter if it is with errors. Whatever the writer writes in his letter is a reflection of his
thinking. It is possible for a speaker to correct any mistake while speaking, but a writer cannot
take back what he has already written. Therefore, one should keep in mind that a written
communication or message should be clear, purposeful and concise with correct words, to avoid
any misinterpretation of the message.
These are the merits of written communication:
1. Written communication can be filed, therefore providing a permanent record for future
use.
2. It gives an opportunity to employees and all people in the workplace to put up their
comments or suggestions in writing.
3. The manager or any employee can also read back to check information in case he forgets
important details.
4. It is easier to remember information that is read compared to one that is heard.
5. It serves as an evidence of what has occurred or taken place.
6. Written communication can be duplicated or photocopied.
7. It can be distributed to a number of individuals at one time.
8. It reduces the chances of the misinterpreting the information if properly written

Direction of Communication in Business
The types of communication that one writes must consider the direction of a
communication which can be
1.) downward (to subordinates)
2.) upward (to supervisors)
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3.) lateral (to peers)
4.) outward (to customer, public interest group, stockholders, and government and others)
Downward communications flow is the usual movement of communication in an organization.
The message comes from a person of higher rank to a person of a rank or position lower than that
of the sender of the message.
o Addressed to employees and technicians who are most concerned with how to increase
their productivity and their incomes.
o Since they need to see how their jobs fit into the overall company operations, the writer
should explain as well as give directions.

For example, the manager sending letters to his subordinates or employees regarding a new
policy in the office that has to be immediately implemented.
Upward communications flow is the movement opposite that of the downward flow. The
message comes from any person of a lower rank to a person of a higher rank.
o Are usually addressed to managers and supervisors who are often busy.
o The communication should be concise and direct.
o They need thorough information.
o The definition of technical terms and brief summary of the whole communication are
needed to save reading time.
o
For example, a clerk writing his boss to ask for further instructions or an employee asking a
manager for a raise in pay. This type of flow keeps the manager aware of how employees feel
about their jobs, co-workers or the company in general.
Lateral communications flow is one where the message is between or among employees of the
same rank or members of a work group of the same level.
o Is addressed to peers who may share the writers expertise in the field.
o It may be ideas or projects that affect their own research or jobs .
o Since one cannot invade a peers territory, the tone should only suggest not command.
o If the reader shares with the writers professional background, then the technical writer is
concerned with the technical vocabulary, symbols and abbreviations need not be used.

For example, All branch managers of a fast food chain in the university belt in Manila will meet
to come up with promotions to boost their sales.
Outward communications flow is another type or direction of communication. In this type, the
company communicates or transact business with other companies or firm.
o Go outside the company and the techniques of upward communication are used.
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o These are a group of busy people, so that what they need is a communication that is
simple, with the terms defined and a thorough discussion of facts and ideas.
o Potential customers want to know the cost, use and durability of the products.
o The public wants information on how ones ideas will affect the environment or the
economy, and the stockholders want to know whether the organization is conforming to
government regulations or how it affects the natural economy.

For example, SM corporation transacting business with Ayala Corporation regarding the
formers intention of becoming business partners with the latter.
Grapevine is another type of communication flow. This is not an accepted nor adopted system
of communication in the business world. The dictionary gives us a definition for the grapevine as
the informal transmission of information, gossip or rumor from one person to another.
The grapevine therefore, is the informal and unsanctioned information network within
every organization. Since it is unstructured and not under complete control of management; it
moves through the organization in every direction . Like the real grapevine, it moves vertically
upward, downward, horizontally and diagonally, within the company. It does not follow any
chain of command as what is observed in formal communication, and messages are transmitted
between workers and managers, from one department to another department and even within or
outside of the company.
However, not all communications go in one direction. Sometimes , the readers can be combined.
For instance, if one publishes a technical article in a research journal, the communication goes
outside of the company and it also addresses ones peers in the profession. If one writes a letter
to the President or Manager of another company, the communication goes outward as well as
upward. So to analyze the readers, one must be sure to know the direction of the communication.
Activity 1
MULTIPLE CHOICE
Directions: Give the principle of technical writing that is described by each of the following
statements. Choose with the given choices.
1. What principle does it describe when Writing should not be regarded as something difficult
but something that is enjoyable and pleasurable?
a. Using correct format c. Understanding the reader
b. Writing objectively d. Know the purpose of each article
2. The technical writing principle describes that writing should more than the checking of the
spelling, punctuations marks, spacing and margins.
a. Using correct format c. Writing objectively
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b. Know the purpose of each article d. Understanding the reader
3. Principle of technical writing must be maintained consistently throughout the report because it
is important to;
a. Know the purpose of each article c. Using correct format
b. Writing objectively d. Understanding the reader

4. The principle of technical writing must follow the proper margin, free from typographical
errors and erasures
a. Know the purpose of each article c. Using correct format
b. Writing objectively d. Understanding the reader
5. This is the principle of technical writing when the writer is sure that he said enough to satisfy
the readers needs and he has realized his objectives.
a. Using correct format c. Understanding the reader
b. Writing objectively d. Know the purpose of each article

MIDTERM
Literary Writing and Technical Writing
Literary writing differs from technical writing in different aspects such as purpose,
subject matter, language, point of view, tone, style, content, use of visual aids, and
organization .Generally speaking, both attempt to furnish information on how they could be
used as permanent record for later reference. Nevertheless, they differ in many ways.
The primary purpose of literary writing is to entertain or amuse the reader, while
technical writing aims to provide useful information. The other purpose of literary writing are :
to suggest the writers message, to impart a lesson and to broaden a persons outlook. Technical
writing purports to convey the writers ideas directly, to give directions and to serve as a basis
for decision making.
The subject matter of literary writing focuses on mans experience and life including
the intricacies of the human heart whereas technical writing deals with subject related to business
industry, science and technology.
The language of literary writing is figurative and uses the imaginary vocabulary. The
words and expressions used are beautifully and rhythmically interwoven to produce a poetic
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interpretation of life. Technical writing makes use of formal and serious technical or scientific
terminologies suited for its purposes and style.
In literary writing, the writer may use the first or the third person point of view or even
from the point of view of the observer known as the third person omniscient but the technical
writer usually employs the third person point of view: the researcher, the proponent, the author
or the writer.
The tone of literary writing is personal, subjective and definitely emotional, however
in technical writing; the tone is predominantly objective, impersonal and unbiased.
Style. Literary works adopt complicated and sophisticated styles while technical
writing utilizes standard forms or preconceived designs and little variations from the standards
form.
Content. While technical writing deals with a lot of topics, nontechnical writing
contains specialized topics for selected types of audience. Moreover, the contents of literary
works are suggestive and creative while technical writing does not only tell you outright the
information needed but also limits interpretation to one. In short, literature is usually dramatic
and imaginative while technical writing is factual, impersonal and free from emotions and
distortions.
Use of Visual Aids. Literature seldom employs visual aids since the literary writer is
armed with words that can fully narrate or describe what he wants to put across. On the other
hand, technical writing uses visual aids such as tables, drawings, graphs, charts, and others to
facilitate comprehension of statistics and interpretation of data.
Organization. Technical writing observes coherence and an orderly presentation of
facts while non-technical writing can deviate from the usual presentation of events. It adopts a
flashback style to attract readers attention and achieve a literary effect.
The main activities for technical writing
As you can see, the main activities for technical writing are:
1. Planning
2. Gathering information
3. Drafting
4. Revising
5. Editing
Under each main activity are several preliminary activities. Planning and gathering
information are your pre-writing activities. Under planning, brainstorm with a several group to
enable you to explore different topics. As you brainstorm with your peers, jot down all the ideas
given by everybody in the group. Do not reject nor discuss any idea. Give everyone the
opportunity to suggest a possible topic for your writing task. The ideas need not to be expressed
in English. Neither should you require your members to give only grammatically correct
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statements. In fact, no explanation is necessary as each searches his or her brain for possible
topics. The process requires as many ideas as the group can generate; thus, nobody should refrain
from contributing an idea or a topic. Then, narrow down your choices to those topics which you
and your group members believe you can effectively write about. Show your list to your
professor to know which topics are most relevant and useful to you and your peers.
Before proceeding to the next step, you must decide on your purpose. Are you going to provide
your readers information to help them make a decision? Will you simply share information that
you believe will interest your readers? Perhaps, you might want to instruct them or recommend a
worthwhile plan. Whatever your purpose is, think of your target readers and anticipate their own
purpose. It is important that your purposes should match.
What are some of the purposes of readers? Some may want to be guided as they make
decisions; some may just want to be informed; others may want to follow directions or to learn
processes; and a few may just be interested to enrich their knowledge.
During the pre-writing stage and before you even locate your sources, you must also ask yourself
these questions:
1) Will the information be beneficial to the readers?
2) What do they already know about the topic?
The notes that you have gathered from your brainstorming sessions with your group
mates, your discussion with your peers and professors, and your lecture notes should be your
guide in locating sources. The Internet is a good source of summaries or digest of books and
journals, and other reference materials such as readings from the internet that can give you
insights about your topic. Write the complete titles of the books and journals you have chosen,
names of the authors, titles of articles, and publication data. All of these will be cited in your list
of references or bibliography. If you lift a phrase, a sentence, or a paragraph from any of your
sources, you should not fail to cite this in the text and in your bibliography.
Example of a lifted sentence:
Although one of the obvious characteristics of technical writing is its technical subject matter, it
would be very difficult to say precisely what a technical subject is (Mills,1981).
Although one of the obvious characteristics of technical writing is its technical subject matter, it
would be very difficult to say precisely what a technical subject is (Mills,1981).
After carefully going over your list, you are ready to group interrelated ideas. This procedure is
clustering. With this cluster of ideas, you can start to write your ideas; you can start to write your
first draft. This is now the writing stage. As soon as you have written your draft, ask again
yourself these questions:
1) Is the purpose clear?
2) Are the sentences coherent, logical, and grammatical?
3) Are there words which the readers might not understand?
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In practice, you might find yourself constantly revising whatever you are writing; thus,
you are drafting and revising at the same time. As you draft and revise, simply cross out the word
or phrases that you would like to change instead of using a liquid eraser because you might
change your mind and revert to your first choice. The time you need to finish a draft depends on
your content, your purpose, and your reader. For example, it takes a long time to finish a
research paper but it takes only a few minutes to write a personal letter.
You will find it useful to have your draft read and evaluated by your peers. Take note
of their comments and then write another draft. Another round of peer reading and evaluating
should follow. When you are finally satisfied with one anothers work, you are ready for the
editing process. These are the things you have to concentrate on:
1) Spelling
2) Errors in grammar
3) Sentences that need to be reworded or rephrased to make them clearer and more effective.
Examine closely the edited work and write another draft incorporating all the corrections.
Repeat the editing procedure until you are very much satisfied with your work. Remember that
the rule is: Edit until it is almost perfect.
If you patiently and consistently go through all these activities, you will find writing a
challenging and rewarding task.
Process
Prewriting
First, determine your objective with this assignment: What do you hope to accomplish
with your summary?
Second, gather your data. Try out one of the prewriting techniques listed in the chapter.
For example, you might want to construct a brainstorming list of all the ideas that come to your
mind regarding the value of the writing process.
Third, consider your audience. What are the expectations of your instructor who will be
reading this summary?
Writing
Look at the data you collected in the second part of your prewriting. Think of an
appropriate organizational strategy:
Problems/solutions Will your summary first describe the problems (writers block,
disorganization), and then show how specific parts of the writing process solve these problems?
Chronology Will your summary begin with the first step of the writing process (prewriting)
and move toward the last step (proofreading)?
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Importance Will you arrange your summary to begin with the most important section of the
writing process the rewriting stage?
Once youve determined an appropriate organizational strategy begin drafting your essay.
After you have a draft of your summary you should format your text so that your reader can
follow the document easily. Can you divide the text into different sections, each with its own
heading?
Rewriting
Let some time pass after the first draft of your summary, and then open up it on your
computer again. Now it is time to begin the most important stage of the writing process
revision. You want to make your summary as perfect as you can now. To do this, complete the
following rewriting steps:
o Add missing details to your summary
o Delete unnecessary words and phrases so your summary is concise
o Simplify unnecessarily complex words and phrases so that your summary is easier to
understand
o Move information around so that you are consistently following the organizational
strategy you chose in the writing stage
o Reformat by using highlighting techniques
o Enhance the tone and style of your summary by varying your sentence style and
incorporating transitional words and phrases
o Correct any errors in grammar, punctuation, or spelling

Proofreading
Though everyone has a unique proofreading process, there are some general strategies
that can be helpful to most writers. Begin improving your proofreading skills by trying out the
guidelines listed below.
General Strategies
o Take a break! Allow yourself sometime between writing and proofing. Even a five-
minute break is productive because it will help you get some distance from what you
have written. The goal is to return with a fresh eye and mind.
o Leave yourself enough time. Since many errors are made by speeding through writing
and proofreading, you should take your time to look over your writing carefully. This will
help you to catch errors you might otherwise miss. Always read through your writing
slowly. If you read at a normal speed, you won't give your eyes sufficient time to spot
errors.
o Read aloud. Reading a paper aloud encourages you to read every little word.
o Role-play. While reading, put yourself in your audience's shoes. Playing the role of the
reader encourages you to see the paper as your audience might.
21

o Get others involved. Asking a friend or a Writing Lab tutor to read your paper will let
you get another perspective on your writing and a fresh reader will be able to help you
catch mistakes that you might have overlooked.

Personalizing Proofreading
In addition to following the general guidelines above, individualizing your proofreading
process to your needs will help you proofread more efficiently and effectively. You won't be able
to check for everything (and you don't have to), so you should find out what your typical
problem areas are and look for each type of error individually. Here's how:
o Find out what errors you typically make. Review instructors' comments about your
writing and/or review your paper with a Writing Lab tutor.
o Learn how to fix those errors. Talk with your instructor and/or with a Writing Lab tutor.
The instructor and the tutor can help you understand why you make the errors you do so
that you can learn to avoid them.
o Use specific strategies. Use the strategies detailed on the following pages to find and
correct your particular errors in usage, sentence structure, and spelling and punctuation.

Finding Common Errors
Proofreading can be much easier when you know what you are looking for. Although everyone
will have different error patterns, the following are issues that come up for many writers. When
proofreading your paper, be on the lookout for these errors. Always remember to make note of
what errors you make frequentlythis will help you proofread more efficiently in the future!
Spelling
o Do NOT rely on your computer's spell-checkit will not get everything!
o Examine each word in the paper individually by reading carefully. Moving a pencil under
each line of text helps you to see each word.
o If necessary, check a dictionary to see that each word is spelled correctly.
o Be especially careful of words that are typical spelling nightmares, like "ei/ie" words and
homonyms like your/you're, to/too/two, and there/their/they're.

