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1.

Introduction
1.1 Overview:
The structural design of an airplane actually begins with the flight envelope or
V-n diagram, which clearly limits the maximum load factors that the airplane ca
n withstand at any particular flight velocity. However in normal practice the ai
rplane might experience loads that are much higher than the design loads. Some o
f the factors that lead to the structural overload of an airplane are high gust
velocities, sudden movements of the controls, fatigue load in some cases, bird s
trikes or lightning strikes. So to add some inherent ability to withstand these
rare but large loads, a safety factor of 1.5 is provided during the structural d
esign. The two major members that need to be considered for the structural desig
n of an airplane are wings and the fuselage. As far as the wing design is concer
ned, the most significant load is the bending load. So the primary load carrying
member in the wing structure is the spar (the front and rear spars) whose cross
section is an I section. Apart from the spars to take the bending loads, suitable
stringers need to take the shear loads acting on the wings. Unlike the wing, wh
ich is subjected to mainly unsymmetrical load, the fuselage is much simpler for
structural analysis due to its symmetrical crossing and symmetrical loading. The
main load in the case of fuselage is the shear load because the load acting on
the wing is transferred to the fuselage skin in the form of shear only. The stru
ctural design of both wing and fuselage begin with shear force and bending momen
t diagrams for the respective members. The maximum bending stress produced in ea
ch of them is checked to be less than the yield stress of the material chosen fo
r the respective member.
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1.2 Outline:
The Structural design involves: Determination of loads acting on aircraft:
V-n d
iagram for the design study
Gust and maneuverability envelopes Schrenks Curve
Cri
tical loading performance and final V-n graph calculation Determination of loads
acting on individual structures Structural design study Theory approach
Load es
timation of wings
Load estimation of fuselage. Material Selection for structural
members Detailed structural layouts
Design of some components of wings, fuselag
e
1.3 Parameters forwarded from ADP 1
Take off Gross Weight,
Maximum Velocity,
Cruise Velocity, Stall Velocity, 2

Table 1-1: Mass ratio Split up


Components Crew Landing Gear Payload Fixed Equipment Fuselage mass Horizontal St
ablizer Vertical Stabilizer Wing Structure Fuel Power plant Total
Mass Fraction 0.00053146 0.042516824 0.190144687 0.002262033 0.085033649 0.01259
7578 0.006298789 0.125975776 0.4810995 0.053539705 1
Cruise Altitude = 12 km The airfoil used her is NACA 653 - 418 Density at cruise
altitude,
Cruise C_L @ Cruise altitude,
@ 16 aoa @ 14 since tail angle is 15.56 @ -14 aoa
cr = 11.593 m 3

ct = 5.797 m ( )
( )
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2. V-n Diagram
2.1 Maneuvering Envelope:
In accelerated flight, the lift becomes much more compared to the weight of the
aircraft. This implies a net force contributing to the acceleration. This force
causes stresses on the aircraft structure. The ratio of the lift experienced to
the weight at any instant is defined as the Load Factor (n).
Using the above formula, we infer that load factor has a quadratic variation wit
h velocity. However, this is true only up to a certain velocity. This velocity i
s determined by simultaneously imposing limiting conditions aerodynamically ((CL
)max) as well as structurally (nmax). This velocity is called the Corner Velocit
y, and is determined using the following formula,

In this section, we estimate the aerodynamic limits on load factor, and attempt
to draw the variation of load factor with velocity, commonly known as the V-n Di
agram. The Vn diagram is drawn for Sea level Standard conditions.
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Figure 2-1: Typical V-n diagram for a private airliner.


Figure 2-2: V-n diagram nomenclature
6

V-n diagram is used primarily in the determination of combination of flight cond


itions and load factors to which the airplane structure must be designed. Vn dia
gram precisely gives the structural (maximum load factor) and aerodynamic (maxim
um CL) boundaries for a particular flight condition.
2.2 Construction of V-n diagram
2.2.1 Curve OA:
Maximum Load Factor, ( ) ( )
Hence along the curve OA, Using the above equation we get
Table 2-1: Velocity vs. positive load factor (n)
Velocity V (m/s) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
Load Factor (n) 0 0.08492371 0.339694842 0.764313394 1.358779368 2.123092762 3.0
57253578 4.161261814 5.435117472 6.87882055 8.49237105 10.27576897 12.22901431
7

At A,
2.2.2 Curve AC:
AC is a line limiting the maximum amount of load that can be withstood by the we
akest structure of the aircraft * + [ ( ) ]

VC= 408.32 m/s nC=nA


2.2.3 Along CD:
The velocity at point D is given by VD=1.5VC= 416.66 m/s nD= 0.75nA= 4.80864 A s
traight line is used to join the points C and D This VD is the dive velocity or
the maximum permissible EAS in which the aircraft is at the verge of structural
damage due to high dynamic pressure.
2.2.4 Along DE:
E corresponds to zero load factor point i.e
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n= 0 For Bombers the load factor can vary from -3 to +6.5 Hence the negative loa
d factor of aircraft is limited to -2
2.2.5 Along EF
The point F corresponds to the velocity VC = VF = 408.32 m/s
2.2.6 Curve OG:
nF= -2 (for a typical bomber aircraft)
Hence along the curve OG,
Hence we get,
Table 2-2: Velocity vs. negative Load factor (n)
Velocity V (m/s) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Load Factor (n) 0 -0.034356779 -0.137427115 -0.309211009 -0.549708461 -0.8589194
7 -1.236844037 -1.683482161 -2.198833843 -2.782899083 -3.43567788 -4.157170234
9

2.2.7 Along GF:


Also nG=nF Finally join GF by using a straight line

2.3 Nomenclature of curves:


PHAA Positive High Angle of Attack PSL Positive Structural Limit PLAA
ow Angle of Attack HSL High Speed Limit NHAA Negative High Angle of Attack NSL Ne
gative Structural Limit NLAA Negative Low Angle of Attack LSL Low Speed Limit
Figure 2-3: Four basic flight conditions showing how location of maximum stresse
s in wing depends on angle of attack
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2.4 Low Speed Limit:


Stall velocity is the maximum speed at which the aircraft can maintain level fli
ght. This implies the intersection of this line at cruise n=1 with OA curve corr
esponds to stall velocity Vs. Vs = 68.630 m/s
Rough V-n Diagram
PHAA
NSL 10 Load Factor
NHAA
PLAA
PSL
NLAA
HSL
LSL
5
0 0 -5 -10 100 200 300 400 500
Velocity (m/s)
Figure 2-4: Rough V-n Diagram
From the V-n diagram, it is observed that the stall curve corresponds to maximum
value of CLmax and any point beyond this curve for a particular velocity is not
achievable in flight as it enters the stall region there. The upper horizontal
line corresponds to limit load factor as well as ultimate load factor. It
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shows that there is outright structural failure when the aircraft is flown beyon
d this value of load factor. n=-2 gives the negative limit load factor and negat
ive ultimate load factor. From the figure, it is clear that for a particular vel
ocity, it is not possible to fly at a value of CL higher than the CLmax correspo
nding to that velocity. If we wish to increase the lift of the airplane to that
value of C Lmax, then we should increase the flying speed of the airplane.
Maneuvering Envelope
7 6 5 4 Load Factor
PIAA
2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 0
LSL
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
NIAA
Velocity
Figure 2-5: Maneuvering Envelope
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HSL
3

Maneuvering Envelope
7 6 5 4 Load Factor 3 2 1 0A 0 -1 -2 -3
C
D
E
B H
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
G
Velocity
F
Figure 2-6: Maneuvering Envelope
Maneuvering Envelope with coordinates
7 6 5 4 Load Factor 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 0
173.77, 6.41152
408.32, 6.41152 416.66, 4.80864
68.630 2,1
50 68.63, -0.4046 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
416.66 , 0 450
159.5944,-2
Velocity
408.32,-2
Figure 2-7: Maneuvering envelope with coordinates
Hence for the strategic bomber aircraft we get, Safety Factor = 1.5
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Caution Speed = 325 m/s Corner Velocity = 173.77 m/s Stall speed = 59.669 m/s Sa
fety load factor limit i.e., indications given to pilot n = -2/ 1.5 = -1.3333 n
= 6.41152/ 1.5 = 4.2743 Dive Velocity = 416.66 m/s
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Figure 2-8: V-n diagram with safety factor or safety limit consideration
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3. Gust Envelope
3.1 Description:
Gust is a sudden, brief increase in the speed of the wind. Generally, winds are
least gusty over large water surfaces and most gusty over rough land and near hi
gh buildings. With respect to aircraft turbulence, a sharp change in wind speed
relative to the aircraft; a sudden increase in airspeed due to fluctuations in t
he airflow, resulting in increased structural stresses upon the aircraft. Sharpedged gust (u) is a wind gust that results in an instantaneous change in directi
on or speed. Derived gust velocity (U or Umax) is the maximum velocity of a shar
p-edged gust that would produce a given acceleration on a particular airplane fl
own in level flight at the design cruising speed of the aircraft and at a given
air density. As a result a 25% increase is seen in lift for a longitudinally dis
turbing gust. The effect of turbulence gust is to produce a short time change in
the effective angle of attack. These changes produce a variation in lift and th
ereby load factor For velocities up to Vmax, cruise, a gust velocity of 15 m/s a
t sea level is assumed. For Vdiv, a gust velocity of 10 m/s is assumed. Effectiv
e gust velocity: The vertical component of the velocity of a sharpedged gust tha
t would produce a given acceleration on a particular airplane flown in level fli
ght at the design cruising speed of the aircraft and at a given air density. Ref
erence Gust Velocity (Uref ) at sea level 15m/s. Design Gust Velocity (Uds) Uref
X K
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12 10 8 6 Load factor 4 2 0 0 -2 -4 50
Variation in aerodynamic limits
Normal Stall curve
Gust stall curve
Normal neg stall curve Gust neg stall curve
100 150 200 250
Flaps Retracted
Velocity -6 Figure 3-1: Variation in Aerodynamic limits due to gust
3.2 Construction
The increase in the load factor due to the gust can be calculated by For curve a
bove V-axis:
Where K
Gust Alleviation Factor U max
Maximum derived Gust Velocity a
Slope for wing For curve below V-axis: 17

