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South African Pavement Engineering Manual
Chapter 7: Geotechnical Investigations and Design Considerations

2013 South African National Roads Agency Ltd. All rights reserved.

First edition published 2013
Printed in the Republic of South Africa

SET: ISBN 978-1-920611-00-2
CHAPTER: ISBN 978-1-920611-07-1

www.nra.co.za
sapem@nra.co.za

SOUTH AFRICAN
PAVEMENT ENGINEERING MANUAL

Chapter 7

Geotechnical Investigations and Design
Considerations

AN INITIATI VE OF THE SOUTH
AFRICAN NATIONAL ROADS AGENCY LTD

Date of Issue: J anuary 2013

Revision 1.0

1. Introduction
2. Pavement Composition and Behaviour
3. Materials Testing
4. Standards
5. Laboratory Management
6. Road Prism and Pavement Investigations
7. Geotechnical I nvestigations and Design Considerations
8. Material Sources
9. Materials Utilisation and Design
10. Pavement Design
11. Documentation and Tendering
12. Construction Equipment and Method Guidelines
13. Acceptance Control
14. Post-Construction
BACKGROUND
TESTING AND LABORATORY
INVESTIGATION
DESIGN
DOCUMENTATI ON AND TENDERING
IMPLEMENTATION
QUALITY MANAGEMENT
POST CONSTRUCTI ON
You are
here

Preliminary Sections
Page ii
SCOPE
The South African Pavement Engineering Manual (SAPEM) is a reference manual for all aspects of pavement
engineering. SAPEM is a best practice guide. There are many appropriate manuals and guidelines available for
pavement engineering, which SAPEM does not replace. Rather, SAPEM provides details on these references, and
where necessary, provides guidelines on their appropriate use. Where a topic is adequately covered in another
guideline, the reference is provided. SAPEM strives to provide explanations of the basic concepts and terminology
used in pavement engineering, and provides background information to the concepts and theories commonly used.
SAPEM is appropriate for use at National, Provincial and Municipal level, as well as in the Metros. SAPEM is a
valuable education and training tool, and is recommended reading for all entry level engineers, technologists and
technicians involved in the pavement engineering industry. SAPEM is also useful for practising engineers who would
like to access the latest appropriate reference guideline.

SAPEM consists of 14 chapters. A brief description of each chapter is given below to provide the context for this
chapter, Chapter 7.

Chapter 1: Introduction discusses the application of this SAPEM manual, and the institutional responsibilities,
statutory requirements, and, planning and time scheduling for pavement engineering projects. A glossary of terms
and abbreviations used in all the SAPEM chapters is included in Appendix A.

Chapter 2: Pavement Composition and Behaviour includes discussion on the history and basic principles of
roads. Typical pavement structures, material characteristics and pavement types are given. The development of
pavement distress and the functional performance of pavements are explained. As an introduction, and background
for reference with other chapters, the basic principles of mechanics of materials and material science are outlined.

Chapter 3: Materials Testing presents the tests used for all material types used in pavement structures. The
tests are briefly described, and reference is made to the test number and where to obtain the full test method.
Where possible and applicable, interesting observations or experiences with the tests are mentioned. Chapters 3 and
4 are complementary.

Chapter 4: Standards follows the same format as Chapter 3, but discusses the standards used for the various
tests. This includes applicable limits (minimum and maximum values) for test results. Material classification systems
are given, as are guidelines on mix and materials composition.

Chapter 5: Laboratory Management covers laboratory quality management, testing personnel, test methods,
and the testing environment and equipment. Quality assurance issues, and health, safety and the environment are
also discussed.

Chapter 6: Road Prism and Pavement Investigation discusses all aspects of the road prism and pavement
investigations, including legal and environmental requirements, materials testing, and the reporting of the
investigations. Chapters 6 and 7 are complementary.

Chapter 7: Geotechnical Investigations and Design Considerations covers the geotechnical investigations
applicable to pavement structures. This includes potential problem subgrades, fills, cuts, structures and tunnels.
Guidelines for the reporting of the investigations are provided. The personnel required for specialist geotechnical
investigations are also recommended.

Chapter 8: Material Sources provides information for sourcing materials from project quarries and borrow pits,
commercial materials sources and alternative sources.