Left-out and doubled words
Reading the paper aloud (and slowly) can help you make sure you haven't missed or
repeated any words.
Fragment Sentences
o Make sure each sentence has a subject. In the following sentence, the subject is
"students": The students looked at the OWL website.
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o Make sure each sentence has a complete verb. In the following sentence, "were" is
required to make a complete verb; "trying" alone would be incomplete: They were trying
to improve their writing skills.
o See that each sentence has an independent clause; remember that a dependent clause
cannot stand on its own. The following sentence is a dependent clause that would qualify
as a fragment sentence: Which is why the students read all of the handouts carefully.
Run-on Sentences
o Review each sentence to see whether it contains more than one independent clause.
o If there is more than one independent clause, check to make sure the clauses is separated
by the appropriate punctuation.
o Sometimes, it is just as effective (or even more so) to simply break the sentence into
separate sentences instead of including punctuation to separate the clauses.

Example run-on: I have to write a research paper for my class about extreme sports all I know
about the subject is that I'm interested in it.
Edited version: I have to write a research paper for my class about extreme sports, and all I know
about the subject is that I'm interested in it.
Another option: I have to write a research paper for my class about extreme sports. All I know
about the subject is that I'm interested in it.
Comma Splices
o Look at the sentences that have commas.
o Check to see if the sentence contains two main clauses.
o If there are two main clauses, they should be connected with a comma and a conjunction
like and, but, for, or, so, yet.
o Another option is to take out the comma and insert a semicolon instead.

Example: I would like to write my paper about basketball, it's a topic I can talk about at length.
Edited version: I would like to write my paper about basketball because it's a topic I can talk
about at length.
Edited version, using a semicolon: I would like to write my paper about basketball; it's a topic I
can talk about at length.
Subject/Verb Agreement
o Find the subject of each sentence.
o Find the verb that goes with the subject.
o The subject and verb should match in number, meaning that if the subject is plural, the
verb should be as well and vice versa.
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Example: Students at the university level usually is very busy.
Edited version: Students at the university level usually are very busy.
Mixed construction
Read through your sentences carefully to make sure that they do not start with one sentence
structure and shift to another. A sentence that does this is called a mixed construction.
Example: Since I have a lot of work to do is why I can't go out tonight.
Edited version: Since I have a lot of work to do, I can't go out tonight.
Parallelism
Look through your paper for series of items and make sure these items are in parallel form.
Example: Being a good friend involves good listening skills, to be considerate, and that you
know how to have fun.
Edited version: Being a good friend involves knowing how to listen, being considerate, and
having fun.
Pronoun Reference/Agreement
o Skim your paper, stopping at each pronoun.
o Search for the noun that the pronoun replaces.
o If you can't find any noun, insert one beforehand or change the pronoun to a noun.
o If you can find a noun, be sure it agrees in number and person with your pronoun.

Apostrophes
o Skim your paper, stopping only at those words which end in "s." If the "s" is used to
indicate possession, there should be an apostrophe, as in Mary's book.
o Look over the contractions, like you're for you are, it's for it is, etc. Each of these should
include an apostrophe.
o Remember that apostrophes are not used to make words plural. When making a word
plural, only an "s" is added, not an apostrophe and an "s."

4 Suggestions for Proofreading Your Paper
One of the most difficult parts of the writing process is proofreading. It is easy for us to
see what we want to see, not necessarily what our readers will see. These suggestions should
help you take a step back and view your writing more objectively.
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Read your Paper Aloud
Any time your text is awkward or confusing, or any time you have to pause or reread
your text, revise this section. If it is at all awkward for you, you can bet it will be awkward for
your reader.
Examine your Paragraphs
Examine the overall construction of your paragraphs, looking specifically at length,
supporting sentence(s), and topic sentence. Individual paragraphs that are significantly lacking
length or sufficient supporting information as well as those missing a topic sentence may be a
sign of a premature or under-developed thought.
Track Frequent Errors
Keep track of errors that you make frequently. Ask your teacher or visit the Writing Lab
for assistance in eliminating these errors.
Revising for Cohesion
This material (adapted from Style: Ten Lessons in Clarity and Grace, by Joseph
Williams) will help students revise sentences for cohesion.
Two Principles
Begin sentences with short, simple words and phrases that a) communicate information
that appeared in previous sentences, or b) build on knowledge that you share with your reader.
o In a paragraph, keep your topics short and reasonably consistent.

Exercise: Diagnosis, Analysis, Revision
Diagnosis
1. Underline the first few words of every sentence in a paragraph, ignoring short
introductory phrases such as "In the beginning," or "For the most part."
2. If you can, underline the first few words of every clause.

Analysis
1. Read your underlined words. Is there a consistent series of related topics?
2. Will your reader see these connections among the topics?
3. Decide what you will focus on in each paragraph.
4. Imagine that the passage has a title. The words in the title should identify what should be
the topics of most of the sentences.

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Revision
1. In most sentences, make the topics the subject of verbs.
2. Put most of the subjects at the beginning of your sentences. Avoid hiding your topic by
opening sentences with long introductory clauses or phrases.

Sample Passage
Topics are crucial for readers because readers depend on topics to focus their attention on
particular ideas toward the beginning of sentences. Topics tell readers what a whole passage is
"about." If readers feel that a sequence of topics is coherent, then they will feel they are moving
through a paragraph from a cumulatively coherent point of view. But if throughout the paragraph
readers feel that its topics shift randomly, then they have to begin each sentence out of context,
from no coherent point of view. When that happens, readers feel dislocated, disoriented, and out
of focus.
Questions to Ask Yourself as You Revise
Sentences
Do your sentences "hang together?"
1. Readers must feel that they move easily from one sentence to the next, that each sentence
"coheres" with the one before and after it.
2. Readers must feel that sentences in a paragraph are not just individually clear, but are
unified with each other.

Does the sentence begin with information familiar to the reader?
Does the sentence end with interesting information the reader would not anticipate?
Paragraphs
Will your reader be able to identify quickly the "topic" of each paragraph?
Note: it is easier to see coherence and clarity in other people's writing. Why? Because by the
time we reach a final draft, everything we write seems old to us. Improving on this takes
practice.
Steps for Revising Your Paper
When you have plenty of time to revise, use the time to work on your paper and to take
breaks from writing. If you can forget about your draft for a day or two, you may return to it with
a fresh outlook. During the revising process, put your writing aside at least twice - once during
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the first part of the process, when you are reorganizing your work, and once during the second
part, when you are polishing and paying attention to details.
Use the following questions to evaluate your drafts. You can use your responses to revise
your papers by reorganizing them to make your best points stand out, by adding needed
information, by eliminating irrelevant information, and by clarifying sections or sentences.
Find your main point.
What are you trying to say in the paper? In other words, try to summarize your thesis, or
main point, and the evidence you are using to support that point. Try to imagine that this paper
belongs to someone else. Does the paper have a clear thesis? Do you know what the paper is
going to be about?
I dentify your readers and your purpose.
What are you trying to do in the paper? In other words, are you trying to argue with the
reading, to analyze the reading, to evaluate the reading, to apply the reading to another situation,
or to accomplish another goal?
Evaluate your evidence.
Does the body of your paper support your thesis? Do you offer enough evidence to
support your claim? If you are using quotations from the text as evidence, did you cite them
properly?
Save only the good pieces.
Do all of the ideas relate back to the thesis? Is there anything that doesn't seem to fit? If
so, you either need to change your thesis to reflect the idea or cut the idea.
Tighten and clean up your language.
Do all of the ideas in the paper make sense? Are there unclear or confusing ideas or
sentences? Read your paper out loud and listen for awkward pauses and unclear ideas. Cut out
extra words, vagueness, and misused words.
Eliminate mistakes in grammar and usage.
Do you see any problems with grammar, punctuation, or spelling? If you think something
is wrong, you should make a note of it, even if you don't know how to fix it. You can always talk
to a Writing Lab tutor about how to correct errors.
Switch from Writer-Centered to Reader-Centered
Try to detach yourself from what you've written; pretend that you are reviewing someone
else's work. What would you say is the most successful part of your paper? Why? How could
this part be made even better? What would you say is the least successful part of your paper?
Why? How could this part be improved?
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Summary
Proofreading is primarily about searching your writing for errors, both grammatical and
typographical, before submitting your paper for an audience (a teacher, a publisher, etc.). Use
this resource to help you find and fix common errors.
Process
Prewriting
Your job as a writer certainly would be easier if you could simply give the client new
dryers, but this is against company policy when the warranty has expired. To make sure you
cover all aspects of the issue, its helpful to answer some of the reporters questions before you
begin drafting your letter:
o Who is your audience?
o Why are you writing?
o What is the basic problem that needs to be covered?
o What do you want the reader to do now? What can your company do?
o How can this problem be avoided in the future?

After you have written answers to these questions, begin writing your letter.
Writing
Study your prewriting and begin formulating ideas for an organizational strategy. A
problems/solutions pattern might seem to work, but the client already is aware of the problem,
and he might not feel your solution of no replacement is truly a solution. If you used the order-
of-importance strategy, you would have to begin your letter by immediately denying the client
the replacement since that really is the key point of your letter. Such an approach is likely to
make the reader combative from the first sentence. In a later chapter, you will learn that bad
news letters typically lead up to the bad news. Therefore, think of a nicer way of opening your
letter than with an immediate denial of his request. Perhaps you could discuss the generally good
service record of your dryers and why the one-year warranty is in place. You may want to
suggest that the client first investigate repairing the dryers before completely replacing them.
Once you have organized the basic plan for your letter, draft it quickly. Dont worry too
much about tone or grammar now. Save those concerns for the rewriting stage.
Rewriting
The primary goal of this activity is to see how well you can follow some of the advice in the
Audience Involvement. With that in mind, use the rewriting stage to focus on the following:
o Have you personalized your correspondence with pronoun usage?
o Have you referred to the client by name in the letter?
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o Have you used contractions to give your letter a conversational tone?
o Is it possible for the client to feel he is benefiting?
o What positive words can you use with this negative situation?

Determining your Audience Type
Writers determine their audience types by considering:
o Who they are (age, sex, education, economic status, political/social/religious beliefs);
o What Level of Information they have about the subject (novice, general reader,
specialist or expert);
o The Context in which they will be reading a piece of writing (in a newspaper, textbook,
popular magazine, specialized journal, on the Internet, and so forth).

You'll need to analyze your audience in order to write effectively.
2.1 Three categories of audience are the "lay" audience, the "managerial" audience, and
the "experts."
The "lay" audience has no special or expert knowledge. They connect with the human interest
aspect of articles. They usually need background information; they expect more definition and
description; and they may want attractive graphics or visuals.

The "managerial audience may or may have more knowledge than the lay audience about the
subject, but they need knowledge so they can make a decision about the issue. Any background
information, facts, statistics needed to make a decision should be highlighted.

The "experts" may be the most demanding audience in terms of knowledge, presentation, and
graphics or visuals. Experts are often "theorists" or "practitioners." For the "expert" audience,
document formats are often elaborate and technical, style and vocabulary may be specialized or
technical, source citations are reliable and up-to-date, and documentation is accurate.
Appropriate Language: Overview
When writing, it is very important to use language that fits your audience and matches purpose.
Inappropriate language uses can damage your credibility, undermine your argument, or alienate
your audience. This handout will cover some of the major issues with appropriate language use:
levels of language formality, deceitful language and Euphemisms, slang and idiomatic
expressions; using group-specific jargon; and biased/stereotypical language.
The following is a short overview of the different aspects of using appropriate language.
Review the other sections of this handout for a more complete discussion.
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1. Levels of Formality: Write in a style that your audience expects and that fits your
purpose is key to successful writing.
2. In-Group Jargon: Jargon refers to specialized language used by groups of like-minded
individuals. Only use in-group jargon when you are writing for members of that group.
You should never use jargon for a general audience without first explaining it.
3. Slang and idiomatic expressions: Avoid using slang or idiomatic expressions in general
academic writing.
4. Deceitful language and Euphemisms: Avoid using euphemisms (words that veil the
truth, such as "collateral damage" for the unintended destruction of civilians and their
property) and other deceitful language.
5. Biased language: Avoid using any biased language including language with a racial,
ethnic, group, or gender bias or language that is stereotypical.
4 Levels of Formality
The level of formality you write with should be determined by the expectations of your
audience and your purpose. For example, if you are writing a cover letter for a job application or
a college academic essay, you would write in a formal style. If you are writing a letter to a friend,
writing something personal, or even writing something for a humorous or special interest
magazine when informal writing is expected, you would use a more informal style. Formality
exists on a scalein the example below, a letter of application to a known colleague can result in
a semi-formal style.
Here is an example:
Formal (Written to an unknown audience): I am applying for the receptionist position
advertised in the local paper. I am an excellent candidate for the job because of my significant
secretarial experience, good language skills, and sense of organization.
Semi-formal (Written to a well-known individual): I am applying for the receptionist position
that is currently open in the company. As you are aware, I have worked as a temporary employee
with your company in this position before. As such, I not only have experience and knowledge of
this position, but also already understand the company's needs and requirements for this job.
Informal (Incorrect): Hi! I read in the paper that ya'll were looking for a receptionist. I think
that I am good for that job because I've done stuff like it in the past, am good with words, and am
incredibly well organized.
Group Jargon
The term "jargon" refers to any in-group or specialized language used by small groups of
like-minded individuals. This terminology is usually specialized to the function of the group, and
will be used by and among group members as a sign of belonging, status, and for keeping out
outsiders.
For example, individuals who study linguistics will use words like quantifier, voiceless
labiodental fricative, diglossia, intensifier, minimal pairand metonymy. To non-linguists, these
words have different meanings or no meanings at all.
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When making the choice of what vocabulary to use, you should first and foremost
consider the audience that you are addressing:
If you are writing for a general audience (even an general academic audience) you should
avoid using in-group jargon without explanations. Overloading your audience with words they
do not understand will not help you achieve your purpose.
For example, if you are writing a paper explaining concepts in linguistics to an audience of non-
linguists, you might introduce and explain a few important terms. But you wouldn't use those
terms without an explanation or in a way your audience wouldn't understand.
If, however, you are writing to an in-group audience you will want to use group-specific
jargon. Not using the jargon when it is expected by your audience can signal to the audience that
you are not a member of that group or have not mastered the group's terminology. This will most
likely damage your credibility and interfere with your purpose in writing.
For example, if you are writing a conference paper for a group of linguists or a term paper for a
college-level linguistics course, you should use in-group jargon to help show that you understand
the concepts and can discuss them in ways other linguists can.
Slang and Idiomatic Expressions
You should avoid using slang (words like y'all, yinz, cool) or idiomatic expressions ("pull
someone's leg", "spill the beans", and "something smells fishy") in formal academic writing.
These words make your writing sound informal, and hence, less credible. Furthermore, for non-
native speakers of English, these expressions may prove more difficult to understand because of
their non-literal nature.
Times do exist, however, when the use of slang and idiomatic expressions are appripriate.
Think about who your audience is, what they expect, and how the use of these words may help or
hinder your purpose. If you are writing a very informal or humorous piece, slang or idiomatic
expressions may be appropriate.
Deceitful Language and Euphemisms
You should avoid using any language whose purpose is deceitful. Euphemisms are terms
that attempt to cover up that which is wrong, unethical, taboo, or harsh.
Here are some examples from the military:
Pacification = The act of forcefully exerting outside government over a previously
autonomous people
Friendly Fire = Being shot at (unintentionally) by your own allies
Collateral Damage = Destruction of property and killing of innocent civilians during war
efforts
Sunshine Units = A term for a power plant that is leaking radiation into the surrounding areas
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Complex or Confusing Language = Language can also be deceitful if it is overly complex or
confusing. Confusing language is deliberately created complex and is used to downplay the truth
or to evade responsibility.
Here is an example:
The acquisition of pollution permits by individuals and corporations that produce toxins has now
been allowed by the recently amended Clean Air Act of 1990. Institution of permits simplifies
and clarifies obligations for business and industry, making environmental protections more
accessible for these constituents. The government and the Environmental Protection Agency will
be greatly assisted in their endeavors by monitoring the release of all substances and having the
substances listed on one individual permit.
Although this paragraph makes it seem like this facet of the Clean Air act is helping the
environment, the EPA, and the federal government, in reality all it is doing is explaining the new
permit system that allows permit holders to release pollutants into the environment.
Group Terminology
Depending on your purpose, however, some terms that may be considered euphemisms
may be appropriate or even sanctioned by groups they affect. For example, it is more correct to
say "persons with disabilities" or "differently-abled persons" than to call someone "handicapped"
"crippled" or even "disabled." In these cases, it is important to use what is considered correct by
the group in question.
Stereotypes and Biased Language
Avoid using language that is stereotypical or biased in any way. Biased language
frequently occurs with gender, but can also offend groups of people based on sexual orientation,
ethnicity, political interest, or race.
Stereotyped Language
Stereotyped language is any that assumes a stereotype about a group of people. For
example, don't assume a common stereotype about blonde women:
Incorrect: Although she was blonde, Mary was still intelligent.
Revised: Mary was intelligent.
Non-Sexist language
Writing in a non-sexist, non-biased way is both ethically sound and effective. Non-sexist
writing is necessary for most audiences; if you write in a sexist manner and alienate much of
your audience from your discussion, your writing will be much less effective.
The National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) suggests the following guidelines:
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Generic Use
Although MAN in its original sense carried the dual meaning of adult human and adult
male, its meaning has come to be so closely identified with adult male that the generic use of
MAN and other words with masculine markers should be avoided.
o Original: mankind
o Alternatives: humanity, people, human beings
o Original: mans achievements
o Alternative: human achievements
o Original: man-made
o Alternatives: synthetic, manufactured, machine-made
o Original: the common man
o Alternatives: the average person, ordinary people
o Original: man the stockroom
o Alternative: staff the stockroom
o Original: nine man-hours
o Alternative: nine staff-hours