Lift Curve

Gust Alleviation Factor: Gust Alleviation Factor (K):


Lateral Mass Ratio ():
Where g
Acceleration due to Gravity
Mean Aerodynamic Chord ct
rd at root cr = 11.593 m ct = 5.797 m ( )
a= 0.1213507 /degree
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Chord at tip cr Ch

a= 6.9528829 /radian for a =0.15/ degree where a is lift curve slope for the chose
n airfoil NACA 65(3) 418 a
lift curve slope for airfoil Sweep angle at leading Ed
ge of Wing
( )
Table 3-1: Equivalent air speed and corresponding Derived Gust Velocity
For Velocity at points
Equivalent air speed Derived Gust Velocity V (m/s) Umax (m/s) 15 10 5
B,G C,F D,E
173.77 408.32 416.66
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By using the equations and for various speeds of Umax we get the following gust
lines
Gust Lines
4 U=15m/s U=0m/s U=-15m/s U=10m/s U=-5m/s U=5m/s U=-10./s
3
2
Load factor
1
Level
0 0 50 100 150 200 250
Design speed 277.77 m/s 350 300
400
450
-1
Velocity -2
Figure 3-2: Gust Lines
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Overlaped Maneuver envelope and gust lines


7 6 5 4 3 Load factor 2 1 0 0 -1 -2 Velocity -3 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 4
50 Gust stall curve PLAA NIAA U=5m/s Gust neg stall curve NLAA U=15m/s U=0m/s HS
L PIAA U=10m/s U=-5m/s
Figure 3-3: Overlapped maneuvering envelope and gust lines.
The load factors at the various points can be found using the formula using the
corresponding values of Umax n B = 1.4195966 n G= 0.846720 nC = 2.5617017 nF = -0.56
17017 n D = 1.796799 n E = 0.203200 21

The positive load factor along the curve OB is given by the equation
Hence along the curve OA,
But also
Equating the above two equations we get an intersecting point B where velocity i
s VB = 73.1379 m/s Since the velocities and load factors at C, D, E and F are kn
own and straight lines are used to join these points in sequence
3.2.1 Line FG:
It is found that negative gust line of U= -15 m/s intersects the positive high a
ngle of attack condition at G.
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Equating the above equation with the OA curve equation we get the point G where
VG = 51.52026m/s
Gust Envelope
3 2.5 2 1.5 Load factor 1
C
D B
G
0.5 0 0
O
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
-0.5 -1 -1.5 -2 Velocity (m/s)
E
450
F
Figure3-4: Gust Envelope
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Gust Envelope with coordinates


3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5 -2 Velocity 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 45
0
408.32, 2.561702
73.13798, 1.419596
416.66, 1.7968
Load factor
51.52026, 0.704426
416.66, 0 410.9975, -1.3791
Figure 3-5: Gust Envelope with coordinates
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4. Schrenks Curve
4.1 Description
Lift varies along the wing span due to the variation in chord length, angle of a
ttack and sweep along the span. Schrenks curve defines this lift distribution ove
r the wing span of an aircraft, also called simply as Lift Distribution Curve. S
chrenks Curve is given by
Where y1 is Linear Variation of lift along semi wing span also named as L1 y2 is
Elliptic Lift Distribution along the wing span also named as L2
a = 44.8285 m
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Figure 4-1: Wing geometry showing sweep angle and semi span along the root.
4.2 Linear Lift Distribution:
Lift at root
Lroot = 90978.038 N/m Lift at tip
Ltip = 45492.942 N/m By representing this lift at sections of root and tip we ca
n get the equation for the wing.
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Figure 4-2: Linear lift distribution


Equation of linear lift distribution for starboard wing
Equation of linear lift distribution for port wing we have to replace x by x in g
eneral,
Twice the area under y1= Total lift= 2491907.5 N Take off Gross Weight
Linear variation of Lift along wing Semi span
Thousands 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 Wing Semi Span (m) L
1
Figure 4-3: Linear Variation of lift along wing semi span
Lift per meter (N/m)
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For the Schrenks curve we only consider half of the linear distribution of lift a
nd hence we derive y1/2
4.3 Elliptic Lift Distribution:
Twice the area under the curve or line will give the lift which will be required
to overcome weight Considering an elliptic lift distribution we get
Where b1 is Actual lift at root And a is wing semi span Lift at tip
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Figure 4-4: Elliptic lift distribution


Equation of elliptic lift distribution
Elliptic variation of Lift along wing Semi span
Thousands 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 Wing Semi Span (m) L2
Figure 4-5: Elliptic lift distribution
Lift per meter (N/m)

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4.4 Construction of Schrenks Curve:


Schrenks Curve is given by
Substituting different values for x we can get the lift distribution for the win
g semi span
Table 4-1: Lift distribution table along semi span
x 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 44.8285
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
L1 90978.04 89963.39 88948.75 87934.1 86919.45 85904.81 84890.16 83875.52 82860.
87 81846.22 80831.58 79816.93 78802.29 77787.64 76772.99 75758.35 74743.7 73729.
06 72714.41 71699.76 70685.12 69670.47
L2 70776.189 70758.577 70705.716 70617.525 70493.872 70334.571 70139.378 69907.9
93 69640.055 69335.14 68992.759 68612.349 68193.275 67734.819 67236.175 66696.44
3 66114.615 65489.57 64820.058 64104.686 63341.899 62529.962
L 80877.11 80360.98 79827.23 79275.81 78706.66 78119.69 77514.77 76891.75 76250.
46 75590.68 74912.17 74214.64 73497.78 72761.23 72004.58 71227.4 70429.16 69609.
31 68767.23 67902.22 67013.51 66100.22
L1 68655.83 67641.18 66626.53 65611.89 64597.24 63582.6 62567.95 61553.3 60538.6
6 59524.01 58509.37 57494.72 56480.07 55465.43 54450.78 53436.14 52421.49 51406.
84 50392.2 49377.55 48362.91 47348.26 46333.61 45492.98
L2 61666.935 60750.639 59778.626 58748.129 57656.013 56498.706 55272.111 53971.5
05 52591.398 51125.351 49565.739 47903.426 46127.307 44223.675 42175.265 39959.8
2 37547.784 34898.417 31952.741 28619.406 24742.227 20007.494 13543.872 0
L 65161.38 64195.91 63202.58 62180.01 61126.63 60040.65 58920.03 57762.4 56565.0
3 55324.68 54037.55 52699.07 51303.69 49844.55 48313.02 46697.98 44984.64 43152.
63 41172.47 38998.48 36552.57 33677.88 29938.74 22746.49
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Schrenk s Curve
Thousands 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 Wing span loaction (
m) L L1 L2
Figure 4-6: Schrenks curve with linear and elliptic lift distribution
Replacing x by x for port wing we can get lift distribution for entire span.
Lift per meter span (N/m)
Schrenk s Curve
Thousands 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 -60 -40 -20 0 Wing span loaction (m) 20 4
0 60 L
Figure 4-7: Schrenks curve
Lift per meter span (N/m)
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5. Load Estimation on wings


5.1 Description:
The solution methods which follow Eulers beam bending theory (/y=M/I=E/R) ue the
bending moment value to determine the tree developed at a particular ectio
n of the beam due to the combination of aerodynamic and tructural load in the
tranvere direction. Mot engineering olution method for tructural mechanic
problem (both exact and approximate method) ue the hear force and bending m
oment equation to determine the deflection and lope at a particular ection of
the beam. Therefore, thee equation are to be obtained a analytical expreio
n in term of pan wie location. The bending moment produced here i about the
longitudinal (x) axi.
5.2 Load acting on wing:
A both the wing are ymmetric, let u conider the tarboard wing at firt. Th
ere are three primary load acting on a wing tructure in tranvere direction w
hich can caue coniderable hear force and bending moment on it. They are a
follow:
Lift force (given by Schrenk curve) Self-weight of the wing
Weight of t
he power plant
Weight of the fuel in the wing
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5.3 Shear force and bending moment diagram due to load along tranvere direct
ion at cruie condition:
Lift Force given by Schrenk Curve:
Linear lift ditribution (trapezium):
Elliptic lift ditribution (quarter ellipe)

Linear lift ditribution (y1/2)
50000 45000 Lift per unit length (N/m) 40000 35000 30000 25000 20000 15000 10000
5000 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Span wie location (m)
Figure 5-1: Lift ditribution (linear)
33

Elliptic lift ditribution (y2/2)


40000 35000 Lift per unit length (N/m) 30000 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0 0 10
20 30 40 50 Span wie location (m) y2/2
Figure 5-2: Lift ditribution (Elliptic)
Self-Weight (y3): Self-weight of the wing,
Auming parabolic weight ditribution ( Where b

pan 34 ( ))

When we integrate from x=0 (root location) to x=b (tip location) we get the net
weight of port wing. ( ( )
)
Subtituting variou value of x in the above equation we get the elf-weight of
the wing.
Self Weight
0 0 WEight of empty wing (N/m) -5000 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
-10000
-15000
-20000
-25000
Span wie location (m)
Figure 5-3: Self weight of wing
Power plant weight: Power plant i aumed to be a point load,
35

Acting at x= 8 m and x= 14 m from the root. Fuel weight: Thi deign ha fuel in
the wing o we have to conider the weight of the fuel in the wing.
Again by uing general formula for traight line y=mx + c we get,
Fuel ditribution
0 -2000 -4000 Fuel weight (N/m) -6000 -8000 -10000 -12000 -14000 -16000 -18000 20000 Span wie location (m) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Figure 5-4: Fuel Ditribution
36