Chapter 9: Materials Utilisation and Design discusses materials in the roadbed, earthworks (including cuts and
fills) and all the pavement layers, including soils and gravels, crushed stones, cementitious materials, primes, stone
precoating fluids and tack coats, bituminous binders, bitumen stabilised materials, asphalt, spray seals and micro
surfacings, concrete, proprietary and certified products and block paving. The mix designs of all materials are
discussed.

Chapter 10: Pavement Design presents the philosophy of pavement design, methods of estimating design traffic
and the pavement investigation process. Methods of structural capacity estimation for flexible, rigid and concrete
block pavements are discussed.


Page iii
Chapter 11: Documentation and Tendering covers the different forms of contracts typical for road pavement
projects; the design, contract and tender documentation; and, the tender process.

Chapter 12: Construction Equipment and Method Guidelines presents the nature and requirements of
construction equipment and different methods of construction. The construction of trial sections is also discussed.
Chapters 12 and 13 are complementary, with Chapter 12 covering the proactive components of road construction,
i.e., the method of construction. Chapter 13 covers the reactive components, i.e., checking the construction is done
correctly.

Chapter 13: Quality Management includes acceptance control processes, and quality plans. All the pavement
layers and the road prism are discussed. The documentation involved in quality management is also discussed, and
where applicable, provided.

Chapter 14: Post-Construction incorporates the monitoring of pavements during the service life, the causes and
mechanisms of distress, and the concepts of maintenance, rehabilitation and reconstruction.

FEEDBACK
SAPEM is a living document. The first edition was made available in electronic format in J anuary 2013. It is
envisaged that SAPEM will be updated after one year. Feedback from all interested parties in industry is appreciated,
as this will keep SAPEM appropriate.

To provide feedback on SAPEM, please email sapem@nra.co.za.


Page iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This compilation of this manual was funded by the South African National Road Agency Limited (SANRAL). The
project was coordinated on behalf of SANRAL by Kobus van der Walt and Steph Bredenhann. Professor Kim J enkins,
the SANRAL Chair in Pavement Engineering at Stellenbosch University, was the project manager. The Cement and
Concrete Institute (C&CI) provided administrative support.

The following people contributed to the compilation of Chapter 7:
Task Group Leader: Etienne Terblanche, SANRAL
Eugene Knottenbelt, Specialist Consultant
Alan Parrock, ARQ Consultants

This SAPEM manual was edited by Dr Fenella J ohns, Rubicon Solutions.

Photos for this chapter were provided by:
Eugene Knottenbelt, Specialist Consultant
Etienne Terblanche, SANRAL
Professor Kim J enkins, Stellenbosch University
Dr Fenella J ohns, Rubicon Solutions
Dr Phil Paige-Green, CSIR Built Environment