Occupations
Avoid the use of MAN in occupational terms when persons holding the job could be either male
or female.
o Original: chairman
o Alternatives: coordinator (of a committee or department), moderator (of a meeting),
presiding officer, head, chair
o Original: businessman
o Alternatives: business executive, business person
o Original: fireman
o Alternative: firefighter
o Original: mailman
o Alternative: mail carrier
o Original: steward and stewardess
o Alternative: flight attendant
o Original: policeman and policewoman
o Alternative: police officer
o Original: congressman
o Alternative: congressional representative

Historically, some jobs have been dominated by one gender or the other. This has lead to
the tendency for a person of the opposite gender to be "marked" by adding a reference to gender.
You should avoid marking the gender in this fashion in your writing.
o Original: male nurse
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o Alternative: nurse
o Original: woman doctor
o Alternative: doctor

Appropriate Pronoun Usage
Because English has no generic singularor common-sexpronoun, we have used HE,
HIS, and HIM in such expressions as "the student needs HIS pencil." When we constantly
personify "the judge," "the critic," "the executive," "the author," and so forth, as male by using
the pronoun HE, we are subtly conditioning ourselves against the idea of a female judge, critic,
executive, or author. There are several alternative approaches for ending the exclusion of women
that results from the pervasive use of masculine pronouns.
Recast into the plural
o Original: Give each student his paper as soon as he is finished.
o Alternative: Give students their papers as soon as they are finished.

Reword to eliminate gender problems.
o Original: The average student is worried about his grade.
o Alternative: The average student is worried about grades.

Replace the masculine pronoun with ONE, YOU, or (sparingly) HE OR SHE, as
appropriate.
o Original: If the student was satisfied with his performance on the pretest, he took the
post-test..
o Alternative: A student who was satisfied with her or his performance on the pretest took
the post-test.

Alternate male and female examples and expressions. (Be careful not to confuse the
reader.)
o Original: Let each student participate. Has he had a chance to talk? Could he feel left
out?
o Alternative: Let each student participate. Has she had a chance to talk? Could he feel left
out?
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I ndefinite Pronouns
Using the masculine pronouns to refer to an indefinite pronoun (everybody, everyone, anybody,
anyone) also has the effect of excluding women. In all but strictly formal uses, plural pronouns
have become acceptable substitutes for the masculine singular.
o Original: Anyone who wants to go to the game should bring his money tomorrow.
o Alternative: Anyone who wants to go to the game should bring their money tomorrow.
An alternative to this is merely changing the sentence. English is very flexible, so there is little
reason to "write yourself into a corner:"
o Original: Anyone who wants to go to the game should bring his money.
o Alternative: People who want to go to the game should bring their money.

Elements and characteristics of Business Letters
Business letters are written for many reasons- to collect money, to request or grant
adjustments, to acknowledge courtesies, to place orders, to answer questions, or to give
instructions. Whatever the purpose may be, we can be sure that if were not necessary to send a
message, there would be no letter.
The first step on the road leading the writing of effective business letters will be
mastering the basic qualities- the seven Cs of business communication. The letter must be clear,
concise, correct, concrete, the tone is cheerful and courteous, the point of view considerate of the
reader.
1. Courtesy ( pleasant feeling tone)
2. Consideration (thinking of the reader first)
3. Correctness (no stumbling blocks)
4. Clearness (no misunderstanding)
5. Conciseness (every word counts)
6. Concreteness (details sharp, definite)
7. Completeness (contains all the facts)

Good Business Letter (Qualities)
The construction of an effective business letter has the following qualities given by
Steven, Lanham and Zimmer. (1968)
1. Creates favourable impression
2. Appeals to the readers point of view
3. Correct in every detail
4. Courteous, friendly and sincere
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5. Promotes goodwill
6. Coherent and well-paragraphed
7. Employs highly the business jargon

Ten Commandments of a Good Correspondent
In addition, the following rules may help in writing an effective business letter.
1) Be always dignified, respectful and gracious. Never purposely hurt anyones feeling.
2) Never become so imbued with your own position or companys name that your letter sound
pompous or dictatorial.
3) Keep your letter as short as possible without appearing curt and refrain from using terms
that your reader may not understand.
4) Admit mistakes willingly.
5) Always endeavor to realize that a persons ideas, feelings and problems, no matter how
trivial, inconsiderate or unfair they may be, are important to him and should be considered.
6) Never lose your temper, become impatient or irritable, or get into arguments.
7) Resist the temptation to flaunt your companys rules and policies at your reader. Do not
attempt to prove the recipient as thoughtless, careless, or wrong.
8) Never write hasty, ill-advised note until you have time to cool off, or carefully study the
situation.
9) Never resort to name-calling even by interference, Never, talk down to, or to your
recipient.
10) Try your best to create goodwill for your company with every letter you write.
General Principles in Letter Writing
With aims of writing good, effective and impressive letters, the fundamental or general
principles in letter writing should be observed. These are:
o Be clean and neat
o Be businesslike
o Be brief and go directly to the point
o Be courteous or polite
o Be prompt
o Be self-critical
o Be complete and thorough
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Elements, Forms and Substance of Business letter
The business letter, like any other written composition, is made up of two elements, form
and substance. Form consists of the physical makeup of the letter while substance involves the
message of the letter.
The format of the letter is responsible in creating the first impression which is
important to the business letter since this has to create favorable impression if its purpose is to be
fulfilled.
The first impression must be reinforced by the contents if the letter since a poorly
prepared message would prove particularly disappointing after the pleasing appearance of the
letter may have favorably disposed the reader towards it.
The form of the letter consists of the physical appearance including the paper on which
the letter is written, the margins, the spacing and the other details that concern the proper
placement, the parts of the letter as well the correct punctuation and indention styles used.
The Seven Cs (Characteristics)
Before sending the letter, the writer should first ascertain whether his letter complies with the
characteristics of a well-written which are known as the 7 Cs.
1. Completeness
Haphazard writing breeds incompleteness through the omissions, which are necessary for the
message to be fully understood and for the action to be taken. Lack of completeness often times
requires the writing of other needless letters by both the addressee and the writer.
Example:

2. Clearness
The message must be expressed explicitly that there is no doubt as to its meaning. The details of
the message should be accurate and straight forward.
Class presidents shall have a meeting on March 16 at 10:00 am at the Deans Office.
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Example :
3. Concreteness
This is achieved by sing specific instead of general terms. The details must be sharp and
definite. Concrete terms which appeal to the senses and picture vividly situation and events
should be preferred.
Examples:

4. Consideration
The letter should emphasize the you attitude and should make the reader feel that the
writers is as much interested in his customers as he is in himself.
Example:

5. Conciseness
Confusing paragraph:
We have been advised that the allotment for the above-numbered policy was filed effective April
1, 2010, but inasmuch as the premium due March 1, 2010 of P490 has not been remitted and inasmuch as
allotment payments are not applicable to premiums due and payable in advance on the effective date of
allotment, we hereby request that you contact the insured directly and request payment of his premium date.
Revision:
Allotment payments can be applied only to premiums falling due after the effective date of
allotment. Since the allotment did not become effective on this policy until March 1, 2010, it cannot pay the
March 1, 2010 premium of P490. May we ask you to collect it?

Abstract and general: This printer print fast.
Concrete and vivid: This laser printer prints 15 copies per minute.
We-attitude: I want to express my thanks for your participation.
You-attitude: Thank you for your participation
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Time means money; hence businessmen place a premium on brevity. The short compact
message in which the writer avoids superfluous words and phrases is welcome. The business
message must be limited to the essentials. A complete letter is brief but at the same time does not
leave out any details that are needed for the message to be thoroughly understood.
Example:
Wordy Concise
I acknowledge receipt of (letter)
Along the line
At this point of time
Consensus of opinion
Due to the fact
During the time that
During the year of
Few and far between
For the price of
For the purpose of
For the reason that
In due course
In many cases
Please dont hesitate to write
Under the circumstances

I received your letter dated...
About
Now
Consensus
because
while
during (state year)
seldom, scarce
for
for
since
soon
often, frequently
because
please write
because

To be sure that you include only relevant facts, you have to stick to the purpose of your
message. Avoid also long introduction, unnecessary explanations, excessive adjectives and
prepositions, and pompous words.
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Example:



6. Correctness
The letter should be free from all errors in parts. The writer should likewise avoid errors
in grammar, spelling and form. The substance of his message should be accurate in every detail.
Example:
Wrong: In quoting prices to your customers, they should be given your favorable
terms.
Correct: In quoting prices to your customers, you should give them your most favorable
terms.

In the given example, it appears that the customers quote prices to themselves. The
correct message, of course, is the topic you does the quoting, not the customers.
7. Courtesy
Courtesy produces a pleasant-feeling tone. It enhances the writers goodwill and to a
great degree augments his profits. It can be secured by avoiding blunt expressions. Business
should consider well the time he spent to write pleasant and courteous letters. Emersons
statement which is Life is not so brief, but there is always time for courtesy should be seen in
all business letters
Examples:
Tactless: We are surprised you were not satisfied with your adjustment for your
complaint.
Courteous: We are sorry you were not completely satisfied with the quality of the last
shipment of ladies shoes that we sent on January 10, 2011.
Discourteous: We know the difficult times of business nowadays, but we can no longer stretch
your credit line. Of course, we shall accept your orders on a cash basis.
Courteous: We appreciate your order and we want your business. We believe, however,
Wordy: Upon receipt of this letter, I would like you to know that your order will be
delivered on the date stated in your letter.
Concise: Delivery of your sofa and coffee table is set not later than 5 p.m today.
February 12, 2010.
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that at present, you should not stock up so heavily. It would be better if you place a smaller order
and take advantage of our cash discount.

SUMMARY OF SEVEN Cs
Correctness is essential in order that costly delays and misunderstanding shall not occur;
conciseness, in order that attention shall not be wearied; concreteness, in order that every fact
may be vivid, definite, and interesting; consideration, in order that the reader may be helped and
his wants truly understood; clearness, in order that the way shall not be clogged; courtesy, in
order that the message may find a receptive hearing; completeness promotes goodwill.
7 The Letter Writers Creed
1. Be Correct
2. Be informative, give facts.
3. Be considerate.
4. Be pleasant, tactful, and courteous.
5. Thank you way through.
6. Save the readers time.

Letters
Process
Prewriting
Once youve thought of a product or service to sell, answer the following reporters
questions to help you develop the content of your sales letter:
o Who is your audience for your sales letter?
o Why are you writing your letter?
o What is the general topic of interest for your sales letter?
o What exactly do you want to say about your product or service?
o What do you want the reader to do after reading your letter?
o When you want the reader to act?
o Why is this date important for the reader and you?

Writing
Take a look at the answers to your questions from the prewriting section. If you answered
those questions fully, then youve got most of the content of your letter written already. Now you
need to work on organization and development.
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Introduction: Arouse Reader Interest

First, write down a sentence or two that will grab the readers attention. These sentences will
serve as the opening sentences of your letter. Can you open with an anecdote, a question, or a
quotation to grab your readers attention?
Second, write a sentence or two that explains why you are writing the letter and what you are
writing about.
Discussion: Develop Your Assertions
Look at your answer for the prewriting question, "What exactly do you want to say about
your product or service?" Hopefully, you wrote down several items for this question. Now you
need to look at your list and consider if what you say conveys to readers the benefits of the
product or service you are selling. Organize your list to move from the most important reasons to
the least important reasons for purchasing your product or service.
Conclusion: Make Your Readers Act
Begin your conclusion by reminding readers of the value of the product or service.
Second, make the reader act on your letter by providing a specific date for response and a reason
for why that date is important.
Rewriting
Now that you have a rough draft of your sales letter, it is time to make the letter as perfect
as it can be. Consider the following checklist and then submit your letter to your instructor for
grading:
o Does the opening sentence grab the readers attention?
o Does the introduction explain why you are writing the letter and what you are writing
about?
o Does your discussion section "sell" your specific product or service by providing data
about your product, giving testimony from satisfied customers, or documenting your
credentials?
o Have you organized your discussion list to move from most important to least important?
o Does your conclusion give readers an incentive to respond quickly to your sales letter?
o Have you omitted unnecessary words?
o Have you made use of highlighting techniques such as underlining, boldface or italics to
emphasize important features about your product or service?
o Do you achieve audience recognition by using "you" throughout the letter?
o Do you make use of verbs throughout to emphasize action?
o Does your letter follow the proper letter-writing format?
o Is your letter free of grammar, spelling and punctuation errors?