Load ditribution
60000 40000 20000 0 0 -20000 -40000 -60000 -80000 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Load acting on wing (N/m)
Span wie location (m)
Figure 5-5: Overall Load ditribution Table 5-1: Load implified a point load
Curve / component
Area encloed / tructural Centroid (from wing root) weight (N)
y1/2 y2/2 Wing Fuel Power plant
1529447.31 1245953.75 313917 365752.803 66708
19.923 m 3.510534 m 16.8107 m 16.4606 m 14 m, 8 m
37

Figure 5-6: Reaction force and Bending moment calculation


Now we know VA and MA, uing thi we can find out hear force and Bending moment
.
5.3.1 Shear Force:

38

( ( ) )

By uing the correponding value of x in appropriate equation we get the plot
of hear force Note: Shear force i a dicrete function along y axi o in order
to make it continuou we introduce traight line.
39

Shear Force
Thouand 1000 500
Shear Force (N)
0 -44.8285 -34.8285 -24.8285 -14.8285 -4.8285 -500 -1000 -1500 -2000 -2500
5.1715
15.1715 25.1715 35.1715
-3000 Location in wing (m)
Figure 5-7: Shear force diagram - dicrete
Shear Force (Actual)
Thouand 1000 500
Shear Force (N)
0 -44.8285 -34.8285 -24.8285 -14.8285 -4.8285 -500 -1000 -1500 -2000 -2500
5.1715
15.1715 25.1715 35.1715
-3000 Location in wing (m)
Figure 5-8: Shear force diagram- continuou
40

5.3.2 Bending moment:

( ( ( ( ))
)
)

By ubtituting the value of x for the above equation of bending moment obtai
ned we can get a continuou bending moment curve for the port wing. Note: if we
replace the x by -x in each term we get the ditribution of tarboard wing
41

Bending Moment
Million
Bending Moment (Nm) -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50
Location in wing (m)
Figure 5-9: Bending moment diagram
5.4 Shear force and bending moment diagram due to load along chordwie directi
on at cruie condition:
Aerodynamic center- Thi i a point on the chord of an airfoil ection where the
bending moment due to the component of reultant aerodynamic force (Lift and D
rag) i contant irrepective of the angle of attack. Hence the force are tran
ferred to thi point for obtaining contant Ma.c Shear center- Thi i a point o
n the airfoil ection where if a force act, it produce only bending and no twi
ting. Hence the force i tranferred to thi point and the torque i found. Cru
ie CL=0.204908 @ V= 250 m/ Cruie CD= 0.0055 Angle of attack= -0.811439 (obtain
ed from the lift curve lope) Angle of attack @ zero lift= -3o 42

Wing lift curve lope (a)= 0.1213507 /degree Co-efficient of moment about aerody
namic centre= -0.0543 Location of aerodynamic centre:
Location of hear centre:
Lift and drag are the component of reultant aerodynamic force acting normal to
and along the direction of relative wind repectively. A a reult, component
of them act in the chordwie direction alo which produce a bending moment about
the normal (z) axi.
Figure 5-10: Normal and chord wie coefficient
Co-efficient of force along the normal direction,
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Chordwie force at root


Chordwie force at tip
By uing y = mx +c again we get the equation a
The above equation give the profile of load acting chordwie, by integrating th
i above equation we get a component of Shear force and again by integrating the
ame we get the component of Bending Moment
44

1400 Load along chord wie direction (N) 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 0 5
Load along Chordwie direction
10
15
20
25
30
35
Spanwie location (m)
Figure 5-11: Load along chordwie direction
To find fixing moment and the reaction force,
5.4.1 Shear Force:
45

Shear Force
Thouand 0 0 -5 -10 Shear Force (N) -15 -20 -25 -30 -35 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Spanwie location (m)
Figure 5-12: Shear force
5.4.2 Bending Moment:
Bending Moment
Thouand 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Spanwie location (m)
Figure 5-13: Bending moment
Bending moment (Nm)
46

Torque due to normal force and contant pitching moment at cruie condition:
Figure 5-14: Moment about aerodynamic center
The lift and drag force produce a moment on the urface of croection of the
wing, otherwie called a torque, about the hear center. Moment about the aerody
namic center get tranferred to the hear center. The powerplant alo produce
a torque about the hear center on the chord under which it i located.
Figure 5-15:Torque due to normal force and moment
47

5.5 Torque at cruie condition:


5.5.1 Torque due to normal force:
Where c
chord the equation for chord can alo be repreented in term of x by ta
king c= mx +k,
Therefore torque
48

Torque due to normal force


Thouand Torque (Nm) 1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 5 10 15 20 25
30 35 40 Spanwie location (m)
Figure 5-16: Torque due to normal force
5.5.2 Torque due to chord wie force:
5.5.3 Torque due to moment:

49

Torque due to Moment


Million 0 0 -1 -2 Torque (Nm) -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 Spanwie location (m) 5 10 15 2
0 25 30 35 40
Figure 5-17: Torque due to moment
5.5.4 Torque due to powerplant:
The powerplant i ituated under a chord (8 m and 14 m from the wing root; chord
length 10.7504 m and 10.1184m ) from 0.1c to 0.5c at 10.7504m and from 0.1 c to
0.5249c an Uniformly Ditributed Load of 15513.488 N/m i aumed to be preent
for thi 4.3 m ince the powerplant weight i 66708N. The centroid of the appli
ed UDL i at 0.3c for firt cae and at 0.31245c at econd location. Torque prod
uced about hear center
50

Thouand
70 60 50
Torque due to Powerplant
Torque (Nm)
40 30 20 10 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Spanwie location (m)
Figure 5-18: Torque due to powerplant
Then the different torque component are brought together in a ame graph to mak
e a comparion
Torque comparion
Thouand 2000 1000 0 -1000 Torque (Nm) -2000 -3000 -4000 -5000 -6000 -7000 -800
0 Spanwie location (m) 0 10 20 30 40
Torque due to Normal Force Torque due to moment Torque due to powerplant
Figure 5-19: Torque comparion
51

The net torque will be um of all the above torque i.e. torque due to normal fo
rce, chordwie force, powerplant and aerodynamic moment
Torque
Million 0 0 -1 -2 Torque (Nm) -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Spanwie location (m)
Figure 5-20: Net torque
52

5.6 Load at Critical flight condition:


Optimum Wing tructural deign conit of determining that tiffne ditributi
on which i proportional to the local load ditribution. The aerodynamic force
of lift and drag are reolved into component normal and parallel to the wing ch
ord. The ditribution of hear force, bending moment and torque over the aircraf
t wing are conidered for wing tructural analyi. Identification of critical p
oint from the maneuvering and gut envelope: 1. Maneuvering envelope
Table 5-1: Coordinate of V-n diagram
Point A C D E F G
Load factor 6.41152 6.41152 4.80864 0 -2 -2
E.A.S. (m/) 173.77 408.32 416.66 416.66 408.16 159.5944
2. Gut envelope
Table 5-2: Coordinate of gut envelope
Point B C D E F G
Load factor 1.41959 2.5617 1.7968 0.2032 -1.3255 0.5822
E.A.S. (m/) 173.137975 408.16 416.66 416.66 408.16 51.52026
53

Corner point are repreentative of critical flight load condition a ummary i


given below.
Table 5-3: Coordinate of critical condition
Critical flight condition n max point Poitive H.A.A. Poitive L.A.A Negative H.A.
A Negative L.A.A
Point (n, E.A.S.) C (2.5617, 408.16) A (6.41152, 173.77) D (4.80864, 416.66) G (-2,
408.16) E (0, 416.66)
Shear force and bending moment diagram of a wing due to normal force at critic
al flight condition: In the preliminary tage of tructural analyi, the critic
al flight loading condition of poitive high angle of attack (repreented by poi
nt A in v-n diagram) will be invetigated.
It i een that lift ha increaed by 6.41152 time. So we introduce a contant
of proportionality for the lift alone 54

Linear variation of Lift along wing Semi pan (critical condition)


Thouand 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 Wing Semi Span (m) L1
Figure 5-21: Linear Variation of lift along wing emi pan
Lift per meter (N/m)
Elliptic variation of Lift along wing Semi pan (Critical Condition)
Thouand 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 Wing Semi Sp
an (m) L2
Figure 5-22: Elliptic variation of lift along wing emi pan
Lift per meter (N/m)
55

The aim i to find the hear force and bending moment due to normal force in
critical flight condition. There are three primary load acting on a wing truct
ure in tranvere direction which can caue coniderable hear force and bendin
g moment on it. They are a follow: Lift force (given by Schrenk curve)
Self-w
eight of the wing
Weight of the power plant
Weight of the fuel in the wing Now,
the proportionality contant influence the lift force alone and other factor r
emain unaffected.
Table 5-4: Load implified a point load at critical flight condition
Curve / component
Area encloed / tructural Centroid (from wing root) weight (N)
y1/2 y2/2 Wing Fuel Power plant
1529447.316.41152 1245953.75 6.41152 313917 365752.803 66708
19.923 m 3.510534 m 16.8107 m 16.4606 m 14 m, 8 m
56

Schrenk  Curve (Critical Condition)


Thouand 600 500 400 300 L 200 100 0 -60 -40 -20 0 Wing pan loaction (m) 20 40
60
Figure 5-23: Critical chrenk curve
Figure 5-24: load ditribution at critical condition
Lift per meter pan (N/m)
57

Load ditribution (Critical Condition)


Million Load (N) 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 -0.05 -0.1 0 5 10 15 20 25 3
0 35 40 45 50
Location in wing (m)
Figure 5-25: load ditribution at critical condition
Now we know VA and MA, uing thi we can find out hear force and Bending moment
,
5.7 Shear force and bending moment diagram due to load along tranvere direct
ion at critical condition:

58

( ( ( ( ))) )

By uing the correponding value of x in appropriate equation we get the plot
of hear force
59

Shear Force (Critical condition)