Page v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction and Planning ............................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Objectives of a Progressive Geotechnical Investigation ................................................................ 3
1.2 Competencies, Responsibilities and General Considerations for Exploration Work .......................... 3
1.2.1 Consulting Engineering Company ..................................................................................... 3
1.2.2 Professional Staff and Supervisory Personnel .................................................................... 4
1.2.3 Registered Professional Staff, Staff-in-Training and Accredited Laboratory Field Staff .......... 4
1.2.4 Drilling and In Situ Testing Contractors ............................................................................ 4
1.2.5 Testing Laboratories ....................................................................................................... 5
2. Geotechnical Investigations ............................................................................................................ 6
2.1 Planning and Phasing of Geotechnical Investigations ................................................................... 6
2.2 Stability Assessment Investigations ............................................................................................ 9
2.2.1 General Policy ................................................................................................................. 9
2.2.2 Sub-Surface Investigations Related to Stability Assessment ............................................. 10
2.2.3 Reporting, Scheduling and Timing .................................................................................. 11
2.3 Procurement of Geotechnical Services ...................................................................................... 11
2.3.1 Consulting Geotechnical Engineering Services ................................................................. 11
2.3.2 Geotechnical and Drilling Contractors ............................................................................. 11
3. Potential Problem Subgrades ........................................................................................................ 12
3.1 Subsurface Instability .............................................................................................................. 12
3.1.1 Undermined Ground ...................................................................................................... 12
3.1.2 Dolomitic Subgrades ..................................................................................................... 12
3.1.3 Made or Filled-Up Ground .............................................................................................. 12
3.1.4 Problem Soils ................................................................................................................ 13
3.2 Subsurface Drainage Considerations ......................................................................................... 15
3.2.1 In Situ Subgrade ........................................................................................................... 15
3.2.2 Cuts ............................................................................................................................. 16
3.2.3 Underneath Embankments and Fills ............................................................................... 17
3.3 Design of Special Subgrade Treatment Types Underneath Buildings or Culvert Sites .................... 17
4. Fills ................................................................................................................................................ 19
4.1 New Fills ................................................................................................................................. 21
4.1.1 Fill Stability ................................................................................................................... 21
4.1.2 Settlement of Fills ......................................................................................................... 21
4.1.3 Special Considerations ................................................................................................... 22
4.2 Existing Fills ............................................................................................................................ 23
4.2.1 Toe Erosion .................................................................................................................. 23
4.2.2 Settlement ................................................................................................................... 24
4.2.3 Degradation ................................................................................................................. 25
4.2.4 Translational Slips ......................................................................................................... 25
4.2.5 Creep and Slide (Creeping Valley Slides) ........................................................................ 26
4.2.6 Internal Erosion and Piping ............................................................................................ 27
4.2.7 Stability Failure (Rotational Slips) ................................................................................... 27
4.3 Investigation Process ............................................................................................................... 28
5. Cuts ................................................................................................................................................ 29
5.1 Cut Slopes in Soils ................................................................................................................... 30
5.2 Cut Slopes in Rock ................................................................................................................... 31
5.2.1 Rock Falls and Slides ..................................................................................................... 32
5.2.2 Toppling Failures .......................................................................................................... 33
5.2.3 Block Slides .................................................................................................................. 34
5.2.4 Degradation ................................................................................................................. 37
5.2.5 Investigation Process .................................................................................................... 39
5.3 Failure of Existing Cuts ............................................................................................................ 39
5.3.1 Cut Slopes in Soils ........................................................................................................ 39
5.3.2 Cut Slopes in Rock ........................................................................................................ 42
6. Structures ...................................................................................................................................... 45
6.1 Intrusive Investigations for Bridge Upgrades ............................................................................. 45
6.2 Modus Operandi and Reporting ................................................................................................ 46

Page vi
7. Tunnels .......................................................................................................................................... 47
7.1 Stage 1: Desk Study and Site Reconnaissance (Pre-Feasibility) .................................................. 48
7.1.1 Desk Study ................................................................................................................... 48
7.1.2 Site Reconnaissance (Walkover Site Inspection).............................................................. 50
7.1.3 Site Reconnaissance Report ........................................................................................... 51
7.2 Stage 2: Preliminary Site Investigation (Feasibility) ................................................................... 52
7.2.1 Preliminary Tunnel Report ............................................................................................. 52
7.3 Stage 3: Detailed Site Investigations and Design ...................................................................... 52
7.3.1 Planning ....................................................................................................................... 52
7.3.2 Detailed Investigation Contract ...................................................................................... 53
7.3.3 Investigation Methods ................................................................................................... 53
7.3.4 Guidelines for Assessing Testing Requirements ............................................................... 54
7.3.5 Investigation of Old Mine Workings, Buildings and Structures .......................................... 55
7.3.6 Design ......................................................................................................................... 55
7.3.7 Detailed Tunnel Investigation Report ............................................................................. 56
7.4 Stage 4: Construction Stage Investigations .............................................................................. 57
7.5 Stage 5: Post Construction Monitoring ..................................................................................... 58
8. Composition of Test Data and Reporting ....................................................................................... 59
8.1 Preliminary Geotechnical and Materials Report .......................................................................... 59
8.2 Detailed Geotechnical and Materials Design Report .................................................................... 59
8.3 Project Document .................................................................................................................... 60
References and Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 61

Appendix A: Soil Profiling of Test Pits and Auger Holes
Appendix B: Rock Profiling of Cores, Testpits or Quarry Faces
Appendix C: Aspects Covered in the Detailed Geotechnical and Materials Exploration and Design
Report for Greenfield/ Upgrade Projects
Appendix D: Bridge and Culvert Foundation I nvestigation
Appendix E: Examples of Special Roadbed Treatment Types


Page vii
LI ST OF TABLES
Table 1. Registration and Affiliations Requirements ....................................................................................... 4
Table 2. Summary of General Activities During the Various Geotechnical Investigation Phases ......................... 7
Table 3. Progressive Investigation Stages for Tunnelling Projects .................................................................. 48