Writing the Basic Business Letter
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Parts of a Business Letter
This resource is organized in the order in which you should write a business letter,
starting with the sender's address if the letter is not written on letterhead.
Sender's Address
The sender's address usually is included in letterhead. If you are not using letterhead,
include the sender's address at the top of the letter one line above the date. Do not write the
sender's name or title, as it is included in the letter's closing. Include only the street address, city,
and zip code.
Date
The date line is used to indicate the date the letter was written. However, if your letter is
completed over a number of days, use the date it was finished in the date line. When writing to
companies within the United States, use the American date format. (The United States-based
convention for formatting a date places the month before the day. For example: June 11, 2001. )
Write out the month, day and year two inches from the top of the page. Depending which format
you are using for your letter, either left justify the date or tab to the center point and type the
date.
I nside Address
The inside address is the recipient's address. It is always best to write to a specific
individual at the firm to which you are writing. If you do not have the person's name, do some
research by calling the company or speaking with employees from the company. Include a
personal title such as Ms., Mrs., Mr., or Dr. Follow a woman's preference in being addressed as
Miss, Mrs., or Ms. If you are unsure of a woman's preference in being addressed, use Ms. If there
is a possibility that the person to whom you are writing is a Dr. or has some other title, use that
title. Usually, people will not mind being addressed by a higher title than they actually possess.
To write the address, use the U.S. Post Office Format. For international addresses, type the name
of the country in all-capital letters on the last line. The inside address begins one line below the
sender's address or one inch below the date. It should be left justified, no matter which format
you are using.
Salutation
Use the same name as the inside address, including the personal title. If you know the
person and typically address them by their first name, it is acceptable to use only the first name
in the salutation (for example: Dear Lucy:). In all other cases, however, use the personal title and
full name followed by a colon. Leave one line blank after the salutation.
If you don't know a reader's gender, use a nonsexist salutation, such as "To Whom It May
Concern." It is also acceptable to use the full name in a salutation if you cannot determine
gender. For example, you might write Dear Chris Harmon: if you were unsure of Chris's gender.
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Body
For block and modified block formats, single space and left justify each paragraph within
the body of the letter. Leave a blank line between each paragraph. When writing a business
letter, be careful to remember that conciseness is very important. In the first paragraph, consider
a friendly opening and then a statement of the main point. The next paragraph should begin
justifying the importance of the main point. In the next few paragraphs, continue justification
with background information and supporting details. The closing paragraph should restate the
purpose of the letter and, in some cases, request some type of action.
Closing
The closing begins at the same vertical point as your date and one line after the last body
paragraph. Capitalize the first word only (for example: Thank you) and leave four lines between
the closing and the sender's name for a signature. If a colon follows the salutation, a comma
should follow the closing; otherwise, there is no punctuation after the closing.
Enclosures
If you have enclosed any documents along with the letter, such as a resume, you indicate
this simply by typing Enclosures one line below the closing. As an option, you may list the name
of each document you are including in the envelope. For instance, if you have included many
documents and need to ensure that the recipient is aware of each document, it may be a good
idea to list the names.
Typist initials
Typist initials are used to indicate the person who typed the letter. If you typed the letter,
omit the typist initials.
Format and Font
Block Format
When writing business letters, you must pay special attention to the format and font used.
The most common layout of a business letter is known as block format. Using this format, the
entire letter is left justified and single spaced except for a double space between paragraphs.
Modified Block
Another widely utilized format is known as modified block format. In this type, the body
of the letter and the sender's and recipient's addresses are left justified and single-spaced.
However, for the date and closing, tab to the center point and begin to type.
Semi-Block
The final, and least used, style is semi-block. It is much like the modified block style
except that each paragraph is indented instead of left justified.
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Keep in mind that different organizations have different format requirements for their
professional communication. While the examples provided by the OWL contain common
elements for the basic business letter (genre expectations), the format of your business letter may
need to be flexible to reflect variables like letterheads and templates. Our examples are merely
guides.
If your computer is equipped with Microsoft Office 2000, the Letter Wizard can be used
to take much of the guesswork out of formatting business letters. To access the Letter Wizard,
click on the Tools menu and then choose Letter Wizard. The Wizard will present the three styles
mentioned here and input the date, sender address and recipient address into the selected format.
Letter Wizard should only be used if you have a basic understand of how to write a business
letter. Its templates are not applicable in every setting. Therefore, you should consult a business
writing handbook if you have any questions or doubt the accuracy of the Letter Wizard.
Font
Another important factor in the readability of a letter is the font. The generally accepted
font is Times New Roman, size 12, although other fonts such as Arial may be used. When
choosing a font, always consider your audience. If you are writing to a conservative company,
you may want to use Times New Roman. However, if you are writing to a more liberal company,
you have a little more freedom when choosing fonts.
Punctuation
Punctuation after the salutation and closing - use a colon (:) after the salutation (never a
comma) and a comma (,) after the closing. In some circumstances, you may also use a less
common format, known as open punctuation. For this style, punctuation is excluded after the
salutation and the closing.
Business Letters: Accentuating the Positives
Your letters will be more successful if you focus on positive wording rather than
negative, simply because most people respond more favorably to positive ideas than negative
ones. Words that affect your reader positively are likely to produce the response you desire in
letter-writing situations. A positive emphasis will persuade the reader and create goodwill. In
contrast, negative words may generate resistance and other unfavorable reactions. You should
therefore be careful to avoid words with negative connotations. These words either denyfor
example, no, do not, refuse, and stopor convey unhappy or unpleasant associationsfor
example, unfortunately, unable to, cannot, mistake, problem,error, damage, loss,
and failure.
When you need to present negative information, soften its effects by superimposing a positive
picture on a negative one.
1. Stress what something is rather than what it is not.
2. Emphasize what the firm or product can and will do rather than what it cannot.
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3. Open with action rather than apology or explanation.
4. Avoid words which convey unpleasant facts.

Compare the examples below. Which would be more likely to elicit positive reader response?
Negative: In response to your question about how many coats of Chem-Treat are needed to
cover new surfaces: I regret to report that usually two are required. For such surfaces you should
figure about 200 square feet per gallon for a good heavy coating that will give you five years or
more of beautiful protection.

Positive: In response to your question about how many coats of Chem-Treat are needed to cover
new surfaces: One gallon is usually enough for one-coat coverage of 500 square feet of
previously painted surface. For the best results on new surfaces, you will want to apply two
coats.
Negative: Penquot sheets are not the skimpy, loosely woven sheets ordinarily found in this price
class.

Positive: Penquot sheets are woven186 threads to the square inch for durability and, even after
3-inch hems, measure a generous 72 by 108 inches.
Negative: We cannot ship in lots of less than 12.

Positive: To keep down packaging costs and to help customers save on shipping costs, we ship
in lots of 12 or more.
In addition, you should reemphasize the positive through embedded position and effective use of
space.
Embedded Position
Place good news in positions of high emphasis: at the beginnings and endings of paragraphs,
letters, and even sentences.
Place bad news in secondary positions: in the center of paragraphs, letters, and, if possible,
sentences.
Effective Use of Space
Give more space to good news and less to bad news.
Evaluate the examples below to determine whether or not they present negative information
favorably.
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To make the Roanoke more stable than other lamps of this size, our designers put six
claw feet instead of the usual four on the base and thus eliminated the need for weighting.
Claw feet, as you know, are characteristic of 18th-century design.
No special training programs are normally offered other than that of the College
Graduate in Training rotational training period. We do not expect our employees to continue
their education, but we do have an excellent tuition refund program to assist in this regard (see
Working with General Motors, page 8). Where an advanced degree is essential, individuals are
recruited with those particular advanced degrees. Both Butler and IUPUI offer courses leading
to an MBA degree.
With our rigid quality standards, corrections of Adidas merchandise run less than .02
percent of our total line. Because of an oversight in our stitching department, a damaged
needle was inadvertently used and caused the threads to come loose in these particular bags.
Since we now have a check on all our machine needles before work each day, you can be
assured that the stitching on our Adidas carrying bags will last the lifetime of the bags. Thank
you for calling our attention to the loose stitching.

We are sorry that we cannot furnish the club chairs by August 16.
I have no experience other than clerking in my father's grocery store.
ABC Dog Biscuits will help keep your dog from getting sick.

Kinds of Letters with sample

Letter of Inquiry
This letter is good for several reasons. First, the letter adheres to modified block format.
Most importantly, this letter clearly states who's writing, why the sender is writing to the
recipient and what the sender is specifically asking. The sender, uses questions to focus the
requested information and includes a suitable time frame for a response.
Complaint Letter
The appropriate letter has all the characteristics of a completed professional communication that
will produce results for the sender. It gives no area for the supplier to find a way not to return the
money paid.
Sales Letter:
The letter adheres to block format: all elements are aligned with the left margin. The writing
style is more natural, yet slightly formal, an appropriate choice when writing to readers, such as
clients, you don't know. When the reader's name could be either feminine or masculine, use the
full name in the salutation. Notice that although this letter is a response to a request for a price
list, the sender uses the opportunity to make a subtle sales pitch by enclosing a brochure for a
related product line and end with a positive close to invite future business.

Service Sales Letter and Letter of Inquiry
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This sales letter grabs the readers attention in the introduction with a brief anecdote. The
discussion section develops the writers assertions by listing her qualifications and by describing
her services. The postscript provides an incentive for readers to act soon.
The letter of inquiry is a response to the sales letter. The writer wishes to know more
about the computer services offered by, so he has written a letter of inquiry. The questions in the
discussion section of the letter are specific. The writer concludes with a deadline for the answers.
This product sales letter begins with questions to grab the readers interest. The writer
also makes use of highlighting techniques to draw attention to the product name. Finally, the
letter concludes with a call to action that provides an incentive for the reader to respond quickly.
The letter of inquiry written in response to the sales letter opens with a clear
introduction that explains the purpose behind the letter. The questions in the discussion section
are specific and clearly worded. Finally, the letter concludes with a due date for the reader, along
with an explanation for why this date is important.
Activity 2
Multiple Choice
Directions: Choose the correct verb for each sentence below.
1. Gold coins and silver bars _____ found in the sunken pirate ship.
a. Was b. were
2. Someone at the stables _________ the horses every morning.
a. grooms b. groom
3. Neither the lion tamer nor the clowns _________ signing any autographs tonight.
a. is b. are
4. My mother and my sister__________ watch TV except for the evening news.
a. doesnt b. dont
5. Some of the forest _________ patches of poison ivy.
a. has b. have

PRE-FINAL
Memos
Memos have a twofold purpose: they bring attention to problems and they solve
problems. They accomplish their goals by informing the reader about new information like
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policy changes, price increases, or by persuading the reader to take an action, such as attend a
meeting, or change a current production procedure. Regardless of the specific goal, memos are
most effective when they connect the purpose of the writer with the interests and needs of the
reader.
Choose the audience of the memo wisely. Ensure that all of the people that the memo is
addressed to need to read the memo. If it is an issue involving only one person, do not send the
memo to the entire office. Also, be certain that material is not too sensitive to put in a memo;
sometimes the best forms of communication are face-to-face interaction or a phone call. Memos
are most effectively used when sent to a small to moderate amount of people to communicate
company or job objectives.
Parts of a Memo
Standard memos are divided into segments to organize the information and to help
achieve the writer's purpose.
Heading Segment
The heading segment follows this general format:
TO: (readers' names and job titles)
FROM: (your name and job title)
DATE: (complete and current date)
SUBJECT: (what the memo is about, highlighted in some way)
Make sure you address the reader by his or her correct name and job title. You might call
the company president "Maxi" on the golf course or in an informal note, but "Rita Maxwell,
President" would be more appropriate for a formal memo. Be specific and concise in your
subject line. For example, "Clothes" as a subject line could mean anything from a dress code
update to a production issue. Instead use something like, "Fall Clothes Line Promotion."
Opening Segment
The purpose of a memo is usually found in the opening paragraph and includes: the
purpose of the memo, the context and problem, and the specific assignment or task. Before
indulging the reader with details and the context, give the reader a brief overview of what the
memo will be about. Choosing how specific your introduction will be depends on your memo
plan style. The more direct the memo plan, the more explicit the introduction should be.
Including the purpose of the memo will help clarify the reason the audience should read this
document. The introduction should be brief, and should be approximately the length of a short
paragraph.
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Context
The context is the event, circumstance, or background of the problem you are solving.
You may use a paragraph or a few sentences to establish the background and state the problem.
Oftentimes it is sufficient to use the opening of a sentence to completely explain the context,
such as,
"Through market research and analysis..."
Include only what your reader needs, but be sure it is clear.
Task Segment
One essential portion of a memo is the task statement where you should describe what
you are doing to help solve the problem. If the action was requested, your task may be indicated
by a sentence opening like,
"You asked that I look at...."
If you want to explain your intentions, you might say,
"To determine the best method of promoting the new fall line, I will...."
Include only as much information as is needed by the decision-makers in the context, but
be convincing that a real problem exists. Do not ramble on with insignificant details. If you are
having trouble putting the task into words, consider whether you have clarified the situation. You
may need to do more planning before you're ready to write your memo. Make sure your purpose-
statement forecast divides your subject into the most important topics that the decision-maker
needs.
Summary Segment
If your memo is longer than a page, you may want to include a separate summary
segment. However, this section not necessary for short memos and should not take up a
significant amount of space. This segment provides a brief statement of the key
recommendations you have reached. These will help your reader understand the key points of the
memo immediately. This segment may also include references to methods and sources you have
used in your research.
Discussion Segments
The discussion segments are the longest portions of the memo, and are the parts in which
you include all the details that support your ideas. Begin with the information that is most
important. This may mean that you will start with key findings or recommendations. Start with
your most general information and move to your specific or supporting facts. (Be sure to use the
same format when including details: strongest to weakest.) The discussion segments include the
supporting ideas, facts, and research that back up your argument in the memo. Include strong
50

points and evidence to persuade the reader to follow your recommended actions. If this section is
inadequate, the memo will not be as effective as it could be.
Closing Segment
After the reader has absorbed all of your information, you want to close with a courteous
ending that states what action you want your reader to take. Make sure you consider how the
reader will benefit from the desired actions and how you can make those actions easier. For
example, you might say,
"I will be glad to discuss this recommendation with you during our Tuesday trip to the
spa and follow through on any decisions you make."
Necessary Attachments
Make sure you document your findings or provide detailed information whenever
necessary. You can do this by attaching lists, graphs, tables, etc. at the end of your memo. Be
sure to refer to your attachments in your memo and add a notation about what is attached below
your closing, like this:
Format
The format of a memo follows the general guidelines of business writing. A memo is
usually a page or two long, should be single spaced and left justified. Instead of using
indentations to show new paragraphs, skip a line between sentences. Business materials should
be concise and easy to read. Therefore it is beneficial to use headings and lists to help the reader
pinpoint certain information.
You can help your reader understand your memo better by using headings for the
summary and the discussion segments that follow it. Write headings that are short but that clarify
the content of the segment. For example, instead of using "Summary" for your heading, try "New
Advertising Recommendations," which is much more specific. The major headings you choose
are the ones that should be incorporated in your purpose-statement in the opening paragraph.
For easy reading, put important points or details into lists rather than paragraphs when
possible. This will draw the readers' attention to the section and help the audience remember the
information better. Using lists will help you be concise when writing a memo.
The segments of the memo should be allocated in the following manner:
o Header: 1/8 of the memo
o Opening, Context and Task: 1/4 of the memo
o Summary, Discussion Segment: 1/2 of the memo
o Closing Segment, Necessary Attachments: 1/8 of the memo
This is a suggested distribution of the material to make writing memos easier. Not all memos
will be the same and the structure can change as you see necessary. Different organizations may
have different formatting procedures, so be flexible in adapting your writing skills.
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Kinds of Memos
Directive Memo
This directive memo opens with an introduction that clearly explains why the person is writing
and what he is writing about. The subject line contains a topic and a focus. The body of the
memo makes use of reader-friendly highlighting techniques such as subheadings and boldface to
make important points even clearer to the readers.
Problem Memo
This memo uses highlighting techniques to make the most important information easily
accessible. The boldface type identifies the problems, and the bulleted lists under the boldface
provide brief explanations of the problems. The memo ends with a directive close that asks
readers to attend an upcoming meeting designed to solve the problems identified in the
discussion section.