0 -44.8285 -34.8285 -24.8285 -14.8285 -4.8285 -2000 -4000 Shear Force (N) -6000
-8000 -10000 -12000 -14000 -16000 -18000 -20000 Location in wing (m)
Thouand
2000 5.1715 15.1715 25.1715 35.1715
Figure 5-26: Tranvere Shear force diagram at critical condition
Shear Force (Actual) (Critical Condition)
0 -44.8285 -34.8285 -24.8285 -14.8285 -4.8285 -2000 -4000 Shear Force (N) -6000
-8000 -10000 -12000 -14000 -16000 -18000 -20000 Location in wing (m)
Thouand
2000 5.1715 15.1715 25.1715 35.1715
Figure 5-27: Tranvere Shear force diagram at critical condition
5.7.1 Bending moment:
60

( ( ( ( ))) )
(
)

By ubtituting the value of x for the above equation of bending moment obtai
ned we can get a continuou bending moment curve for the port wing.
61

Bending Moment (Critical Condition)


Million Bending Moment (Nm) -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 10
20 30 40 50 -100 Location in wing (m)
Figure 5-28: Tranvere bending moment diagram at critical condition
5.8 Shear force and bending moment diagram due to load along chordwie directi
on at critical condition:
Critical CL=2.71925 @ V= 250 m/ Critical CD= 0.0084 Angle of attack= 16 (obtaine
d from the lift curve lope) Wing lift curve lope (a) = 0.1213507 /degree Co-ef
ficient of moment about aerodynamic centre= -0.025 Location of aerodynamic centr
e:
Location of hear centre:
62

Figure 5-29: Determination of chordwie force component at critical condition


Co-efficient of force along the normal direction,
Chordwie force at root
Chordwie force at tip
63

By uing y = mx +c again we get the equation a


The above equation give the profile of load acting chordwie, by integrating th
i above equation we get a component of Shear force and again by integrating the
ame we get the component of Bending Moment
Load along Chordwie direction (critical condition)
400000 Load along chord wie direction (N) 350000 300000 250000 200000 150000 10
0000 50000 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Spanwie location (m)
Figure 5-30: Load along chord wie direction at critical condition
64

To find fixing moment and the reaction force,


5.8.1 Shear Force:
Shear Force
Thouand 0 0 -2000 -4000 -6000 -8000 -10000 -12000 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Shear Force (N)
Spanwie location (m)
Figure 5-31: Chordwie Shear force diagram at critical condition
5.8.2 Bending Moment:
65

Bending Moment
Thouand 180000 160000 140000 120000 100000 80000 60000 40000 20000 0 0 5 10 15
20 25 30 35 Spanwie location (m)
Figure 5-32: Chordwie Bending moment diagram at critical condition
Torque due to normal force and contant pitching moment at cruie condition:
Figure 5-33: Determination of variou component of torque
Bending moment (Nm)
66

Figure 5-34: Determination of variou component cauing torque


5.9 Torque at critical flight condition:
5.9.1 Torque due to normal force:
Where c
chord the equation for chord can alo be repreented in term of x by ta
king c= mx +k,
Therefore torque
67

Torque due to normal force


Thouand Torque (Nm) 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Spanwie location (m)
Figure 5-35: Torque due to normal force at critical condition
5.9.2 Torque due to chord wie force:
5.9.3 Torque due to moment:

68

Torque due to Moment


Million 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 Torque (Nm) -0.8 -1 -1.2 -1.4 -1.6 -1.8 -2 Spanwie lo
cation (m) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Figure 5-36: Torque due to moment at critical condition
5.9.4 Torque due to powerplant:
The powerplant i ituated under a chord (8 m and 14 m from the wing root; chord
length 10.7504 m and 10.1184m ) from 0.1c to 0.5c at 10.7504m and from 0.1 c to
0.5249c an Uniformly Ditributed Load of 15513.488 N/m i aumed to be preent
for thi 4.3 m ince the powerplant weight i 66708N. The centroid of the appli
ed UDL i at 0.3c for firt cae and at 0.31245c at econd location. Torque prod
uced about hear center
Hence ti i weight thi will remain ame a that of the cruie condition.
69

Thouand
70 60 50
Torque due to Powerplant
Torque (Nm)
40 30 20 10 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Spanwie location (m)
Figure 5-37: Torque due to powerplant at critical condition unchanged
Then the different torque component are brought together in a ame graph to mak
e a comparion The net torque will be um of all the above torque i.e. torque d
ue to normal force, chordwie force, powerplant and aerodynamic moment
70

Torque comparion
Thouand Torque (Nm) 12000 10000 8000 6000 Torque due to Normal Force 4000 200
0 0 0 -2000 -4000 Spanwie location (m) 10 20 30 40 Torque due to moment Torque
due to powerplant
Figure 5-38: Torque comparion at critical condition
Torque
Million Torque (Nm) 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Spanwie lo
cation (m)
Figure 5-39: Net torque at critical condition
71

5.10 Interim Summary:


DUE TO NORMAL FORCES:
Table 5-5: Determination of maximum value of normal force
Cruie condition Max. Shear force (N) -2461484.863 Max. Bending moment (Nm)
65115382.95
+ve high AOA condition -17480623.2 486567918.1
At
Wing root
Wing root
DUE TO CHORDWISE FORCES:
Table 5-6: Determination of maximum value of chordwie force
Cruie condition Max. Shear force (N) -31590.839 Max. Bending moment (Nm) Max. T
orque (Nm) 51270.9081
-6372183
+ve high AOA condition -10102394.13
163971959.1
At
Wing root Wing root
8781344
Wing root
72

6. Material Selection:
6.1 Decription:
Aircraft tructure are baically unidirectional. Thi mean that one dimenion,
the length, i much larger than the other - width or height. For example, the
pan of the wing and tail par i much longer than their width and depth; the r
ib have a much larger chord length than height and/or width; a whole wing ha a
pan that i larger than it chord or thickne; and the fuelage i much long
er than it i wide or high. Even a propeller ha a diameter much larger than it
blade width and thickne, etc.... For thi imple reaon, a deigner chooe t
o ue unidirectional material when deigning for an efficient trength to weight
tructure. Unidirectional material are baically compoed of thin, relatively
flexible, long fiber which are very trong in tenion (like a thread, a rope, a
tranded teel wire cable, etc.) An aircraft tructure i alo very cloe to a
ymmetrical tructure. That mean the up and down load are almot equal to each
other. The tail load may be down or up depending on the pilot raiing or dippi
ng the noe of the aircraft by pulling or puhing the pitch control; the rudder
may be deflected to the right a well a to the left (ide load on the fuelage
). The gut hitting the wing may be poitive or negative, giving the up or down
load which the occupant experience by being puhed down in the eat ... or ha
nging in the belt. Becaue of thee factor, the deigner ha to ue a 73

tructural material that can withtand both tenion and compreion. Unidirectio
nal fiber may be excellent in tenion, but due to their mall cro ection, th
ey have very little inertia (we will explain inertia another time) and cannot ta
ke much compreion. They will ecape the load by bucking away. A in the illut
ration, you cannot load a tring, or wire, or chain in compreion. In order to
make thin fiber trong in compreion, they are "glued together" with ome kind
of an "embedding". In thi way we can take advantage of their tenion trength
and are no longer penalized by their individual compreion weakne becaue, a
a whole, they become compreion reitant a they help each other to not buckl
e away. The embedding i uually a lighter, ofter "rein" holding the fiber to
gether and enabling them to take the required compreion load. Thi i a very
good tructural material. WOOD Hitorically, wood ha been ued a the firt uni
directional tructural raw material. They have to be tall and traight and their
wood mut be trong and light. The dark band (late wood) contain many fiber,
wherea the light band (early wood) contain much more "rein". Thu the wider t
he dark band, the tronger and heavier the wood. If the dark band are very nar
row and the light band quite wide, the wood i light but not very trong. To ge
t the mot efficient trength to weight ratio for wood we need a definite number
 of band per inch. Some of our aircraft tructure are two-dimenional (length
and width are large with repect to thickne). Plywood i often ued for uch
tructure. Several thin board (foil) are glued together o that the fiber of
the variou layer cro over at different angle (uually 90 degree today yea
r back you could get 74

them at 30 and 45 degree a well). Plywood make excellent "hear web" if the
deigner know how to ue plywood efficiently. (We will learn the bai of tre
 analyi ometime later.) Today good aircraft wood i very hard to come by. In
tead of uing one good board for our par, we have to ue lamination becaue
large piece of wood are practically unavailable, and we no longer can trut the
wood quality. From an availability point of view, we imply need a ubtitute f
or what nature ha upplied u with until now. ALUMINUM ALLOYS So, ince wood ma
y not be a available a it wa before, we look at another material which i tr
ong, light and eaily available at a reaonable price (there  no point in dicu
ing Titanium - it  imply too expenive). Aluminum alloy are certainly one a
nwer. We will dicu the propertie of thoe alloy which are ued in light pl
ane contruction in more detail later. For the time being we will look at alumin
um a a contruction material. Extruded Aluminum Alloy: Due to the manufacturin
g proce for aluminum we get a unidirectional material quite a bit tronger in
the lengthwie direction than acro. And even better, it i not only trong in
tenion but alo in compreion. Comparing extruion to wood, the tenion and c
ompreion characteritic are practically the ame for aluminum alloy o that
the linear tre analyi applie. Wood, on the other hand, ha a tenile tren
gth about twice a great a it compreion trength; accordingly, pecial tre
 analyi method mut be ued and a good undertanding of wood under tre i
eential if tre concentration are to be avoided! Aluminum alloy, in thin
heet (.016 to .125 of an inch) provide an excellent two dimenional material u
ed extenively a hear web - with or without
75

tiffener - and alo a tenion/compreion member when uitably formed (bent)