LI ST OF FI GURES
Figure 1. Typical Flowchart for Road Prism, Structures and Tunnels Specialist Geotechnical Investigations ......... 2
Figure 2. Distribution of Expansive Soils and Collapsing Sands (Williams et al, 1985) ....................................... 13
Figure 3. Basic Concept of Additional Settlement due to collapse (after Schwartz, 1985) .................................. 14
Figure 4. Interceptor Drain (from TRH15, 1994) ............................................................................................ 16
Figure 5. Drainage Blanket (from TRH15, 1994) ............................................................................................ 16
Figure 6. Wick Drains Under Fill .................................................................................................................... 17
Figure 7. Typical Road Fill ............................................................................................................................ 19
Figure 8. Topographic Embankment Types: Side Slope Fills (from TRH10, 1994) ............................................ 19
Figure 9. Topographic Embankment Types: Gulley Fills (from TRH10, 1994) .................................................. 20
Figure 10. Topographic Embankment Types: Flat Fills (from TRH10, 1994) ...................................................... 20
Figure 11. Bump at Bridge Approach .............................................................................................................. 22
Figure 12. Toe Protection by Construction of Gabion Wall ................................................................................ 23
Figure 13. Preventing Settlement on High Fill .................................................................................................. 24
Figure 14. Inclinometer Probe ........................................................................................................................ 25
Figure 15. Prevention of Degradation and Collapse Settlement in High Fill ........................................................ 26
Figure 16. Slide or Slip (from TRH15, 1994) .................................................................................................... 26
Figure 17. Internal Erosion and Piping ............................................................................................................ 27
Figure 18. Stability Failure ............................................................................................................................. 28
Figure 19. Example of a Road Cut in Rock ...................................................................................................... 29
Figure 20. Cut Slope in Soils .......................................................................................................................... 30
Figure 21. Interceptor Drains ......................................................................................................................... 32
Figure 22. Catch Fences and Canopies on Chapmans Peak Drive in Cape Town ................................................ 32
Figure 23. Applying Rock Fall Netting and Shotcrete to Cut Slope ..................................................................... 33
Figure 24. Toppling and Block Failures ............................................................................................................ 33
Figure 25. Steep Block Slide ........................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 26. Slide on Unfavourable Bedding Plane .............................................................................................. 35
Figure 27. Dowelling as a Stabilisation Method ................................................................................................ 35
Figure 28. Gabion Cavity Wall to Retain Unfavourable Dip Strata ...................................................................... 36
Figure 29. Degradation of Sediments .............................................................................................................. 37
Figure 30. Enon Conglomerate near Knysna .................................................................................................... 38
Figure 31. Corestones Falling from Slope ........................................................................................................ 38
Figure 32. Erosion of Cut Face due to Inadequate Interceptor Drain above Slope .............................................. 39
Figure 33. Netting System and Re-Vegetating ................................................................................................. 40
Figure 34. Rotational Slip ............................................................................................................................... 41
Figure 35. Mud and Vegetation Slide on Kaaimans Pass .................................................................................. 42
Figure 36. Toppling Failure (from TRH18, 1993) .............................................................................................. 44
Figure 37. Pedestrian Bridge Over the N1 ....................................................................................................... 45
Figure 38. Scour around Bridge Piers .............................................................................................................. 46
Figure 39. Hugenot Tunnel ............................................................................................................................ 47
Figure 40. Google Earth Satellite Image of J oints and Faults in Gneissic Terrain in Kamieskroon Area of
Namaqualand ................................................................................................................................ 50
Figure 41. Changes in Vegetation as a Result of Filled Pit ................................................................................ 51
Figure 42. Tunnel Boring Machine at Entrance to Tunnel at Gautrains Rosebank Station ................................... 55

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Section 1: Introduction and Planning
Page 2

Figure 1. Typical Flowchart for Road Prism, Structures and Tunnels Specialist Geotechnical
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ve in nature
investigate
und, ground
ses.
ction stage.
ork
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.
design and
s shall:
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and degree
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1.2.3 Reg
Personnel c
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Table 1.
Disciplin
Geotechni
Engineerin
Geophysic
Geohydro
Pavement
Note
1. ECSA is t
2. SACNASP
3. SAICE is
4. SAIEG is
5. SAGA is