Compare-And-Contrast Memo
This compare-and-contrast memo uses a reader-friendly text layout to compare different
grammar software titles available for the Writing Center. The table concisely evaluates the
entertainment value and grammar comprehensiveness of each title. The cost for the software is
also listed. Because the writer uses a table rather than a lengthy paragraph, readers can access
this information quickly.

Email
E-mail is a powerful marketing tool, and it can be even more powerful if you come to
"terms" with the secret behind all success marketing campaigns: Targeted, Emotional Response
Marketing.
o Targeted means your message is relevant to the reader.
o Emotional means your message touches the reader where it counts; it helps solve a
problem, eliminates an irritant, provides a solution, or guides them to greener pastures.
o Response means you always direct your reader to take the next step and ensure that it is
very, very easy to do so.
o Marketing is the entire process you use to bring your products and services to the buyers
and sellers needing them - E-mail being an integral of the process.

Electronic Mail Etiquette Guidelines
Date, To, From, and Subject handled automatically
Always include:
o Greeting
o Body
o Signature (your name printed at the bottom)
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o Body should be written with same level of care as for a letter or memo

E-mail names
o Use a professional sounding one for your professional work
o Bad examples
o sweetiepie
o madlyinlove
o moon_sky
o kookers

Annoying facts about email and how to avoid it;
In essence, the secret to constructing highly-effective E-mail marketing messages is being
relevant, not annoying. Interesting, not boring!
So how do we come to TERMs and provide relevancy? The easiest way is to determine
exactly what E-mail characteristics annoy people, and then avoid creating E-mail with those
characteristics! Here are seven things almost everybody agrees is annoying, and what you can do
to avoid each one:
The E-mail doesn't apply to me.
You must make sure your E-mail is targeted and relevant. In most cases, this is a simple
function of your database and marketing activities. Potential sellers receive information relating
to your marketing process and resources; actual selling clients obtain showing updates, a series
of price reduction letters, and offers.
This also means you must be careful in how you acquire your leads. If you obtain leads
from your web site, make sure your E-mail fulfills the promise you offered to obtain the
prospect's contact information. If you rent names, make sure the data provider gives you a clean
list. If you advertise and gather leads, make sure you place the leads in the right database!
The E-mails never stop.
Situations and circumstances change. Today I might be highly motivated to seek the
services of a professional real estate agent because I heard about a pending layoff. Tomorrow, I
discover the pending layoff was just a nasty rumor without substance. And I don't want to
receive your E-mails anymore! So you must provide a mechanism for allowing people to remove
themselves from your database and your E-mail series. It is the only professional thing to do.
The E-mail is too long.
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What is too long? When your message passes the point of relevancy and transcends into
the realm of boring. It's a fine line, but a line which you need to locate and mark out clearly with
indelible ink. Because if you ever cross it... you risk losing your prospect.
Force yourself to get right to the point of your communication immediately. In fact, one
of the simplest ways to improve your writing skills is to simply eliminate the first paragraph of
your message. Try it. Write a marketing letter from start to finish without going back and
proofing. Just write. When finished, start editing by simply crossing off the first paragraph. Now
read the letter. Chances are... it now packs the punch it was previously missing.
The E-mail has attachments.
Never send unsolicited E-mail attachments. Never. People who requested E-mail from
you don't mind attachments; people who didn't won't be amused. They'll be annoyed. In fact, in
most cases, you'll never want to send unsolicited E-mail anyway. But if you find you do... nix
any and all attachments.
The E-mail insults the reader's intelligence.
If your E-mail message isn't relevant, you've insulted your reader's intelligence. If you
send a step-by-step report on "How to Buy a Home" to a prospect you has previously bought and
sold 4 homes, you've insulted your reader's intelligence. Again, this annoyance can best be
avoided by integrating your database of contacts with the appropriate marketing campaign.
The E-mail reads like an advertisement.
Remember, unlike a display ad, E-mail is a personal medium. It is written to somebody,
by somebody. Person-to-person. The best way to avoid this annoyance is to set out writing your
E-mail marketing messages addressed to your spouse, or your mother, or a good friend. Write a
letter. Write as if you are speaking one-on-one to this person. Don't sell. Persuade.
The E-mail isn't readable.
This is a fluke of technology which is easily solved. Simply be careful about pasting text
from your word processor into your E-mail program as many special characters may not survive
the transfer. Likewise, if you are unsure if your intended reader uses an E-mail program which
will translate an HTML formatted document, send your message in either plain text or plain text
and HTML. When in doubt, it is always safer to opt for the "least common denominator", that is,
go with the technology most likely to be used by the most people.
Some special characters to watch out for include:
o Bullets (use asterisks instead)
o Curly Quotes
o Hypens
o Franctions
o Ampersands
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The Employment Search
Process

Prewriting
Before writing your resume, complete a brainstorming list of jobs youve held and
achievements youve earned. The goal here is to make as long a list as you can. At this point,
dont worry about the one-page restriction of your resume, simply write down all your jobs,
achievements, academic activities as they come to your mind.
Writing
Now that you have brainstorming list, begin to rank the items of your list from most
important to least important. Determine what to keep and what remove. To help with your
decisions consider these questions:
How far back should my work history go?
Should I only include employment related to my academic field?
Should I remove short-term employment?
What academic activities would be most relevant to a future employer?
Once youve determined the main subjects to include on your resume you must think of
how to develop the different sections:
Should I write a reverse chronological resume or a functional resume? How can you
quantify your job responsibilities and achievements? What extra information can you include
under education besides your degree and school?
Rewriting
After youve completed a rough draft begin to revise and edit the resume so that you make it
perfect. Make sure it follows all the criteria for effective resumes:
Is your career objective specific?
Are the dates within work experience and education accurate?
Have you used verbs to introduce your professional skills?
Have you avoided sentences and "I"?
Is your resume reader friendly?
Have you removed any grammar, spelling or punctuation errors?
Are you using the best organizational strategy?
In other words, if education is the most important does it come at the top of your resume ahead
of work experience?
Letter of Application
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The letter of application is closely related to the sales letter- both offer something for
sale. The commodity that the writer sells, is the writer himself. He offers his skills, training, his
experience, his time, in exchange for the job he hopes to secure. Because the application letter is
the most important letter from the point view of the writer who is personally concerned with its
outcome, it should be planned with great care.
This letter of application is a revision of an ineffective letter. Note the letterhead matches
that of the rsum. It also addresses a "real" person, instead of using the generic "To Whom it
May Concern." This is an unsolicited letter (not responding to a call for applicants), so the writer
has to make clear the purpose and reason for writing, answering the reader's question: Why are
you writing to me? The opening paragraph does that, before moving into details about relevant
education and work experience. It ends with a request for an interview. If the writer was planning
a trip to the area in the near-future, it would be appropriate to mention that, along with the dates,
to facilitate scheduling an interview.

The Solicited Letter
The solicited letter answers advertisement or express request for applicants.
The Blind Advertisement does not give the advertisers name, his address or any
detailed information regarding the requirements of a job. In writing this letter, the writers chief
concern should be to create such a good impression so that an interview will be granted him.
How to Begin a Solicited Letters
The beginning of your letter should state your purpose and indicate where or how you learned of
the position.
Examples:
1. I am applying for the position of sales manager, which you advertised in January 10,
2011 issue of the Philippine Star. My qualifications, which I believe will meet your
requirements are as follows:
2. In your statement advertisement for a high level engineer, which appeared in the January
10, 2011 issue of the Philippine Star, you indicated that you require the services of a
competent person with thorough training in the field of programming.
3. Your advertisement is this mornings issue of the Manila Bulletin for a Computer
Programmer has prompted me to offer you my qualifications.

Stewart et al. (1968) state that you may begin your letter with a challenging question. Two
examples to illustrate this are as follows:
1. Is there a place in your company for a young but responsible lady who has been
thoroughly trained in the field of programming and willing to work long hours?
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2. Have you been wanting to have your accounting systems automated?

I f your intention is to give the employer as immediate indication of your ability and training,
then you may pattern your beginning sentences after any of the following:
1. My three years of successful employment in the Auditing Department of a commercial
bank, plus excellent training in financial planning, should qualify me for the position of
Audit Supervisor in your company.
2. A thorough course in computer training at National Technological Institute has provided
me with the skills and knowledge probably required for the position of computer
programmer that was advertised in Manila Bulletin on January 31,2011.
3. My recent experience as a Desk Officer at Makati Shangrilla has given me an excellent
background for the position of Senior Desk Officer in your office.

Avoid openings in participial forms such as:
1. Replying to your advertisement...
2. Answering your advertisement...
3. Believing that there is an opportunity...
4. Thinking that there is a vacancy in your office...
5. Having read your...

The Body of the Letter
The body of the letter may be divided into the following headings:
1. A presentation of the particular requirements of the job position.
2. A specific and clear summary of your education and practical experience.
3. A convincing statement showing the relationship between your qualifications and the
requirements of the position.
4. A brief presentation of your personal data which reveals your determination and ability to
overcome difficulties and to carry on successfully the job functions
The question of salary should be avoided in the letter of application unless the employer requests
you to share you desired salary. Should this be necessary, use tact in handling the situation.
The Ending
An appropriate ending is a request for an interview.
Examples:
1. May I have an interview at your convenient time within your official hours? You can
reach me by telephone (631-2828) or by mail (8 J. Rizal Street, Makati City).
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2. If my application has convinced you of my ability to take on the job that you advertised, I
should welcome the opportunity to talk with you, so that you may judge my personal
qualifications further.
3. May I have the opportunity to discuss this matter further with you? You can reach me
between nine a.m and five p.m. (9am to 5 pm) at this telephone number 428-3246)

Unsolicited Letter
The unsolicited letter of application is written at the writers initiative. He writes it in the
hope that there will be a place for him in the firm. He may believe that the firm can provide him
valuable experience. This letter is harder to prepare because this should convince prospective
employer that he must take the applicant even if a place has to be made for him.
An application letter has two sheets the main letter and the resume sheet.
Rsum
This rsum is a revision of an ineffective rsum. The inclusion of an objective lets
potential employers know what type of job the applicant wants. Information is presented
consistently and with more detail, ultimately providing a more complete picture of the applicant's
skills and experience. The exclusion of irrelevant personal information also improves this
resume.
Letter of Recommendation
The letter of recommendation is written for the purpose of vouching for an applicants
good character and his fitness for a certain job. There are two kinds of letters of recommendation
may be the general, the special or personal.
The general letter of recommendation is written usually at the request of an applicant who
plans to use the letter when he looks for work. The letter is addressed to no person in particular
and uses the salutation To Whom It May Concern. This letter has one advantage. It may be
used several times. The applicant sends a copy with his letter of application and shows the
original at the interview.
The special or personal letter of recommendation is addressed to a definite person. It is
also requested by the firm which is interested in giving the subject of the letter, a job. The firm
requests the letter of recommendation because it wishes to check on the qualifications of a
prospective employee.
In writing this kind of letter, the writer should take care to give specific answers to
definite questions regarding the applicants suitability for the position. Any vague answer may
harm the applicants chance to get the job. The tone of the letter should be enthusiastic but
truthful. Above all, the writer should avoid any hint of exaggeration that would make any
information untrue. The letter may be outlined in this way.
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1. Explain the purpose of the letter.
2. Give briefly the background of the subject.
3. Give personal opinion regarding the subjects qualifications and character.
4. Give recommendation.