. It i worthwhile to remember that aluminum i an artificial metal. There i no
aluminum ore in nature. Aluminum i manufactured by applying electric power to
bauxite (aluminum oxide) to obtain the metal, which i then mixed with variou 
trength-giving additive. (In a later article, we will ee which additive are u
ed, and why and how we can increae aluminum  trength by cold work hardening
or by tempering.) All the commonly ued aluminum alloy are available from the 
helf of dealer. When requeted with the purchae, you can obtain a "mill tet r
eport" that guarantee the chemical and phyical propertie a teted to accepte
d pecification. A a rule of thumb, aluminum i three time heavier, but alo
three time tronger than wood. Steel i again three time heavier and tronger
than aluminum. STEEL The next material to be conidered for aircraft tructure w
ill thu be teel, which ha the ame weight-to-trength ratio of wood or alumin
um. Apart from mild teel which i ued for bracket needing little trength, we
are mainly uing a chrome-molybdenum alloy called AISI 413ON or 4140. The commo
n raw material available are tube and heet metal. Steel, due to it high den
ity, i not ued a hear web like aluminum heet or plywood. Where we would n
eed, ay.100" plywood, a .032 inch aluminum heet would be required, but only a
.010 teel heet would be required, which i jut too thin to handle with any ho
pe of a nice finih. That i why a teel fuelage ue tube alo a diagonal t
o carry the hear in compreion or tenion and the whole tructure i then cove
red with fabric (light weight) to give it the required
76

aerodynamic hape or deired look. It mut be noted that thi method involve tw
o technique: teel work and fabric covering. We will be dicuing tube and we
lded teel tructure in more detail later and go now to "artificial wood" or co
mpoite tructure. COMPOSITE MATERIALS The deigner of compoite aircraft impl
y ue fiber in the deired direction exactly where and in the amount required.
The fiber are embedded in rein to hold them in place and provide the required
upport againt buckling. Intead of plywood or heet metal which allow ingle
curvature only, the compoite deigner ue cloth where the fiber are laid in
two direction .(the woven thread and weft) alo embedded in rein. Thi ha the
advantage of freedom of hape in double curvature a required by optimum aerody
namic hape and for very appealing look (importance of ethetic). Today  fibe
r (gla, nylon, Kevlar, carbon, whiker or ingle crytal fiber of variou c
hemical compoition) are very trong, thu the tructure become very light. Th
e drawback i very little tiffne. The tructure need tiffening which i ach
ieved either by the uual dicreet tiffener, -or more elegantly with a andwic
h tructure: two layer of thin uni- or bi-directional fiber are held apart by
a lightweight core (foam or "honeycomb"). Thi allow the deigner to achieve th
e required inertia or tiffne. From an engineering tandpoint, thi method i
very attractive and upported by many authoritie becaue it allow new developm
ent which are required in cae of war. But thi method alo ha it drawback f
or homebuilding: A mold i needed, and very trict quality control i a mut for
the right amount of fiber and rein and for good adheion between both to prev
ent too "dry" or "wet" a tructure. Alo the curing of the rein i quite enit
ive to temperature,
77

humidity and preure. Finally, the rein are active chemical which will not o
nly produce the well-known allergie but alo the chemical that attack our body
(epecially the eye and lung) and they have the unfortunate property of being
cumulatively damaging and the reult (in particular deterioration of the eye) 
how up only year after initial contact. Another diadvantage of the rein i
their limited helf life, i.e., if the rein i not ued within the pecified ti
me lape after manufacturing, the reult may be unatifactory and unafe. HEAV
Y AIRCRAFT RAW MATERIALS The focu of our article i our Table which give typic
al value for a variety of raw material. Column 1 lit the tandard material
which are eaily available at a reaonable cot. Some of the material that fall
along the borderline between practical and impractical are: Magneium: An expen
ive material. Cating are the only readily available form. Special precaution
mut be taken when machining magneium becaue thi metal burn when hot. Titan
ium: A very expenive material. Very tough and difficult to machine. Carbon Fibe
r: Still very expenive material. Kevlar Fiber: Very expenive and alo criti
cal to work with becaue it i hard to "oak" in the rein. When thi technique
i matered, the reulting tructure i very trong, but it alo lack in tiffn
e. Column 2 through 6:
Column 2 through 6 lit the relevant material propertie in metric unit. Colum
n 2, the denity (d), i the weight divided by the volume. 78

Table 6-1: Material property table Material 1 Wood Spruce Poplar Oregon Pine Fi
bergla  (70% Gla) Matte Woven Unidirectio nal Alum. Alloy 5052-H34 8086-H34
6061 -T6 6351 -T6 6063-T6 7075-T3 Steel AISI 1026 4130 N (4140) Lead Magneium A
lloy Titanium d 2 .45 .43 .56 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.8 7.8 7.8 11.3 1
.8 4.5 fy 3 16 22 24 25 17 25 25 42 20 50 fu 4 e 5 E/10 6 1.4 1.0 1.5 1.5 2.0 3.
5 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.2 21.0 21.0 4.5 11.0
3
E/d 7
Root of N/d 8
2
Root of E/d 9 22.0 22.0 22.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 3.5 3.5 9.0 5.0
3
fu/d 10 (15) (15) (15) 7 16 27 11 11 11 11 11 14 5 7 16 18
3.5/11 30/12 220 70 0 220 70 0 220 70 0 700 17 900 20 150 27 0 260 30 0 260 30 0 260 30 0 260
30 0 260 30 0 260 30 0 270 18 0 270 18 0 4.0/13 15 35 60 24 31 26 28 21 41 38 63 30 80 4 5 9 9 9 1 2 1 5 1 0 250 37 0 240 23 0
Unit for above to obtain: multiply by:
kg/d 3 m
3
kg/m 2 m
kg/m 2 m KSI 1420
% kg/m 2 m % KSI 1420
km
kg m
2
kg m
2/3
1/3
km
lb/cu KSI .0357 1420

79

Column 3, the yield tre (fy), i the tre (load per area) at which there wi
ll be a permanent deformation after unloading (the material ha yielded, given w
ay ... )
Column 4, the ultimate tre (fu), i the tre (load per area) at which it ca
nnot carry a further load increae. It i the maximum load before failure. Colum
n 5, the elongation at ultimate tre (e), in percentage give an indication of
the Toughne" of the material. Column 6 lit the Yong Modular or Modulu of
Elaticity (E), which i the teepne of the tre/train diagram a hown in
Figure 1. Important Note: For wood, the tenion i much greater (2 to 3 time)
than the compreion. Both value are given in the Table. For fibergla, the a
me applie, but the yield i o dependent on the manufacturing proce that we c
annot even give Iypical value .
Figure 6-1: Stre train curve for different material
Column 7 to 10: Column 7 to 10 are value which allow the comparion of materi
al from a weight tandpoint (the above referenced text by Timohenko will alo
how you why we ue thoe "funny" looking value). Column 7 give the tiffne
of a andwich contruction. The higher the value, the tiffer the contruction.
From the Table, we ee that metal are high wood come
80

cloe, but fibergla i low: which mean fibergla will be heavier for the am
e tiffne.
Figure 6-2: Stre train curve
Column 8 how the column buckling reitance for the ame geometric hape. Thi
 time, wood i better than the light alloy, coming before teel and fibergla
. (Surpriingly, the uual welded teel tube fuelage i not very weight efficie
nt.) Column 9 give the plate buckling tiffne, which i alo a hear trength
meaure. Here again, wood (plywood) i in a very good poition before aluminum
and fibergla, with teel not very good. Column 10 provide a crude way of mea
uring the trength to weight ratio of material becaue it doe not take into ac
count the variou way the material i ued in "light tructure". According to
thi primitive way of looking, unidirectional fiber are very good, followed by
high trength (2024) aluminum and wood, then the more common aluminum alloy and
finally teel. From jut thi imple table, we find there i not one material t
hat provide an overwhelming olution to all the factor that mut be conidered
in deigning a light aircraft. Each material ha ome advantage omewhere. The
deigner  choice (no preconceived idea) will make a good aircraft tructure ...
if the choice i good!
81

7. Detailed wing deign


7.1 Spar deign:
Spar are member which are baically ued to carry the bending and hear load
acting on the wing during flight. There are two par, one located at 15-20% of
the chord known a the front par, the other located at 60-70% of the chord know
n a the rear par. Some of the function of the par include: They form the bou
ndary to the fuel tank located in the wing.
The par flange take up the bending
load wherea the web carrie the hear load.
The rear par provide a mean o
f attaching the control urface on the wing. Conidering thee function, the l
ocation of the front and rear par are fixed
at 0.17c and 0.65c repectively. The NACA 65 (3) 418 airfoil i drawn to cale u
ing any deign oftware and the chord thickne at the front and rear par loca
tion are found to be 1.9708 m and 7.5354 m repectively.
7.1.1 Geometric dimenion:
The par deign for the wing root ha been taken becaue the maximum bending mom
ent and hear force are at the root. It i aumed that the flange take up all
the bending and the web take all the hear effect. The maximum bending moment f
or high angle of attack condition i 486567918.4 Nm. the ratio in which the par
 take up the bending moment i given a
Where
82

h1

height of front par h2

height of rear par

From the above two equation,


The yield tenile tre y for 7075 Al Alloy i 455.053962 MPa. The area of the f
lange i determined uing the relation
where M i bending moment taken up by each par, A i the flange area of each p
ar, z i the centroid ditance of the area = h/2. Uing the available value, Ar
ea of front par,
Area of rear par, 83

Each flange of the par i made of two angle ection. For the front par, the l
ength of the angle i 6t, angle height i 5t with angle thickne t. Area for ea
ch angle of front par i found to be 0.1799507 m2 and hence value of t i found
to be
Length of the front angle ection:
Height of the front angle ection:
For the rear par, the length of the angle i 8t, angle height i 3.5t with vert
ical thickne t and horizontal thickne t/2. Area for each angle of rear par
i found to be 0.164486 m2 and hence value of t i found to be.
Length of the rear angle ection:
Height of the rear angle ection:
Now to determine the thickne of the web portion, the ultimate hear tre of
7075 Al Alloy i 317.1588MPa. The maximum hear force at root of the wing 84

for high angle of attack condition i 17480623.2 N. The wing chord i aumed to
be a imply upported beam upported at the two par. The maximum hear force
act at the centre of preure which can be located by uing the formula,
Figure 7-1: Reaction force determination at par
Conidering force and moment equilibrium for the given imply upported configu
ration, the reactive hear force at the par upport are found to be
We know that,
V
85

hear force at the par

thickne of the web. Thu,

FOS = 1.5 z i the centroidal ditance of the area = h/2 Thu the thicknee of
the web portion are,
0.43806
0.670
0.02346
0.0763
0.13414
1.00128
Rear par All dimenion are in m
0.1251
0.8048 Front Spar
It become neceary to check whether the hear tre due to thi thickne i
le than the allowable of the material.
86