1.2.4 Dri
The Contra
required. I
Chapt
ofessional S
rsonnel
otechnical inv
professional
have:
knowledge
hnical and pav
ent experien
al problematic
als.
vely investig
uct appropriat
dic mainten
road projects
sufficient pav
perience. Th
identify and
on and asses
e of any distre
s well as d
nd testing pro
gistered Pro
carrying out, l
on for structur
ad pavements
ffiliated as sho
conditions des
chip logging
a registered e
pproved by th
ed geotechnica
o be officially
g geologist.
er engineering
geotechnical e
, provided the
mely official a
Registra
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ical engineer
ng geologist
cist
logist
t engineer/Pav
the Engineering
P is the South A
the South Afric
s the South Afric
the South Africa
lling and I n
actors tenderi
It is the respon
South A
ter 7: Geot
Staff and Su
estigations it
staff and
of engineerin
vement engine
nce in the ide
c practices, c
gate, sample
te laboratory t
ance, rehab
s, it is expect
vement rehab
his is so tha
quantify, dur
ssment proces
ess, the proba
determining t
ogramme.
ofessional S
leading, super
res, periodic o
s, or new con
own in Table 1
scribed in the f
and geotech
engineering ge
he employer,
al engineer or
supervised, c
g design relat
engineers or e
e road autho
pproval is give
ation and Af
vement profile
g Council of Sou
African Council f
can Institute of
can Institute for
an Geophysicist
n Situ Testi
ng for geotec
nsibility of the
African Pav
technical In
Section 1:
upervisory
is expected
supervisory
g geology or
eering.
entification of
conditions or
and request
testing.
bilitation, or
ed that they
bilitation and
at they can
ring the field
ss, the type
ble modes of
the required
Staff, Staff-
rvising and ma
or special mai
nstruction road
1, or similar fo
following para
nical or soil e
eologist. In t
individual logg
r engineering
checked and s
ted or investig
engineering g
ority employer
en.
ffiliations R
Regi
er
th Africa
for National Scie
Civil Engineers
r Engineering an
t Association
ng Contrac
chnical invest
e contractor un
vement En
nvestigation

Introduction a
Page 4
f-in-Training
anaging the v
intenance roa
d projects, sh
oreign affiliatio
agraph.
engineering m
the case of a
ging sheets m
geologist (pe
signed off by
gatory test pi
eologists, or
r receives tim
Requiremen
istration Aut
ECSA
1
SACNASP
SACNAS
SACNAS
ECSA
entific Professio
nd Environment
ctors
tigative work
ndertaking the
Resp
Persons

All core or
mapping i
by a regis
or chip log
approved
be compil
geotechni
profiling a
and signe
engineer o

For all oth
pits or aug
registered
or by geot
training, p
proposals
timely offi
ngineering
s and Desig
and Planning
g and Accre
various facets
d pavement p
hall be profess
ons. Exceptio
mapping is to
core or chip
may be compi
erson-in-trainin
the supervisin
ts or auger h
by geotechnic
mely proposals
nts
thority SA
P
2

P
P
ns
tal Geologists
shall be high
e investigation
ponsibilities o
and Persons
r chip logging
is to be carried
stered enginee
gging task onl
by the employ
ed by a well-e
cal engineer o
and related wo
d off by the su
or engineering
her engineerin
ger holes, pro
d geotechnical
technical engi
provided the ro
and applicatio
icial approval
Manual
gn Consider
edited Labo
of a geotechn
projects, upgr
sionally regist
ons are allowe
be carried ou
logging task o
iled by a well
ng). This pro
ng registered
holes, profiling
cal engineers o
s and applica
Membe
SAICE
3
G
SA Grou
SAICE T
hly experience
n to:
of Profession
s-in-Training
and geotechn
d out, officially
ering geologist
y, when propo
yer, individual
experienced, b
or engineering
ork is officially
upervising reg
g geologist.
g design relat
filing shall be
engineers or
neers or engin
oad authority
ons to this effe
is given.
rations
oratory Fiel
nical and/or m
rading or reha
tered and pre
ed for persons
ut, officially c
only, when pr
l-experienced,
ofiling and rela
geotechnical
g shall be don
or engineerin
ations to this
ber Affiliation
Geotechnical
SAIEEG
4

SAGA
5

undwater Asso
Transportation
ed in the par
nally Registe
g
nical or soil en
y checked and
t. In the case
osed and offic
l logging shee
but as yet unre
g geologist. T
y supervised, c
gistered geote
ted or investig
done either b
engineering g
neering geolog
receives time
fect, and provi
ld Staff
material field
abilitation of
eferably also
s-in-training,
checked and
roposed and
, but as yet
ated work is
engineer or
ne either by
g geologists
effect, and
n in SA
Division
ociation
Division
rticular field
ered
gineering
d signed
e of a core
cially
ets may
egistered
his
checked
chnical
gatory test
by
geologists,
gists in
ly
ded

Section 1: Introduction and Planning
Page 5
Complete the work on time and in accordance with the tender or quotation specifications.
Carry out the investigation according to these guidelines and other recognised standards and procedures.
Provide adequate and reliable data for interpretation purposes.