Resignation Letter
Occasionally, you may need to write a letter resigning from a position. Regardless of
your reason for resigning, your letter should be friendly in tone and tactful. Someday you may
want this employer to give you a reference, and you want him to remember you favourably.
Congratulatory Letter
Occasions often arise when a businessman has to send short notes or congratulations to
business associates, public officials and others, with whom his work has brought him in contact.
Thus, this letter may be written to one who has had a promotion, who has just been married, who
has put through successfully an important business deal, who may have achieved victory in his
favorite sport, or who has received some other good fortune for which his friend should
congratulate him. This need not be long, but its tome should be friendly and sincere. This is a
Social-Business Letter.
PROPOSALS
Process
Prewriting
If you already have a proposal topic in mind, you can begin with the reporters questions.
If you dont have a topic yet, you should complete a brainstorming list of problems you see
around your college. Once you focus on a specific problem, a solution to the problem should not
be too far behind.
Reporters Questions
o Who is your audience? Will your proposal be written for a particular department, the
president of the college, or one professor?
o What is the problem that needs to be solved?
o When can the proposal be enacted?
o Where will the work be done?
o Why is your conclusion/recommendation necessary?
o How will your recommendation work?
Submit your answers to the reporters questions when you are finished.
You can probably develop pretty good answers to the above questions simply based on
your experience as a student at the college. However, to fully develop an analysis of the problem,
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you should interview people at the college who might have something to do with the area youre
concentrating upon. For example, if you are proposing a new computer room, you probably
should talk to the Director of Academic Computing to find out how much a new computer room
would cost. If you are proposing an on-campus day care, you might interview the Director of
Student Services. Finally, it might be useful to get some student feedback on the problem and
your proposal, so you might want to create a student survey to hand out in a few of your classes.
Writing
After you have completed the reporters questions and your interviews, it is time to begin
drafting your proposal.
Review your prewriting to make sure you have considered your topic fully.
Organize the data you have collected.
o Abstract: problem/solution/benefit
o Introduction: cause and effect
o Discussion section: one or more of the following methods of organization:
o Analysis
o Chronology
o Spatial
o Comparison/contrast
o Conclusion: analysis and order-of-importance
Begin drafting your text by completing each of the proposal sections.
Rewriting
Review your rough draft and make it better by following these techniques:
Add detail for clarity.
o Have you adequately covered the background of the problem in the analysis section of
the proposal?
o Have you presented a variety of options to consider?
o Have you described a timeline or schedule for enacting your proposal?
o Have you quantified the cost of the project?
o Have your fully developed your recommendation for action?
o Have you considered where you can include graphics such as tables, figures, or charts to
make your information more accessible to readers?
Delete dead words and phrases for conciseness.
Simplify old-fashioned words and phrases.
Move information around so that you are using the appropriate organizational strategy in each
section.
Reformat your text for accessibility.
o Highlight key points with underlining or boldface
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o Use clear headings and subheadings
o Make your table of contents as specific as possible
Enhance the tone of your proposal by selling your ideas.
Proofread your report to avoid grammar, punctuation and spelling errors.
Avoid sexist language.
Student Proposal
This student proposal provides a clear statement of both the objective and the problem.
Explaining that students don't have an understanding of business etiquette -- and that they should
-- establishes the project's importance and provides evidence for the reader to accept the
proposal. Similarly, a detailed analysis of the intended audience, description of the project, and
team credentials, work to persuade the reader to accept their offer to create the guide. They
clarify their intentions in the conclusion, as well.
Proposal
This proposal is in memo format since it is an in-house document being sent between
departments at a university. It begins with a brief discussion of the current problem, then states
its main point in the first paragraph: to propose a new registration procedure. Note the
informative headings that allow readers to skim the contents. The proposal emphasizes reader
benefits (noting the new plan won't require additional work for the registrar's office) and benefits
to the students instead of simply touting the new plan will save time and effort for those
proposing it. Finally, because a proposal involves persuasion, the executive summary concludes
with an easy-to-read list of benefits associated with the proposed plan.
Focus of a research proposal
A research proposal is intended to convince others that you have a worthwhile research
project and that you have the competence and the work-plan to complete it. Generally, a research
proposal should contain all the key elements involved in the research process and include
sufficient information for the readers to evaluate the proposed study.
Regardless of your research area and the methodology you choose, all research proposals
must address the following questions: What you plan to accomplish, why you want to do it and
how you are going to do it.
The proposal should have sufficient information to convince your readers that you have
an important research idea, that you have a good grasp of the relevant literature and the major
issues, and that your methodology is sound.
The quality of your research proposal depends not only on the quality of your proposed
project, but also on the quality of your proposal writing. A good research project may run the
risk of rejection simply because the proposal is poorly written. Therefore, it pays if your writing
is coherent, clear and compelling.
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Writing a proposal
Title:
It should be concise and descriptive. For example, the phrase, "An investigation of . . ."
could be omitted. Often titles are stated in terms of a functional relationship, because such titles
clearly indicate the independent and dependent variables. However, if possible, think of an
informative but catchy title. An effective title not only pricks the reader's interest, but also
predisposes him/her favorably towards the proposal.
Abstract:
It is a brief summary of approximately 300 words. It should include the research
question, the rationale for the study, the hypothesis (if any), the method and the main findings.
Descriptions of the method may include the design, procedures, the sample and any instruments
that will be used.
Introduction:
The main purpose of the introduction is to provide the necessary background or context
for your research problem. How to frame the research problem is perhaps the biggest problem in
proposal writing.
If the research problem is framed in the context of a general, rambling literature review,
then the research question may appear trivial and uninteresting. However, if the same question is
placed in the context of a very focused and current research area, its significance will become
evident.
Unfortunately, there are no hard and fast rules on how to frame your research question
just as there is no prescription on how to write an interesting and informative opening paragraph.
A lot depends on your creativity, your ability to think clearly and the depth of your
understanding of problem areas.
However, try to place your research question in the context of either a current "hot" area,
or an older area that remains viable. Secondly, you need to provide a brief but appropriate
historical backdrop. Thirdly, provide the contemporary context in which your proposed research
question occupies the central stage. Finally, identify "key players" and refer to the most relevant
and representative publications. In short, try to paint your research question in broad brushes and
at the same time bring out its significance.
The introduction typically begins with a general statement of the problem area, with a
focus on a specific research problem, to be followed by the rational or justification for the
proposed study. The introduction generally covers the following elements:
1. State the research problem, which is often referred to as the purpose of the study.
2. Provide the context and set the stage for your research question in such a way as to show
its necessity and importance.
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3. Present the rationale of your proposed study and clearly indicate why it is worth doing.
4. Briefly describe the major issues and sub-problems to be addressed by your research.
5. Identify the key independent and dependent variables of your experiment. Alternatively,
specify the phenomenon you want to study.
6. State your hypothesis or theory, if any. For exploratory or phenomenological research,
you may not have any hypotheses. (Please do not confuse the hypothesis with the
statistical null hypothesis.)
7. Set the delimitation or boundaries of your proposed research in order to provide a clear
focus.
8. Provide definitions of key concepts. (This is optional.)

Literature Review:
Sometimes the literature review is incorporated into the introduction section. However,
most professors prefer a separate section, which allows a more thorough review of the literature.
The literature review serves several important functions:
1. Ensures that you are not "reinventing the wheel".
2. Gives credits to those who have laid the groundwork for your research.
3. Demonstrates your knowledge of the research problem.
4. Demonstrates your understanding of the theoretical and research issues related to your
research question.
5. Shows your ability to critically evaluate relevant literature information.
6. Indicates your ability to integrate and synthesize the existing literature.
7. Provides new theoretical insights or develops a new model as the conceptual framework
for your research.
8. Convinces your reader that your proposed research will make a significant and substantial
contribution to the literature (i.e., resolving an important theoretical issue or filling a
major gap in the literature).

Most students' literature reviews suffer from the following problems:
o Lacking organization and structure
o Lacking focus, unity and coherence
o Being repetitive and verbose
o Failing to cite influential papers
o Failing to keep up with recent developments
o Failing to critically evaluate cited papers
o Citing irrelevant or trivial references
o Depending too much on secondary sources
Your scholarship and research competence will be questioned if any of the above applies
to your proposal.
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There are different ways to organize your literature review. Make use of subheadings to
bring order and coherence to your review. For example, having established the importance of
your research area and its current state of development, you may devote several subsections on
related issues as: theoretical models, measuring instruments, cross-cultural and gender
differences, etc.
It is also helpful to keep in mind that you are telling a story to an audience. Try to tell it
in a stimulating and engaging manner. Do not bore them, because it may lead to rejection of your
worthy proposal. (Remember: Professors and scientists are human beings too.)
Methods:
The Method section is very important because it tells your Research Committee how you
plan to tackle your research problem. It will provide your work plan and describe the activities
necessary for the completion of your project.
The guiding principle for writing the Method section is that it should contain sufficient
information for the reader to determine whether methodology is sound. Some even argue that a
good proposal should contain sufficient details for another qualified researcher to implement the
study.
You need to demonstrate your knowledge of alternative methods and make the case that
your approach is the most appropriate and most valid way to address your research question.
Please note that your research question may be best answered by qualitative research.
However, since most mainstream psychologists are still biased against qualitative research,
especially the phenomenological variety, you may need to justify your qualitative method.
Furthermore, since there are no well-established and widely accepted canons in
qualitative analysis, your method section needs to be more elaborate than what is required for
traditional quantitative research. More importantly, the data collection process in qualitative
research has a far greater impact on the results as compared to quantitative research. That is
another reason for greater care in describing how you will collect and analyze your data. (How to
write the Method section for qualitative research is a topic for another paper.)
For quantitative studies, the method section typically consists of the following sections:
1. Design -Is it a questionnaire study or a laboratory experiment? What kind of design do
you choose?
2. Subjects or participants - Who will take part in your study ? What kind of sampling
procedure do you use?
3. Instruments - What kind of measuring instruments or questionnaires do you use? Why do
you choose them? Are they valid and reliable?
4. Procedure - How do you plan to carry out your study? What activities are involved? How
long does it take?

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Results:
Obviously you do not have results at the proposal stage. However, you need to have some idea
about what kind of data you will be collecting, and what statistical procedures will be used in
order to answer your research question or test you hypothesis.
Discussion:
It is important to convince your reader of the potential impact of your proposed research. You
need to communicate a sense of enthusiasm and confidence without exaggerating the merits of
your proposal. That is why you also need to mention the limitations and weaknesses of the
proposed research, which may be justified by time and financial constraints as well as by the
early developmental stage of your research area.
Common Mistakes in Proposal Writing
1. Failure to provide the proper context to frame the research question.
2. Failure to delimit the boundary conditions for your research.
3. Failure to cite landmark studies.
4. Failure to accurately present the theoretical and empirical contributions by other
researchers.
5. Failure to stay focused on the research question.
6. Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument for the proposed research.
7. Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major issues.
8. Too much rambling -- going "all over the map" without a clear sense of direction. (The
best proposals move forward with ease and grace like a seamless river.)
9. Too many citation lapses and incorrect references.
10. Too long or too short.
11. Failing to follow the APA style.
12. Slopping writing.

How to Write a Research Paper Proposal
Instructions

1.Write a catchy title. Think of something that will grab the reader's attention and keep them
interested. Be as concise as possible.

2. Construct your abstract. This is a brief summary of your paper of around 300 words. This
includes the research question, the reasoning behind the study, your methods and predicted
findings.

3. Write the introduction. State the purpose of the study, demonstrate your knowledge of the
topic and its importance, describe any major issues and key research points, pinpoint the
variables and explain any boundaries of the study.
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4. Provide a resource review. This section outlines all sources you have used in your research
and shows your knowledge on the topic. It also gives credit to those who have done previous
research on this subject and developed the framework for your research.

5. Explain the implementation of your methods. Demonstrate your knowledge on the methods
you used and explain how they benefit your research.

6. Predict your results. You have no results at this stage, but it is suggested that you have some
idea of the data you will collect and what kinds of procedures will be used to answer your
question or hypothesis.

7. Discuss the potential impact of your results. Readers will want to know the benefits and
possible drawbacks of your research.
REPORTS
1 Process
Prewriting
For the feasibility report, you need to complete two prewriting activities.
First, answer the reporters questions for your topic:
o Who initiated the feasibility report and to whom are you writing the report?
o When can the improvements be made?
o Why are you writing the report?
o Where should the improvements take place?
o What problem does the feasibility report address? What solution does the report
recommend? What criteria are you using for your recommendation?
Submit the answers to your instructor.
Answering the reporters questions gives you some idea of what you will discuss in your
feasibility report. However, it does not help you organize your material. Therefore, you need to
complete one more prewriting activity before you begin writing your report.
Second, complete a branching activity to provide you with a visual representation of the structure
of your report.
o Write the topic of your feasibility report in a box at the top of your paper.
o Branch off this box and create three boxes one box for each major section of the report:
introduction, discussion, and conclusion.
o Under these three sections include your subordinate points. Under Introduction, for
example, you will want to have the following branches: Purpose , Problems, Initiator, and
Personnel.
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Writing
If you completed the prewriting correctly, you should now have ideas for the basic content and
overall organization of your feasibility report. You can now begin writing your report by
following these steps:
1. Reread your prewriting to make sure that you have included all the necessary sections
and points that need to be covered in your report.
2. Assess your audience to help you decide how much background data to include in your
report.
3. Draft you text by writing content for the three major divisions: introduction, discussion,
and conclusion/recommendation.
4. Organize the discussion section of your report. Most likely you will want to use either a
problems/solutions or comparison/contrast organizational approach.

Rewriting
Review your rough draft and make it better by following these techniques:
1. Add detail for clarity.
o Have you adequately covered the background of the problem your feasibility report
addresses?
o Have you fully explained the criteria upon which you will base your recommendation?
o Have you objectively compared your findings against the criteria in your analysis
section?
o Have you sufficiently developed the significance of your findings and clearly explained
your recommendation?
2. Delete dead words and phrases for conciseness.
3. Simplify old-fashioned words and phrases.
4. Move information around within your discussion section to make sure that your reader will not
be confused by your organizational approach.
5. Reformat your text for accessibility.
o Highlight key points with underlining or boldface
o Use clear headings and subheadings
o Consider a chart or table to help readers with your analysis section
6. Enhance your text for style.
o Quantify, dont be vague or imprecise
o Be positive when it comes to your conclusion and recommendation
7. Proofread your report to avoid grammar, punctuation and spelling errors.
8. Avoid sexist language.
2 Progress Report
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Sample Progress Report

This student writes her progress report to inform her instructor on her web site construction
progress. The introduction summarizes the project clearly and identifies the goals of the web site.
The discussion section describes the work accomplished, the work remaining, and the problems
encountered. The conclusion summarizes the work accomplished and recommends ways for the
instructor to help further with the project. Throughout the progress report, the student makes use
of highlighting techniques such as numbered lists, subheadings and graphic, making the report
more accessible to readers.
Progress Report

This is a revision of an ineffective progress report. It begins with a brief introduction to provide
the context (what the progress report is for), then discusses the work that's been completed at this
point and a discussion of the work yet to be completed. Note the way the students present the
difficulties they've faced with the project and how this presentation might motivate Dr. Smith to
grant their request for additional time. They end positively, providing one last reason (to
ultimately produce a better report) their professor should grant them the extra time.
Some Forms of Reports
1.) Technical Report
This provides useful information about a complete program of work, for reference and
permanent record.
2.) Feasibility Report
This represents facts and information intended to make the reader realize that the
proposed project or plan is financially, economically, and technically, significant as well as
beneficial.
3.) Progress Report
This contains an account of what has been accomplished on a project over a specific
period of time and what may be expected in the next period.
4.) Survey Report
This is a thorough study of any subject. Some subjects of surveys are potential markets
from products, labor policies, market punctuation, public opinions and community resources.
Examples are poll surveys on the study of a possible site for a new plant.
5.) Trip Report
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An account of a business or professional trip. It records specific and significant places,
events, conversations and people met. It attempts to answer where, when , what ,why and how
also. It may have recommendation section.
6.) Laboratory Report
A record of procedures and results of laboratory test. It describes the scope of a project,
the equipment utilized, the procedures used, the results of test and the conclusion and
recommendation.
Activity 3
Multiple Choice
Directions: Please check the lectures and lessons regarding memos
1. What should you do in the memos introduction?
a. Explain what you want and why you are writing
b. Develop in detail a discussion of the memos subject.
c. Let readers know who is writing the memo
d. Begin with a creative opening to grab the readers attention
2. In writing a memo which of the following subjects lines is most effective?
a. English Teachers
b. Class Schedules for English Teachers
c. Class Schedules
d. Important Message for English Teachers
3. If you need to send an important, secure message, why is it better to choose a memo instead
of an e-mail?
a. Memos can be delivered more quickly than e-mail
b. The tone of e-mail is informal, but memos are formal
c. Computer systems malfunction so e-mail may not be as reliable as a companys interoffice
delivery system for memos
d. It is impossible to attach supporting documents with e-mail
4. Why is audience recognition often more complex for memos than it is for letters?
a. Letters usually go to a single reader but memos usually go to multiple readers
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b. Letters can contain enclosures, but nothing extra can be attached to memos
c. Letters usually go toward high-tech readers but memos go to low-tech or lay readers
d. Letters can be much more informal than memos
5. Which of the following is NOT a reader-friendly technique for memos?
a. Writing long paragraphs
b. Making use of white space
c. Using headings
d. Itemizing information into lists or tables

FINAL
TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION
Process
Prewriting
Brainstorming/listing is a good prewriting step for the technical description project
because it allows you to write down your ideas about your piece of equipment quickly.
Brainstorming List 1
Before you begin to list ideas about your topic, you need to first come up with a topic.
For three to five minutes, make a list of all the pieces of equipment, tools, or mechanisms that
come to your mind.
Now, look at your list of topics and choose one that is right for a one- to two-page
technical description. Some of your topics might not be large enough for the length of this
assignment. For example, it might be hard to write a two-page technical description of a
toothbrush or pencil. Other topics might be too large for this assignment. A complete technical
description of a natural gas furnace might not be possible in only two pages.
Brainstorming List 2
When youve chosen a manageable topic for the assignment, you need to complete a
second brainstorming list to help you develop the content for your technical description. Write
down as many aspects of your topic as possible. After youve completed your list select the items
that are appropriate to a technical description and remove items that dont fit. If you are
completing your brainstorming list with a word processing program, you should boldface the
items that you want include in your technical description.
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Writing
Now it is time to begin drafting your technical description by following these steps:
1) Organize the items from your second brainstorming list.
o Place items from your list into the appropriate sections of the technical description:
introduction, discussion, and conclusion.
o Arrange items from your list so that your description is spatially organized.