( ) For the web, the dimenion of a and b will be a = 1.6186 m ( rib pacing) a
nd b = par height. The value of k i obtained uing a/b from the given plot in
figure, k i obtained and thu the actual hear tre in each web
Figure 7-2: Shear buckling coefficient fro plate a a ratio of a and b for hin
ged and clamped edge
Both thee value are le than 211.4392 GPa. Thu, the web doe not fail due to
hear buckling. 87

7.1.2 Shear flow:


The hear flow can be conidered for the two cell in the airfoil cro ection.
The hear flow will be due to the torque a well due to the bending moment. Th
ee are computed eparately and ummed up to obtain the net hear flow pattern f
or the wing cro ection. Due to torque, A
area of each cell Q hear flow due t
o the torque The maximum torque experienced at the root of the wing i -25338 Nm
. Uing GAMBIT oftware, the area and perimeter of the cell in the airfoil fo
rmed by the par and the kin are found to be, Cell1 A1 = 2.1783 m2 Cell2 A2= 1
0.5862 m2 Cell3 A3= 2.7528 m2 l1 = 4.45527 m, l2 = 1.6186 m, l3 = 5.6214 m, l4 =
5.5827 m, l5 = 1.4795 m, l6 = 4.092 m, l7 = 4.176 m . l1, l2 belong to cell1,l2
, l3, l4, l5 belong to cell2, l5, l6 and l7 to cell3. l2 and l5 are the par. T
he equation for the two cell involving hear flow of cell1 q1 and hear flow o
f cell2 q2 are
[
(
) [ [ ( ( ) )
( ) ( )] ( )] 88
( )]

The econd, third and fourth equation are obtained from the condition that the
cell twit i zero.
Solving thee equation, we get hear flow value due to torque alone.
The hear flow due to bending i given by the formula, * + * +
Vx = 1012394.13 N (hear force due to chordwie force) Vy = 17480623.2 N (hear
force due to normal force)
89

Spar F_U_1 F_U_2 F_L_1 F_L_2 R_U_1 R_U_2 R_L_1 R_L_2 Sum
q Ixy Iyy Ixx y_c x_c y bar x_bar A*y A*x Area 1.20998E+11 5.70659E+11 -2.58137E
+11 -1485868 808.058 -1775.38 808.058 1702.52 179935.396 306343610.4 145398236.2
2.7965E+11 -1.80122E+11 -1964438 1.20998E+11 808.058 -1238.82 808.058 2239.08 1
79935.396 402889746.5 145398236.2 87527120181 421804.49 17015324658 5.70659E+11
-273.99 -1775.38 -273.99 1702.52 179935.396 306343610.4 -49300499.2 61074444357
555765.26 2.7965E+11 17015324658 -273.99 -1238.82 -273.99 2239.08 179935.396 402
889746.5 -49300499.2 4.52912E+11 607569.23 88696143051 2.38684E+12 723.243 3807.
23 723.243 7285.13 1198278353 118961011.2 164482.769 5.12469E+11 549369.11 88696
143051 3.05509E+12 723.243 4307.87 723.243 7785.77 1280625007 118961011.2 164482
.769 13406073270 2.38684E+12 -1.60076E+11 -265631.1 7285.13 -255.621 3807.23 -25
5.621 1198278353 -42045249.8 164482.769 -233830 13406073270 3.05509E+12 -1.81125
E+11 7785.77 -255.621 4307.87 -255.621 1280625007 -42045249.8 164482.769 3.34521
E+11 4.8023E+11 1.25845E+13 6376273434 346026996.8 1377672.66
Figure 7-3: Shear flow in par
90
A*y 1702.52 1702.52 808.058 -1775.38 808.058 -273.99 -1775.38 -273.99 x_bar y ba
r x_c y_c Ixx 145398236.2 -49300499.2 118961011.2 -42045249.8 173013498.4 7785.7
7 7785.77 2239.08 2239.08 7285.13 7285.13 808.058 -273.99 723.243 -255.621 -1238
.82 808.058 -1238.82 -273.99 3807.23 723.243 3807.23 -255.621 723.243 4307.87 72
3.243 -255.621 4307.87 -255.621
Area
A*x
Iyy 1.20998E+11 17015324658 5.70659E+11 5.70659E+11
Ixy
q -2.58137E+11 -1485868 87527120181 421804.49 -1064063
Spar Cell 1 F_U_1 F_L_1
179935.396 179935.396
306343610.4 145398236.2 306343610.4 -49300499.2 612687220.8 96097737.07
Cell 2 F_U_2 F_L_2 R_U_1 R_L_1
179935.396 179935.396 164482.769 164482.769
402889746.5 402889746.5 1198278353 1198278353 2396556707
1.20998E+11 17015324658 88696143051 13406073270
2.7965E+11 2.7965E+11 2.38684E+12 2.38684E+12
-1.80122E+11 -1964438 61074444357 555765.26 4.52912E+11 607569.23 -1.60076E+11 265631.1 -1066735 88696143051 13406073270 3.05509E+12 3.05509E+12 5.12469E+11 54
9369.11 -233830 -1.81125E+11 315539.12
Cell 3 R_U_2 R_L_2
164482.769 164482.769
1280625007 118961011.2 1280625007 -42045249.8 2561250014 76915761.31

( ) For the web, the dimenion of a and b will be a = 1.6186 m9rib pacing and
b =5.6214 (length of the cell containing critical hear flow) KS =32; cr is found
in erms of 2 Using relaion, cr = qcr/ The value of ks is obained using a/b
from he given plo in figure, ks is obained and hus he hickness of he skin
wihou using sringer will be
7.2 Sringer design:
The hickness of he skin deermined above is oo high for he skin of an aircra
f. Therefore in order o reduce skin hickness and redisribue he shear flow
in he wing skin, sringers are added. The number of sringers can be deermined
by evaluaing he amoun by which he skin hickness should be reduced. Roughly
36 sringers can be added o he wing, 18 on he upper surface of he airfoil a
nd 18 on he lower surface of he airfoil. The sringer cross secion is chose f
rom he sandard cross secions available in Analysis of Aircraf srucures Bru
hn. The Z cross secion is chosen and scaled up or down deermining he criical
sress in each sringer and ieraing if i is less han he criical buckling
sress of he sringer cross secion.
91

7.2.1 Geomeric dimensions based on shear flow:


The sress of each sringer is found using he formula, * + * +
Thus he secion saisfying ieraions has he following properies, A = 10000mm
2,
The shear flow for each secion is deermined using he formula, * + * +
92

Table 7-1: Shear flow and Bending sress abulaion


Sringer 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 R_U_1 R_U_2 8 9 10 11 12 13 F_U_2 F_U_1 14 15 16 17 18 19
20 21 22 23 F_L_1 F_L_2 24 25 26 27 28 29 R_L_1 R_L_2 30 31 32 33 34
A 10000 10000 10000 10000 10000 10000 10000 179935 179935 10000 10000 10000 1000
0 10000 10000 179935 179935 10000 10000 10000 10000 10000 10000 10000 10000 1000
0 10000 164483 164483 10000 10000 10000 10000 10000 10000 164483 164483 10000 10
000 10000 10000 10000
Ax Ay x_c y_c q 114498474 134228 6483.1 -238.3 -7.497 9.95E+08 111931155 516227
6226.4 -200.1 -7.809 8.5E+08 108296803 1223363 5862.9 -129.3 -8.298 5.64E+08 103
680870 2287145 5401.3 -22.96 -9.009 1.04E+08 98180431 3698022 4851.3 118.13 -10.
01 -5.6E+08 91896585 5394407 4222.9 287.77 -11.41 -1.4E+09 84934997 7276236 3526
.8 475.95 -13.35 -2.5E+09 1.311E+09 1.3E+08 2318.4 471.57 0.6891 -1521292 1.401E
+09 1.3E+08 2819 471.57 -0.492 -1457428 69429422 1.1E+07 1976.2 850.91 -18.73 -4
.9E+09 61134483 1.3E+07 1146.7 1000.8 -18.58 -4.4E+09 52674321 1.3E+07 300.69 10
94.3 -6.489 51024314 44249964 1.4E+07 -541.7 1119.9 12.091 4.67E+09 36077346 1.3
E+07 -1359 1084.6 18.094 4.55E+09 28357220 1.2E+07 -2131 995.83 17.126 3E+09 402
889746 1.5E+08 -2728 556.38 78.162 1233401 306343610 1.5E+08 -3264 556.38 48.757
757536.7 14973466 9507529 -3469 699.08 13.242 8.9E+08 9612440.3 7640616 -4005 5
12.39 11.88 3.98E+08 5310518 5662783 -4436 314.6 10.904 1.37E+08 2177421.6 36958
96 -4749 117.92 10.243 24461501 330609.2 1889583 -4934 -62.72 9.856 -4256124 423
361.3 -730095 -4924 -324.7 9.7933 954223.2 2501869.1 -2E+06 -4717 -463.8 10.129
-2.1E+07 5958680.3 -3E+06 -4371 -569.6 10.795 -9.6E+07 10487170 -4E+06 -3918 -66
4.5 11.811 -2.4E+08 15969273 -5E+06 -3370 -749 13.29 -4.7E+08 280035204 -5E+07 3264 -525.7 2.2024 -159628 368290078 -5E+07 -2728 -525.7 6.9376 -280746 29304388
-6E+06 -2036 -882.3 18.122 -1.2E+09 36882186 -7E+06 -1279 -930.6 20.113 -1.1E+0
9 44867767 -7E+06 -480 -963.9 12.749 1.59E+09 53102607 -7E+06 343.52 -964.6 -11.
2 7.38E+09 61406999 -7E+06 1174 -920.3 -21.32 8.28E+09 69601782 -6E+06 1993.4 -8
38.7 -19.23 6.5E+09 1.198E+09 -4E+07 2318.4 -507.3 2.6696 542408.6 1.281E+09 -4E
+07 2819 -507.3 2.1096 510540.7 85045683 -4E+06 3537.8 -629.2 -13.15 3.62E+09 92
011967 -3E+06 4234.5 -524.2 -11.25 2.73E+09 98301217 -2E+06 4863.4 -430.7 -9.905
2.08E+09 103796399 -1E+06 5412.9 -354.8 -8.944 1.62E+09 108391643 -484586 5872.
4 -300.1 -8.263 1.31E+09
93