1.2.5 Testing Laboratories
It is a requirement that the fieldwork, as well as laboratory materials sampling and testing, be carried out by a
SANAS accredited testing company approved by the road authority. See Chapter 5, Section 1.1 for more on
laboratory accreditation.


Section 2: Geotechnical Investigations
Page 6
2. GEOTECHNICAL INVESTI GATIONS
2.1 Planning and Phasing of Geotechnical Investigations
Exploration work should be as sufficient as the engineering conditions warrant, and as the total scope of works
requires. It cannot be emphasized too strongly that thorough planning is a foremost requirement and utmost care
and diligence is required during the early planning stages, as well as the detailed investigation stages. The primary
aim is to prepare an adequate design and to safeguard against problems during construction and the design life of
the facility.

The cost of adequate exploration is relatively low when compared with the total value of the project, and varies
depending upon the job and the nature of the ground. An often-quoted cumulative figure is in the order of 1% of
the construction cost estimate.

Legal issues, environmental issues and safety precautions are critically important during all stages of a geotechnical
investigation. The following documents should therefore be studied and be readily available at all times to the entire
investigation team. Consulting companies should ensure that all members of the investigation team, including
consultants, contractors and laboratory staff involved with the fieldwork, are knowledgeable with the contents of
these documents.
SAICE Code of Practice, The Safety of Persons Working in Small Diameter Shafts and Test Pits for
geotechnical Engineering Purposes, 2007.
The legal and environmental requirements and considerations elaborated upon in Chapter 1 (Section 3) and
Chapter 6 (Section 2).
SAICE Code of Practice, Lateral Support in Surface Excavations, 1989.
Occupational Health and Safety Act No. 85 of 1993 as amended, including the Regulations (2003).
TRH2: Geotechnical and Soil Engineering Mapping for Roads and the Storage of Materials Data (1992).

Considering the aims and objectives of investigations, the planning of the investigation should take many, or all, of
the following factors into consideration:
Definition of the total scope and the engineering objective.
Nature of the proposed road project.
Geology and geomorphology of the route or site(s).
Access and remoteness of sites.
Site topography, vegetation and drainage.
The nature of adjacent developments beyond road reserves.
Knowledge and data gathering of previous geotechnical investigations, for example, existing bridge
foundations. Opinions and observations from local engineers, land owners and contractors.
The identification of the various soil and rock types occurring in the area of the proposed road structure
project, and representative soil profiles.
Evidence of problem soil conditions, e.g., expansive or collapsible soils, possible shallow undermining,
dolomites, dispersive soils and soft clays.
Localised moisture conditions and ground water levels.
Upfront planning for drilling or augering of trial holes, test pits excavation and obtaining undisturbed or
disturbed samples for laboratory tests and in situ testing. These are required for the design of fills, cut slopes,
bridge and culvert foundations.

For successful eventual completion of any geotechnical investigation for structures and tunnels, a logical and
systematic approach should be followed, just as for road prism investigations or material sources investigations dealt
with in Chapters 6 (Section 4) and 8 (Section 2). Generally, for new or greenfields works, the investigations should
follow a progressive or phased approach, such as the one summarised in Table 2.

So
Ta
Pu
Ge
Ge

Ge
Ge

Not
For
1.
2.