2) Title your draft. Make sure that you have a specific title. For example, do not simply write
Stereo Amplifier, but instead write Philips KR-502 Stereo Amplifier.
3) Write a focus statement that accomplishes the following:
o Names the topic,
o Explains the possible functions of the topic or your reason for writing the description,
o Gives the number of parts composing the topic.
4) Begin drafting the text of your document. Write quickly. Worry about editing your document
in the rewriting stage.
5) Sketch a rough draft of your equipment, tool, or mechanism.
Rewriting
If you completed the five steps in the writing stage, you should now have a rough draft
with a title, an introduction, discussion, and conclusion. Now it is time to polish this draft so that
it follows the guidelines completely. Consider the following revision steps:
1. Add detail to communicate your description more effectively.
2. Delete dead words and phrases for conciseness.
3. Simplify longwinded, old-fashioned words and phrases.
4. Arrange the discussion section to make sure that you are following spatial organization.
5. Reformat your text for ease of access by using highlighting techniques.
6. Use photographic words and avoid impressionistic words.
7. Proofread your document to avoid grammar, punctuation and spelling errors.
8. Avoid sexist language.

DEFINITION (Explaining What Something Is)
Definitions generally help readers understand what you mean by a word or phrase. The
business world depends on clear definitions because definitions
o play a major role in communicating company policies and standards;
o clarify a description of a new development or a new technology in a technical field;
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o help specialists communicate with less knowledgeable readers.
For your definitions, you will assume that your audience is a general readership who is not
experts in any field. The purpose of the definitions will be determined by you.
Parenthetical Definitions
A parenthetical definition is a short explanation of a word or phrase placed unobtrusively in
a sentence. Sometimes a parenthetical definition is itself only a word or short phrase.
Burger King has been trying unsuccessfully for years to buy the equity stock (common stock) of
McDonald's.
A parenthetical definition may also be a longer phrase or clause.
His uncle sells municipal revenue bonds, bonds issued to finance projects that will eventually
generate their own revenues, such as a toll bridge.
Sentence Definitions
A sentence definition is a one-sentence explanation of a word or phrase. Sentence definitions
are useful when your readers require a more formal or more informative clarification than
parenthetical definitions provide.
A sentence definition usually follows a standard pattern in which the item being defined is
placed in a class or category of similar items and then distinguished from them.
BASIC is a simple computer language, popularly used by students and microcomputer owners, in
which line numbers precede each statement.

An acoustic coupler is a modem that attaches to a telephone handset to transmit computer
information over telephone lines.
3 DESCRIPTION OF A PROCESS (Explaining a Procedure)
Describing a process is explaining how something is done. Its main purpose is to describe
a method or operation so that the intended audience will understand what is done.
In describing how a mechanism operates, the writer gives an explanation of the steps
involves and an identification of the major sequences in the operation. The writer may arrange
the steps or stages of the process in a numbered list or in paragraphs.
The description of a process usually contains three major parts i.e., the introduction; the
description of the operation; and the conclusion. In the introduction, the amplified operational
definition and the general information about the operation are discussed. Likewise, the principles
and major sequences of activities to be done are emphasized. In the conclusion, the complete
cycle of the operation is considered.
The following should be remembered in describing a process:
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1. Have a sufficient knowledge of the subject matter.
2. Consider the audiences degree of knowledge and understanding of the topic.
3. The description should adequately cover all essential aspects of the process.
4. The description of a process can facilitate comprehension and can be made clearer if
visual aids such as graphs, charts, diagrams, pictures, etc. are employed.
5. Present your description ina simple and direct to the point manner by including only
information that are directly related to the subject matter.

The following could serve as guidelines in describing a process:
1. An analysis of the situation requiring the description of a process
1. What is the process to be described?
2. Who are the intended audience?
3. For what purpose will the description be used?
4. What format will be adapted?.
5. What are the major steps involved in the operation of this mechanism>
6. In describing each step, use the third person, present tense and passive voice.
2. Presentation of the major steps with the description of each one.
3. Consideration of important points for special emphasis.
4. Selection of visuals to be included.
5. Sources of information.

Example of a description of a process
How to Change Engine Oil
Changing the oil at a regular interval is very essential to achieve quality engine
performance. In so doing, the following tools and materials should be prepared: drive-on ramps,
jack and jacks stands, socket wrench or box end wrench to fit drain plug, droplight or flashlight,
pour spout , drain pan, rags, fender covers, fresh motor oil, work gloves, and safety goggles.
With these tools and materials ready on hand, the process could be started. First, raise the
front of the car and support it with jack stands (unless working clearance under the car is
adequate). Place a basin beneath the drain plug. Loosen oil drain into the basin. Clean drain plug
and washer with rags (some plugs are magnetized to trap metal particles). Next, replace plug and
washer as soon as old oil had drained. Start plug by hand and tighten if as far as possible. When
the plug is seated, tighten it another half-turn with a wrench. Finally, find oil filter. Add amount
of oil given in the owners manual, 1 qt. less filter is not changed. Start engine and check for
leaks for leaks at the drain plug. Lower the car, check oil level, and adjust if necessary.
The completion of this process with other parts in excellent working condition ensures a
satisfying journey.
Illustration:
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1. Raise front of the car and support it on jack stands ( unless a working clearance under car
is adequate). Place basin beneath drain plug. Loosen plug with wrench, then remove plug
by hand.
2. Let old drain into basin. Clean drain plug and washer with rags. Some Plugs are
magnetized to trap metal particles. If you are changing the oil filter too.
3. Replace plug and washer as soon as old oil has drained: Start plug by hand and lighten it
as far as possible. When plug is sealed , tighten it another half-turn with a wrench.
4. Find oil filter. Add amount of oil given in owners manual, 1 qt. less if filter is not
changed. Start engine and check for leaks at drain plug. Lower car. Check oil level; adjust
if necessary.

DESCRIPTION OF A DEVICE OR MECHANISM (Explaining How Something Works)
Mechanism may either be simple or complex and either large or small. But the principles
of the description of a mechanism apply equally well in any case.
First you have to define the device or mechanism by using any of the different ways of
defining an object or term. You can describe its appearance, give its uses or functions, types ,
origin, and things associated with it. It is a must that you mention and explain its parts or
components.
The following pointers will help you describe a mechanism:
1. Before a full grasp of how a mechanism operates, the mechanisms physical description
should be underscored. With a detailed, clear and accurate description, the readers will be
equipped with the concepts of how the mechanism works.
2. This special technique in technical writing and reporting is usually utilized in manuals
and sections in proposals, feasibility reports and short informal reports.
3. In describing a mechanism, the technical should be familiar with the mechanism itself so
that he can easily convey his message to the readers. His use of visual aids will help him
to communicate his message.
4. A mechanism is generally defined as any object or system that has a functional part. It is
an assembly of parts that operates in a definable way.
5. Oftentimes, the technician will describe a mechanism when he writes a bid specification,
memorandum, purchase request and when he demonstrates a new piece of equipment,
etc.
6. The main purpose of describing a mechanism is to make the audience see or visualize the
object and to give an impression of the appearance of the mechanism. The appearance of
the object is expressed by describing its shape, size, weight, color, texture and material
from which is made.
7. An accurate terminology is needed in describing a process. In technical writing, there are
no hidden, implied , and symbolic meanings that the audience will have to analyze or
interpret. Therefore, every word and sentence should be so clear that the audience gets
the meaning that is intended.
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8. Visuals are given valuable importance in describing a mechanism. Their function is to
enable the audience to see what the mechanism looks like and what its part are, and to
understand how these parts works together to allow the mechanism to operate.
9. The three general parts in describing a mechanism are : introduction, description of the
mechanism in details and conclusion. The introduction requires a simple identification of
the mechanism to be described, the importance of the description and the point of
reference about the mechanism to be described. Meanwhile, the main body consists of an
explanation of the function, the physical characteristics and the different parts of the
mechanism. Finally, the conclusion gives a brief description of how the mechanism
works or how it is used.

CLASSIFICATION and PARTITION (Putting Things in Order)
Classification is a technique of sorting items into related groups whose partition is the division of
a unit into its components. If the genus in the class and the species is the subdivision, we can say
that carbohydrates is the genus, the grains, fruits, vegetables, shellfish, dairy products are the
species; if the grains is the genus, then rice bread, doughnut, and others are species.
Classification is the grouping together of objects/items according to a specified basis.
When classifying, you choose to consider a thing that has some similarities. According to Mills
and Walter (1980), Classification is almost any act of noting relationships. Technically, it is the
act of locating, a specimen of all the different kinds of objects which possess a given
characteristics.
The following are the general principles in giving analysis through classification
according to Laster, Ann A. And Nell Ann Picket:
1. Classification is a basic approach in analysis. It places related items into categories or
groups.
2. Only a plural subject or a subject whos meaning in plural can be classified. If a subject is
singular, it can be partitioned but not classified.
3. The categories in classification must be coordinated, or parallel. All categories on the
same level must be of the same rank in grammatical form and in content.
4. The categories must be mutually exclusive. Each category should be composed of clearly
defined group that would still exist without the other categories on the same level.
5. The categories must not overlap. An item can have a place in only one category.

Partition is an analysis that divides a singular item into parts, steps or aspects. Its purpose
is to separate a particular thing into parts, pieces, sections, or categories. These do not
necessarily have anything in common beyond the fact that they belong to the same unit.

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The following are the general principles in giving an analysis through partition according
to Laster, Ann A. and Neli Ann Pickett:
1. Partition is a basic approach in analysis. It divides a subject into parts so that an
individual consideration of these, a better understanding of the whole, can be achieved.
2. Only a singular subject can be partitioned. If a subject is plural it can be classified but not
partitioned.
3. The division in partition should be coordinate, parallel, and mutually exclusive.
4. The division must be complete but it must not overlap.
5. The data in a partition analysis may be presented in outlines, in verbal explanations, and
in visuals.
6. The basis on which partitions is made should be clear, useful and purposeful.
7. The order of presentation of divisions depends on their purpose. Among the possible
orders are time, familiarity, importance, complexity, space, alphabetical and random
listing.

INTERPRETATION (Figuring Something Out)
Interpretation is the art of establishing a meaningful pattern of relationship among a
group of facts. It is an important step in stating the statement of problem being investigated. It
does not attempt to be exhaustive and is free of conventional form. It is nevertheless rigorously
logical.
Five elements that may enter into the statement of the problem are:
1) presenting the basic problem in concise form
2) defining unfamiliar terms
3) distinguishing between the primary problem and subordinate problems
4) distinguishing between what is known and what remains to be found out
5) providing background information.
Interpretation is one of the most important elements in technical writing. Practical
decisions such as where to drill an oil well, at what lighting protections system to use on a stretch
of electric power transmission line, are the results of the interpretation of the body of facts.
Interpretation is creative, requiring both knowledge and imagination. Interpretation is simply the
study of logic. It is the study of the art of communication, of communicating to other people
what you have found out through the application of logic to a certain group of facts.


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Here are the questions that arise in the interpretation.
1.) What is to be found out?
2.) How was the evidence obtained?
3.) How will the interpretation be organized?
The interpretation must be done through the scientific attitude. The first job in the process
of interpretation is to decide what the purpose of the interpretation is.
Here are the six major elements in a clear statement or in an explanation to the reader of what is
to be found:
1.) Acquiring a thorough graps of all available information
2.) Stating the problem in concise form
3.) Defining unfamiliar or ambiguous terms
4.) Distinguishing between primary problem and subordinate problem
5.) Distinguishing between what is already known and what remains to be found out or
decided.
6.) Giving background information.
How was the Evidence Obtained?
An interpretation can be no better than the data on which it is based. A second major
part of an interpretation is the provision of any necessary explanation about how the data were
obtained or of a statement of their probable reliability. The point to remember is that the reader
should have enough information about the data so that he can make his own interpretation if he
wishes.
Organization of the Main Part of the Interpretation
Having started the problem and possibly having commented on the source and validity
of the data, the interpreter now must explain the significance of his evidence and state
conclusion. The three major factors that may be considered in stating and organizing the major
data in an interpretation are:
1.) The problem is concise form.
2.) The subordinate or standards of judgement
3.) Possible explanations of possible choices
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The term judgement maybe new but the idea is familiar. This concept standard of
judgement can be better understood in the following situations, if a writers object in interpreting
a body of data is to make a choice to be guided. On the other hand, if this object is merely to
explain a body of data, he may feel a little interest in the standards of judgement . If the writers
purpose is merely to cause the reader to understand the results of the test of ten different kinds
of sheaths without any recommendations, as to which sheath should be chosen, the writer may
never mention a standard of judgement. He may simply discuss the relative degrees of protection
afforded by the various sheaths and leave the choice among the different ones to someone else.
Graphic aids
Graphic aids are visual ads that often accompany reports other printed information.
Research has established that people remember 15 % of what they hear and 50% of what they
see. Thus if appeal to the eyes increases, the amount of information retained by a reader, the use
of visual aids whenever possible should therefore be encouraged. Some of the common graphic
aids are charts, drawings, graphs, photographs, tables, maps and diagrams. Technical reports
become more interesting and easier to understand when graphics aids are used to illustrate salient
points.
Graphic aids communicate facts to the reader with more precision. They should appear
immediately after or near the explanation if they are essential to the discussion. All grahic aids
must be labeled according to type, number and caption. When selecting the graphic aid use, the
technical writer must determine the proper relationship between the text and the graphic aid.
If the graph or table is small enough, it may be placed on the same page as the text.
Usually, it has a border. If the aid is large enough to leave no room for the text, it should be
placed on the separate page. The rule is that the graphic aid should be located side by side, before
or after the text that explains it.
Charts or graphs are means of presenting numerical quantities visually so that trends of
and relationship among the numerical quantities can be easily graphed. They may also mean,
Method of presenting statistical data in visual form. The basic kinds of charts are the line or
curve, the bar chart, and the surface chart. Other varieties are the circle or pie chart, the flow
chart and the map chart. The elements in the chart are the scales, the grid, the title, the caption,
the source reference and labels or a key.
Line Chart
Line graphs are more useful in representing continuous relationships or trends such as in
narrative or process description or any pattern concerned with time or distance. When data along
a horizontal scale are too many, making the points and corresponding bars too close, the points
may be overlaid on the save grid to show changes in quantity over the same period. Line charts
are useful in showing continuous changes in variable or variables over a period of time.
Tables
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Tables are two or more columns of written data. They present words or figures in an
economical, easy-to-understand form. In a single step, one can see the relationship of one data to
another, and of each other data to the whole. The left column has the independent variables and
the column to the right list is the dependent variables. A table is a continuation of the text for
identification. It has a number, a title and a legend.
A table usually allows a reader to compare statistical information. Tables are useful in
presenting quantitative data. The following rules should be followed when using a table in
technical and scientific writing:
1. The table must have a title above it.
2. The table must be referred to in the text so that the reader knows when to look at it.
3. The table should be placed shortly after it is mentioned in the text.
4. One table should be placed in one place.
5. A table from an outside source must be acknowledged like any other borrowed
information.
Most tables have the following parts (Librero, 1993):
1. table number and title
2. box heading which identifies the entries in the vertical column
3. sub/side heading which are the entries in the horizontal rows
4. field which contains the data being presented
5. footnote which describes specific aspects of any part of the table. In this context, the
following non prose forms will be given emphasis:

Figures
- photograph
- drawings
- diagrams
- charts
- graphs
Pictograph
Pictograph is a graph that uses pictures to show information. Each picture stands for a
number of items.
Surface and Strata Chart
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A surface chat is similar to a line or bar chart or graph except that the area between the
curve line and the base or zero line is shaded. The distinction in shading or color should be
labeled or stated in a legend.
A multiple surface chart is basically a multiplex line chart with the underneath areas
shaded in differentiating patterns or colors. For greater emphasis, when amounts are more
important than ration or change, the surface chart should not be used when layers are highly
irregular or where the plotted lines interact.
Map Chart
When presenting geographical or spatial distribution, use a map chart. On a conventional
map, record the units or symbols which represent the data being relayed. The meaning of this
units or symbols should be given in a legend placed inside the border of the map.
Flow Chart
The flow chart shows successive movements of a product or a process. The styles are
enclosed in boxes, circles, blocks that are of different shapes. Arrows are used to indicate
movements or the direction of the flow.
Flow Sheet
The flow sheet shows the steps or chronology or a process of connecting geometric
symbols or figures with lines and arrows. Flow sheets should be read from left to right, and top
to bottom. For easy reading, they should be simple and uncluttered.
Diagrams
These are essential to device and process description, instructions and specification. Each
part of the device must be labeled by name, and motion indicated by arrows. Technical audiences
are usually well experienced in reading diagrams.
Engineers, business people, scientist, architects, use schematic diagrams to show
electrical or mechanical connections in a series of computerized system.
Drawings and diagrams are sometimes used instead of photograph if they can show the
lines and details more clearly. Parts of drawings should be labeled for easy interpretations. As in
other visual aids, they should have a title and accompanied by an explanation in the text.
Figures
These are variety of graphic devices which can be informative and dramatic.
Below are the guidelines to follow in determining whether a figure should be used in a
technical report.
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1. The use of figure is necessary.
2. It should convey information more effectively than a prose form.
3. It should be the best means to be used for the purpose of the writer.

Graphs
Graphs serve the same purpose with that of a table but often less accurate.
Graphs can be classified as:
Bar graphs used for showing comparative and relative quantities
Circle graphs/ Pie charts used for comparing the components of a whole to each other and to
the whole.
Line graphs/curves used to show a trend through the plotted data
Important Points in Handling Graphics Aids
1. The first step in illustrating a diagram pr chart is to complete the data. Opinion or guesses
should not be graphically represented. Only definite facts, most facts than can be measured
mathematically should be presented graphically. To determine which graphic is appropriate, the
nature of the material should be properly evaluated.
2. A graphic device should be accompanied by the exact data it represents, either in the text of
the paper or in a table or explanation placed in the graph.
3. The graph should be made intelligible by indicating the years, amounts, percentage, the scale
is drawn on and so on. This is usually done at the bottom and along the sides,
FLIERS, BROCHURES, AND NEWSLETTERS
Process
Prewriting
Answer the reporters questions to help you determine what you should include on the
flier. Dont worry about being concise at this point. Try to answer the questions as fully as you
can, especially when it comes to describing what your flier is about. You will begin making the
information more concise in the writing and re-wring stages.
o Who is your audience for the flier? Is it a specific company that will allow you to
personalize the flier? Is it a flier that will go out to several companies?
o Why are you creating the flier? Do you want to inform readers about something they
would not know about? Do you want to remind your readers about something they may
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have forgotten? Do you want to bring in new clients with the flier or do you want more
business from existing clients?
o What is the key point you want to focus on in your flier?
o When do you want readers to respond to your flier?
o How can your company meet the needs of your audience?

Writing
Once youve answered the questions in the prewriting stage you can begin to create the
content for your specific flier. During this stage, youll want to begin to think of words and
graphics for the flier.
o What is the title of your flier?
o What do you need to include in the main text of your flier? Have you explained the
product or service youre offering clearly but concisely? How can you personalize the
flier with the text?
o What "catchy phrase" can you use to describe your company in the flier?
o What highlighting techniques can you use?
o What will be your graphic?

Rewriting
Before submitting the final draft of your flier, youll want to make sure that it follows
all the criteria for fliers outlined in the chapter.
o Does the title grab the readers attention?
o Do you include the company name, phone number, street address, e-mail address,
and contact person?
o Do you have a "catchy phrase" that hooks the reader?
o Do you use appropriate highlighting techniques?
o Is the main text of your flier no more than one hundred words?
o Is your text personal?
o Is the flier free of grammar, punctuation, and spelling errors?

Newsletters
Why Should You Create One?
Newsletters are one of the least expensive -- and most effective -- public relations tools
that exist for drawing attention to a business or Web site.
By sending out a quality newsletter on a regular basis, you can keep clients, potential
clients, the media, and other important sources updated about your business.
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Frequency of mailing builds familiarity, and familiarity inspires return visits. Plus, the
effort of creating a newsletter itself speaks volumes about your commitment to the subject. It
also positions you as an expert and a valuable resource.
So, Let's Get Started
Begin by choosing a format and naming your newsletter
To save time and money later, decide early on: Will the newsletter be emailed or printed?
If it's the latter, will it be 2 pages, 4, or more? Printed in black and white, 2/c, or 4/color? Do you
need a logo? What about a designer to give the newsletter a stylish look? All that affect the total
cost.
Since I'm not the greatest newsletter name, the no-brainer advice I offer on the subject is
1) include the topic of your site in the title and 2) use the word News or one of its synonyms that
also indicate timeliness.
Do You Need to Do Background Research First?
If you're going to write a newsletter for someone else, you need to understand their
business first. In my last newsletter assignment, not being an expert on the the printing business,
I started by asking the clients to supply information that could quickly acquaint me with what
they do. I requested they send me printing trade papers, yearbooks, and highlights of their own
correspondence, preferably pitch letters.
Interview Your Client -- Or Yourself
After reading the background information, draw up a list of questions. Ask:
o What's unique about your company?
o Who are your clients? (This tells you what kind of audience you'll be writing to.)
o What recent product are your proudest of? Show it to me. Describe it in your own words.
(This can be the core of a news or new-product feature in your newsletter.)
o Have you won any awards?
o Are there any clients who would provide a testimonial about your services? (Makes good
filler material -- as long as it's short.)
o What does your audience need to know about your business/service/product/idea?
o Are there any misconceptions we can use the newsletter to clear up?
o What advances in your industry will interest your audience?

Structure a Table of Contents
In developing a table of contents, think like an editor: Try to assemble a diverse and
lively assortment of newsworthy pieces. Some articles can be long, others short. All need to be
different in tone and content. How can you start?
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Think of all the elements you see in a newspaper:
o table of contents
o masthead
o news articles
o feature articles
o personality profiles
o editorials
o columns
o new product announcements
o good news/success stories
o Q&A
o puzzles
o coming-attraction ads

Now, adapt this mix to your subject matter. You don't have to write the full story at first.
Just come up with headlines that reflect the content that will follow. Then map out which items
will go on each page of the newsletter. Once you know the editorial line-up, it's time to start
writing.
How Much Will Fit?
Unless your newsletter is oversize, assume you'll have room for 3-6 items per page. Some
as short as a sentence or two might look good in a bigger typeface, set as a pullquote or "factoid."
If you include photos or illustrations, you won't have as much room for text. But images
will help attract your readers' attention. Take advantage of that fact by making sure every image
has a caption.
Plan to Get a Response
Consider building a response mechanism into the newsletter. It could be as simple as a
box with a broken rule. Readers can sign and fax or mail it back to you for a free subscription. Or
it could be designed to serve as an entry blank for a contest -- which traditionally lifts response.
Either way, reader responses build a database of potential customers who've expressed interest in
the company.
Issue I, Volume I
If you're starting your first issue, devote a column to introducing your newsletter and
telling readers its mission and frequency. Include background on your own credentials and your
business services. This can later be edited down and used as "boilerplate" copy that goes on the
bottom of every issue.
Masthead
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Some newsletters carry mastheads, others just a return address. If promoting your name is
important to you -- or you'd like to give credit to anyone who helped you with the newsletter --
list them in the masthead with a title.
Newsletter Tips
1. Research your subject first.
2. Interview the client about his/her business. Find out what's his or her most important
message to communicate to clients.
3. At the end of any interview, always pose the question: Is there anything else you want to
add? (You may be surprised by what you hear. When I interviewed Rupert Murdoch, I
got the essence of the entire story by asking this open-ended question. He knew what
message he wanted to convey far better than I.)
4. Decide on the name and frequency of your newsletter. Stick to them.
5. If you're the coordinator as well as the writer, work out a budget and a production
schedule.
6. Draw up a table of contents for each issue.
7. Decide on a size, and how many articles can comfortably fit on a side.
8. Allow room for photographs and other visuals.
9. Vary the content to include different types of articles (news, features, editorial opinion,
Q&A, letters to the editor, etc.)
10. Keep articles brief and language simple. If necessary, include a glossary.
11. Run items that won't be out of date in a month (or however long it takes to produce the
newsletter).
12. Include tips, site info, a calendar of special events, how-to's, profiles of successes.
13. Provide a list of URLs where readers can find out more.
14. Promote your site's "Coming Attractions"
15. Build a "clip" file of information related to the subject that isn't particularly consumer-
focused and use them to inspire ideas and as background information.
16. Golden Rule: A headline for every article, a caption for every picture.
17. Create a boilerplate paragraph (see part I) to include at the bottom of every issue that
explains your newsletter's mission.
18. Encourage readers to send you (e)mail.
19. Create a contest.
20. Double-check your spelling and grammar. If you're weak in these areas, have someone
else read the newsletter with an editor's eye before mailing it.
21. Carefully construct a mailing list. Keep it in good shape -- and work on expanding it. The
more people who see your newsletter, the more business you'll get.
22. Print enough copies -- and use them as sales tools and leave-behinds as well as direct
mail promotion..

Brochure
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This document uses a template to create a three-panel brochure. The brochure uses good
design features such as subheadings, graphics and short paragraphs.
REPORTS
Process
Prewriting
For the feasibility report, you need to complete two prewriting activities.
First, answer the reporters questions for your topic:
o Who initiated the feasibility report and to whom are you writing the report?
o When can the improvements be made?
o Why are you writing the report?
o Where should the improvements take place?
o What problem does the feasibility report address? What solution does the report
recommend? What criteria are you using for your recommendation?
Submit the answers to your instructor.
Answering the reporters questions gives you some idea of what you will discuss in your
feasibility report. However, it does not help you organize your material. Therefore, you need to
complete one more prewriting activity before you begin writing your report.
Second, complete a branching activity to provide you with a visual representation of the structure
of your report.
o Write the topic of your feasibility report in a box at the top of your paper.
o Branch off this box and create three boxes one box for each major section of the report:
introduction, discussion, and conclusion.
o Under these three sections include your subordinate points. Under Introduction, for
example, you will want to have the following branches: Purpose , Problems, Initiator, and
Personnel.

Writing
If you completed the prewriting correctly, you should now have ideas for the basic content
and overall organization of your feasibility report. You can now begin writing your report by
following these steps:
1. Reread your prewriting to make sure that you have included all the necessary sections
and points that need to be covered in your report.
2. Assess your audience to help you decide how much background data to include in your
report.
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3. Draft you text by writing content for the three major divisions: introduction, discussion,
and conclusion/recommendation.
4. Organize the discussion section of your report. Most likely you will want to use either a
problems/solutions or comparison/contrast organizational approach.

Rewriting
Review your rough draft and make it better by following these techniques:
1. Add detail for clarity.
o Have you adequately covered the background of the problem your feasibility report
addresses?
o Have you fully explained the criteria upon which you will base your recommendation?
o Have you objectively compared your findings against the criteria in your analysis
section?
o Have you sufficiently developed the significance of your findings and clearly explained
your recommendation?
2. Delete dead words and phrases for conciseness.
3. Simplify old-fashioned words and phrases.
4. Move information around within your discussion section to make sure that your reader will not
be confused by your organizational approach.
5. Reformat your text for accessibility.
o Highlight key points with underlining or boldface
o Use clear headings and subheadings
o Consider a chart or table to help readers with your analysis section
6. Enhance your text for style.
o Quantify, dont be vague or imprecise
o Be positive when it comes to your conclusion and recommendation
7. Proofread your report to avoid grammar, punctuation and spelling errors.
8. Avoid sexist language.
Progress Report
Sample
This student writes her progress report to inform her instructor on her web site construction
progress. The introduction summarizes the project clearly and identifies the goals of the web site.
The discussion section describes the work accomplished, the work remaining, and the problems
encountered. The conclusion summarizes the work accomplished and recommends ways for the
instructor to help further with the project. Throughout the progress report, the student makes use
of highlighting techniques such as numbered lists, subheadings and graphic, making the report
more accessible to readers.
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This is a revision of an ineffective progress report. It begins with a brief introduction to provide
the context (what the progress report is for), then discusses the work that's been completed at this
point and a discussion of the work yet to be completed. Note the way the students present the
difficulties they've faced with the project and how this presentation might motivate Dr. Smith to
grant their request for additional time. They end positively, providing one last reason (to
ultimately produce a better report) their professor should grant them the extra time.
Some Forms of Reports
1.) Technical Report
This provides useful information about a complete program of work, for reference and
permanent record.
2.) Feasibility Report
This represents facts and information intended to make the reader realize that the
proposed project or plan is financially, economically, and technically, significant as well as
beneficial.
3.) Progress Report
This contains an account of what has been accomplished on a project over a specific
period of time and what may be expected in the next period.
4.) Survey Report
This is a thorough study of any subject. Some subjects of surveys are potential markets
fro products, labor policies, market punctuation, public opinions and community resources.
Examples are poll surveys on the study of a possible site for a new plant.
5.) Trip Report
An account of a business or professional trip. It records specific and significant places,
events, conversations and people met. It attempts to answer where, when , what ,why and how
also. It may have recommendation section.
6.) Laboratory Report
A record of procedures and results of laboratory test. It describes the scope of a project,
the equipment utilized, the procedures used, the results of test and the conclusion and
recommendation.


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Activity 4
Multiple Choice
Choose the letter with the best answer.
1. A formal definition lacks emphasis and completeness.
a. True b. False
2. The description of mechanism should adequately cover all essential aspects of the process.
a. True b. False
3. Conclusions should not be inferred if they have no connections with the data.
a. True b. False
4. Technical writing uses language that is simple, concrete and familiar.
a. True b. False
5. It is important to have a sufficient knowledge of the subject matter.
a. True b. False