35 36
10000 10000
111993602 114525411
-154167 -13414
6232.6 6485.8
-267.1 -253
-7.793 -7.492
1.14E+09 1.06E+09
NACA 653-418
2000 y (mm) 1000 0 0 -1000 2000 4000 6000 x (mm) 8000 10000 12000 14000
-2000
Stringer deign ratio:
5t
6t
t
5t
The critical hear flow i found to be 162206.0558N/m acting between the upper f
lange of front par and tringer 5. Uing the formula, ( ) where a = 1.6186 m, (
rib pacing), b = 0.526 m, kb i obtained from following plot for given a/b a 4
0
94

Figure 7-4: Shear- buckling coefficient for hinged and clamped plate
Thu kin thickne after uing tringer i found to be t = 10.953 mm
95

Shear flow ditribution on kin of wing


Million 33 32 31 30 R_L_2 R_L_1 29 28 27 26 25 24 F_L_2 F_L_1 23 22 21 20 19 18
17 16 15 14 34 35 36 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 -2000 -4000 -6000 R_U_2 8 9 10
11 12 13 F_U_2 F_U_1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 R_U_1
Figure 7-5: Shear flow diagram for wing repreented in polar coordinate, 19 th
tringeer i leading edge and 1t tringer i at trailing edge
96

8. Fuelage deign
8.1 Decription
Fuelage contribute very little to lift and produce more drag but it i an imp
ortant tructural member/component. It i the connecting member to all load prod
ucing component uch a wing, horizontal tail, vertical tail, landing gear etc.
and thu reditribute the load. It alo erve the purpoe of houing or accom
modating practically all equipment, acceorie and ytem in addition to carry
ing the payload. Becaue of large amount of equipment inide the fuelage, it i
neceary to provide ufficient number of cutout in the fuelage for acce an
d inpection purpoe. Thee cutout and dicontinuitie reult in fuelage dei
gn being more complicated, le precie and often le efficient in deign. A a
common member to which other component are attached, thereby tranmitting the
load, fuelage can be conidered a a long hollow beam. The reaction produced
by the wing, tail or landing gear may be conidered a concentrated load at the
repective attachment point. The balancing reaction are provided by the inert
ia force contributed by the weight of the fuelage tructure and the variou co
mponent inide the fuelage. Thee reaction force are ditributed all along th
e length of the fuelage, though need not be uniformly. Unlike the wing, which i
 ubjected to mainly unymmetrical load, the fuelage i much impler for truc
tural analyi due to it ymmetrical cro-ection and ymmetrical loading. The
main load in the cae of fuelage i the hear load becaue the load acting on
the wing i tranferred to the fuelage kin in the form of hear only. The tru
ctural deign of both wing and fuelage begin with hear force and bending momen
t diagram for the repective member. The maximum bending tre produced in ea
ch of them i checked to be le than the yield tre of the material choen fo
r the repective member.
97

8.2 Load and it ditribution:


To find out the load and their ditribution, conider the different cae. The
main component of the fuelage loading diagram are:
Weight of the fuelage Engi
ne weight
Weight of the horizontal and vertical tabilizer
Tail lift
Weight of
crew, payload and landing gear Sytem, equipment, acceorie Symmetric flight
condition, teady and level flight: (Downward force negative) Value for the di
fferent component weight are obtained from aerodynamic deign calculation.
Table 8-1: Load acting on Fuelage
Condition 1
Full Payload and Full Fuel Fuelage alone analyi
S. No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Ditance from reference Moment Component line (m) Ma (kg) Weight (N) (Nm) Cre
w 3.043 270 2648.7 8059.9941 Noe landing gear 6.086 3600 35316 214933.176 Paylo
ad bay 1 12.172 37500 367875 4477774.5 Fixed equipment 18.641 1149.19 11273.554
210150.318 Exce ma 22.641 21600 211896 4797537.34 Fuelage ma 22.641 43200
423792 9595074.67 Fuel in fuelage 22.641 95280.42 934700.92 21162563.5 Main la
nding gear aembly 1 22.641 10800 105948 2398768.67 Main landing gear aembly
2 30.3211 7200 70632 2141639.94 Payload bay 2 30.321 37500 367875 11154337.9 Hor
izontal tabilizer 45.367 6400 62784 2848321.73 Vertical Stabilizer 48.501 3200
31392 1522543.39 Total 267699.6 2626133.2 60531705.1 Cg from Noe 23.04974695
98

Figure 8-1: Balance diagram howing load acting on fuelage


99

8.3 Shear Force and bending moment calculation:


Table 8-2: Shear force and bending moment tabulation
Ditance(m) 0 3.043 6.086 12.172 18.641 22.641 22.641 22.641 22.641 23.0497 30.3
211 30.321 45.367 48.501 54.849
Load (kg) 0 -2648.7 -35316 -367875 -11273.6 -211896 -423792 -934701 -105948 2626
133 -70632 -367875 -62784 -31392 0
SF (N) 0 -2648.7 -37964.7 -405840 -417113 -629009 -1052801 -1987502 -2093450 532
683 462051 94176 31392 0 0
BM (Nm) 0 -8059.9941 -222993.17 -4700767.67 -4910917.99 -9708455.32 -19303530 -4
0466093.5 -42864862.2 17666719.62 15525079.69 4370741.812 1522420.084 0 0
Shear Force
Thouand 1000 500 0 Shear Force(N) 0 -500 -1000 -1500 -2000 -2500 10 20 30 40 5
0
Ditance from noe cone(m)
Figure 8-2: Shear force on the fuelage (free-free beam with one reaction at it
centre) at fully loaded condition
100

Bending Moment
Thouand Shear Force(N) 30000 20000 10000 0 0 -10000 -20000 -30000 -40000 -5000
0 Ditance from noe cone(m) 10 20 30 40 50
Figure 8-3: Bending moment on the fuelage (free-free beam with one reaction at
it centre) at fully loaded condition
101

9. Detailed Deign of Fuelage:


9.1 Stringer Deign:
Deign of the fuelage can be carried out by conidering the maximum bending mom
ent which i taken a the deign bending moment. The cro-ectional area requir
ed to withtand the bending tre i found out by uing the formula for bending
tre. Thi area i divided among everal tringer which are paced evenly. T
he tringer pacing i calculated by conidering the buckling of the portion be
tween adjacent tringer which can be modelled a a plate. Now, the firt tep i
 to calculate the required cro-ectional area of the tringer. Ue the follo
wing formula for bending tre.
Where,
Tenile trength of the material ued (Aluminium 7075) = 455 MPa M Deign
bending moment = -42864862.2 Nm I Second moment of area (m4) ( ) y
d/2 d
diamet
er of the fuelage (3.5m ) A
cro-ectional area of the fuelage tringer (m2)
A tringer cro ection (Z ection) i choen atifying the condition that th
e actual tre i le than the yield tre of the material.
102

Stringer location in fuelage


4
3
2
1
0 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-2
-3
-4
Figure 9-1: Location of Z haped Stringer in the fuelage.
The propertie of the tringer ection choen are a follow, Length of tringer
: Height of tringer: Where t thickne of tringer The total circumference of th
e fuelage cro ection i found to be 21.9914 m. Thi circumference i ditrib
uted with n number of tringer uch that the total bending moment i taken up by
thee tringer effectively. Aume kin i ineffective in bending. Arbitrarily,
let u et the number of tringer to be equal to 60 i.e. 15 tringer in each
quadrant. Now, the net IYY i computed 103

conidering thee tringer to be lumped mae. A it i a ymmetric cro ect


ion,
9.2 Shear flow along kin of fuelage:
Conider the tringer at = 0 of the firt quadrant of the cro ection a the fi
rt tringer and number it in anticlockwie direction. Make a cut between tring
er 1 and 2 and determine hear flow uing the formula, * Since VX = 0 , VY = -2
093450N ( Max. Shear Force from hear force diagram) + * +
The hear flow equation get implified to [ q_l = -1.81599E+11 N Now, on cloing
the cut, and conidering cell twit i zero for the fuelage cro ection, we
obtain the equation, -1.81599E+11+ 21.9914qo = 0 Thu contant hear flow to be
added to the cell i qo = 8257728021 N/m ]
104

Table 9-1: Shear flow along the tringer of fuelage


S.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90 96 102 108 114 120 126 132 138 144
150 156 162 168 174 180 186 192 198 204 210 216 222 228 234 240 246
A Ax Ay i Ax Si Ay q open q*l q fin 0.0269 0.0942 0 0.0942 0 0 0 8.26E+09 0.026
9 0.0937 0.00984 0.1878 0.00984 -9E+07 -33157611 8.17E+09 0.0269 0.0921 0.01958
0.28 0.02942 -2.7E+08 -99109571 7.99E+09 0.0269 0.0896 0.0291 0.3695 0.05852 -5.
4E+08 -197133342 7.72E+09 0.0269 0.086 0.0383 0.4556 0.09683 -8.9E+08 -326155016
7.37E+09 0.0269 0.0816 0.04709 0.5371 0.14391 -1.3E+09 -484761088 6.94E+09 0.02
69 0.0762 0.05535 0.6133 0.19927 -1.8E+09 -671213940 6.43E+09 0.0269 0.07 0.0630
1 0.6833 0.26228 -2.4E+09 -883470876 5.85E+09 0.0269 0.063 0.06998 0.7463 0.3322
7 -3.1E+09 -1.119E+09 5.2E+09 0.0269 0.0554 0.07619 0.8017 0.40845 -3.8E+09 -1.3
76E+09 4.5E+09 0.0269 0.0471 0.08156 0.8488 0.49001 -4.5E+09 -1.651E+09 3.75E+09
0.0269 0.0383 0.08603 0.8871 0.57604 -5.3E+09 -1.94E+09 2.96E+09 0.0269 0.0291
0.08956 0.9162 0.66561 -6.1E+09 -2.242E+09 2.14E+09 0.0269 0.0196 0.09212 0.9358
0.75772 -7E+09 -2.552E+09 1.29E+09 0.0269 0.0098 0.09366 0.9456 0.85138 -7.8E+0
9 -2.868E+09 4.33E+08 0.0269 4E-06 0.09418 0.9456 0.94556 -8.7E+09 -3.185E+09 -4
.32E+08 0.0269 -0.0098 0.09366 0.9358 1.03922 -9.6E+09 -3.501E+09 -1.29E+09 0.02
69 -0.0196 0.09212 0.9162 1.13134 -1E+10 -3.811E+09 -2.14E+09 0.0269 -0.0291 0.0
8957 0.8871 1.2209 -1.1E+10 -4.113E+09 -2.96E+09 0.0269 -0.0383 0.08604 0.8488 1
.30694 -1.2E+10 -4.402E+09 -3.75E+09 0.0269 -0.0471 0.08156 0.8017 1.3885 -1.3E+
10 -4.677E+09 -4.5E+09 0.0269 -0.0553 0.07619 0.7464 1.46469 -1.3E+10 -4.934E+09
-5.2E+09 0.0269 -0.063 0.06999 0.6833 1.53468 -1.4E+10 -5.169E+09 -5.85E+09 0.0
269 -0.07 0.06302 0.6134 1.59771 -1.5E+10 -5.382E+09 -6.43E+09 0.0269 -0.0762 0.
05536 0.5372 1.65307 -1.5E+10 -5.568E+09 -6.93E+09 0.0269 -0.0816 0.04709 0.4556
1.70016 -1.6E+10 -5.727E+09 -7.37E+09 0.0269 -0.086 0.03831 0.3696 1.73847 -1.6
E+10 -5.856E+09 -7.72E+09 0.0269 -0.0896 0.02911 0.28 1.76758 -1.6E+10 -5.954E+0
9 -7.99E+09 0.0269 -0.0921 0.01959 0.1879 1.78717 -1.6E+10 -6.02E+09 -8.17E+09 0
.0269 -0.0937 0.00985 0.0943 1.79702 -1.7E+10 -6.053E+09 -8.26E+09 0.0269 -0.094
2 8.7E-06 8E-05 1.79703 -1.7E+10 -6.053E+09 -8.26E+09 0.0269 -0.0937 -0.0098 -0.
0936 1.78719 -1.6E+10 -6.02E+09 -8.17E+09 0.0269 -0.0921 -0.0196 -0.1857 1.76762
-1.6E+10 -5.954E+09 -7.99E+09 0.0269 -0.0896 -0.0291 -0.2753 1.73853 -1.6E+10 5.856E+09 -7.72E+09 0.0269 -0.086 -0.0383 -0.3613 1.70024 -1.6E+10 -5.727E+09 -7
.37E+09 0.0269 -0.0816 -0.0471 -0.4429 1.65316 -1.5E+10 -5.569E+09 -6.94E+09 0.0
269 -0.0762 -0.0553 -0.5191 1.59781 -1.5E+10 -5.382E+09 -6.43E+09 0.0269 -0.07 0.063 -0.5891 1.5348 -1.4E+10 -5.17E+09 -5.85E+09 0.0269 -0.063 -0.07 -0.6521 1.
46482 -1.3E+10 -4.934E+09 -5.2E+09 0.0269 -0.0554 -0.0762 -0.7074 1.38864 -1.3E+
10 -4.678E+09 -4.5E+09 0.0269 -0.0471 -0.0816 -0.7545 1.30709 -1.2E+10 -4.403E+0
9 -3.75E+09 0.0269 -0.0383 -0.086 -0.7929 1.22106 -1.1E+10 -4.113E+09 -2.96E+09
105

43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
252 258 264 270 276 282 288 294 300 306 312 318 324 330 336 342 348 354
0.0269 0.0269 0.0269 0.0269 0.0269 0.0269 0.0269 0.0269 0.0269 0.0269 0.0269 0.0
269 0.0269 0.0269 0.0269 0.0269 0.0269 0.0269
-0.0291 -0.0196 -0.0099 -1E-05 0.0098 0.0196 0.0291 0.0383 0.0471 0.0553 0.063 0
.07 0.0762 0.0816 0.086 0.0896 0.0921 0.0937
-0.0896 -0.0921 -0.0937 -0.0942 -0.0937 -0.0921 -0.0896 -0.086 -0.0816 -0.0762 0.07 -0.063 -0.0554 -0.0471 -0.0383 -0.0291 -0.0196 -0.0099 8.7E-06
-0.822 -0.8416 -0.8514 -0.8514 -0.8416 -0.822 -0.7929 -0.7547 -0.7076 -0.6522 -0
.5892 -0.5193 -0.4431 -0.3615 -0.2755 -0.1859 -0.0938 -0.0002
1.1315 1.03938 0.94573 0.85155 0.75789 0.66577 0.5762 0.49016 0.40859 0.3324 0.2
624 0.19937 0.144 0.0969 0.05858 0.02947 0.00987 8.7E-06
-1E+10 -9.6E+09 -8.7E+09 -7.8E+09 -7E+09 -6.1E+09 -5.3E+09 -4.5E+09 -3.8E+09 -3.
1E+09 -2.4E+09 -1.8E+09 -1.3E+09 -8.9E+08 -5.4E+08 -2.7E+08 -9.1E+07 -80333 -5E+
11
-3.811E+09 -3.501E+09 -3.186E+09 -2.868E+09 -2.553E+09 -2.243E+09 -1.941E+09 -1.
651E+09 -1.376E+09 -1.12E+09 -883868023 -671567406 -485066999 -326410021 -197334
648 -99254973 -33245515 -29443.594 -1.816E+11
-2.14E+09 -1.29E+09 -4.34E+08 4.32E+08 1.29E+09 2.14E+09 2.96E+09 3.75E+09 4.5E+
09 5.2E+09 5.85E+09 6.43E+09 6.93E+09 7.37E+09 7.72E+09 7.99E+09 8.17E+09 8.26E+
09
106

Shear Flow ditribution in


Million 54 53 52 51 50 49
58 599000 57 56 8000 7000
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

the kin of fuelage


48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 26 25 24 55 60
6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
20 21 22 23

35
34 33 32
31
28 30 29
27
Figure 9-2: Shear flow ditribution along fuelage, View 16 th tringer i at th
e bottom and 46 th tringer at the top
The critical hear flow i found to occur in element between 1 and 60, 30 and 3
1. The critical hear flow value i 82577258021 N/m. We know that, ( ) Where, E
= 7.17e10 N/m2, 107

a = 1.099557 m(bulk head pacing), b = 0.366519 m (Stringer circumferential pac


ing) a/b = 3 k = 40
Figure 9-3: Shear buckling coefficient for plate with hinge and clamp
= 0.3 Thus we obtai, t=0.00748 m The ski thickess is thus foud to be t = 7.4
833 mm Usig = 1.5*(q/), Ma = 211.4392e6, we ge = 0.133 mm. 108

Considering he maximum of he wo, we ge  = 7.4833 mm The above value of skin
hickness is well wihin he sandard limis. Therefore, he above design is ac
cepable.
109

10. Compuaional Fluid Dynamics


CFD analysis a ip: The ip sall is he wors iniiaion sep in all insabili
y problems so he ip a an angle of incidence 5 is checked for separaion.
Figure 10-1: Velociy vecor plo for aoa= 5deg
110

Figure 10-2: CP plo for aoa= 5deg


Figure 10-3: Conours of saic Pressure
111

Figure 10-4: Velociy conours plo for aoa= 5deg


112

11. Three view diagram:


Figure 11-1 Fron view
113

Figure 11-2: Top view


114

Figure 11-3: Side view


115

Conclusion
The Concepual Design phase of an aircraf is probably he mos ineresing and
inriguing phase of aircraf design. I is a clear indicaion of he compromise
ha has o be made beween various divisions of an Aircraf design cener, and
ye saisfy an incredible number of real-world consrains and design specifica
ions. Aircraf design involves a variey of he field of Aerospace engineering l
ike srucures, performance, aerodynamics, sabiliy ec. Among his we wen hr
ough he srucure par in his projec which has enabled us o ge a ase of w
ha i is o design a real aircraf. The fanasies of he flying world seem o b
e much more han wha we hough. Wih his design projec as he base, we will
srive o progress in he field of airplane design and mainenance. We convey ou
r hearfel graiude o all of hem who have provided heir helping hand in he
compleion of his projec.
116

Reference
Books:
Analysis of Aircraf srucures Bruhn
Aircraf Srucures for engineering
sudens T.H.G Megson
Aircraf srucures Peery
Airplane design Jan Roskam
amenals of Aerodynamics - Anderson J D Websies:
www.wikipedia.org
www.joeclark
sblog.com
hp://www.docsoc.com/ hp://www.flighsimaviaion.com/
www.c.gc.ca
hp://www.risingup.com/
hp://www.aerospacemeals.com/conac-aerospace-meal
s.hml
hp://www.aerospaceweb.org/ www.faa.gov/regulaions_policies/faa_regula
ions/
117

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