outh African Pa
ble 2. Summ
urpose of Investig
eneral Phases: I n
eotechnical Inves
Collection of availab
Determination of ge
Identification of pot
stability problems
Preliminary indicatio
conditions
Preliminary indicatio
sources
Identification of alte
alignments
Interfacing with env
Recommendations f
eneral Phases: D
eotechnical Inves
Final choice of alter
Determination of ge
geological condition
Interfacing with EIA
Preliminary design o
Cost estimate of pro
te:
practical reasons, this
EIA = Environmental
EMP = Environmenta
avement Engin
ary of General A
gation
nitial Assessment
stigation Phases:
ble information
eneral geology
tential geological or
ons of foundation
on of construction mat
ernative sites and
vironmentalists
for further investigatio
Detailed Assessme
stigation Phases:
rnative route locations
eneral engineering
ns
A
1

of structures and road
oject
s table is not confined
Impact Assessment
l Management Plan

neering Manua
Activities During
Techniques
t Report, Route L
Reconnaissance
terial
ons
Data reco
Regional t
agricultur
Walk-ove
ent Report, Prelim
Preliminary Geo

d
Soil and r
Geophysic
Test pittin
Core or a
Penetratio
Sampling
Classificat
to road structures an
Scope
In Table 2, th
programming
these phases
al
Section 2
g the Various G
s
ocation Report
e/ Desk Top Study
overy
topographical, land us
ral and geological map
r investigation
minary Design Re
otechnical and Ma
rock mapping
cal investigations
ng
uger drilling
on tests
and lab testing
tion
nd tunnels only.
of I nvestigations
e geotechnical inve
considerations vary
may happen concu
Ch

: Geotechnical Inve
Page 7
eotechnical Inv
Repor
y Report (Pre-Fea
sage,
pping
Lay
Reg
or s
Sch
Rec
Des
Rec
port
aterials Report (F
All t
Clas
Rec
Disc
Rec
Rec
s
estigations are very
y from project to pr
rrently, or not all ph
hapter 7: Geote
estigations
vestigation Phas
rt Content
asibility)
yout plan
gional engineering geo
sources
hematic profiles
cord of existing inform
scription of known geo
commendations for alt
easibility/ viabilit
the applicable informa
ssification and descrip
cord of investigation d
cussion and interpreta
commendations for ch
commendations for de
comprehensive, com
oject and physical c
hases are necessary
echnical Investig
ses
ological map (see Chap
mation
ological conditions or p
ternative route location
ty)
ation from the previou
ption of foundation and
ata, including problem
ation of general test pi
oice of location and ty
etailed design stage inv
mprising up to five p
conditions also vary
y for all projects.
gations and Desi
pter 8, Section 2) with
problems
ns and further investig
s phase
d construction materia
m areas
it and borehole data, a
ype of bridges or struc
vestigations
phases. In practice
from site to site. T
gn Consideratio
h potential material typ
gations
als
and materials sources
ctures
e, however,
Therefore, several o
ns
pes

of
South African Pavement Engineering Manual Chapter 7: Geotechnical Investigations and Design Considerations

Page 8
Purpose of I nvestigation Techniques Report Content
General Phases: Detailed Design and Documentation Report
Geotechnical I nvestigation Phase: Detailed Geotechnical and Materials Design Report
Obtain quantitative and qualitative
information on foundation conditions and
construction materials
Interface with EMP
2

Core drilling, borehole tests and auger
drilling
Undisturbed samples
Laboratory and in situ testing
Detailed engineering geological mapping and profiling
Quantitative and qualitative descriptions and results of detailed geo-investigations for bridge
or other structure foundations, cuts and fills and construction material sources including
borrow pits and quarries; construction methods and alternatives. Pros and cons of each to
be considered
Proactive inclusion and tabulation of all necessary geotechnical engineering design
parameters, settlement estimation parameters as evaluated and recommended by
geotechnical engineer (who carried out the investigations) for bridge design engineers for
each bridge, lateral support design engineers for each high fill or each deep cut or other
type permanent lateral support structure required
Recommendations for foundation treatments, e.g., undercutting, stabilising, grouting and
lateral support
Recommendations for further geotechnical investigation and/or monitoring during
construction phase
General Phases: Construction Report
Geotechnical I nvestigation Phase: Construction Report
Comparison of actual vs. predicted conditions
and attending to ad hoc problems
Observation of behaviour of permanently
anchored bridge foundations, lateral support
systems and permanently anchored or bolted
cuttings and fills, during the Contractual
Liability Period
Detailed site records
Photos
Monitoring foundation or slope
treatments and behaviour via
instrumentation and surveillance
Laboratory and in situ testing
Detailed mapping
Photos
Records, measurements and results
Conclusions
Further long term actions or recommendations
General Phases: Special Maintenance Report
Geotechnical I nvestigation Phase: Special Maintenance and/ or I ntegrity Reports (typically every 8-10 years)
Same as above, but at regular intervals
during the expected eventual design life of
the particular facility
Monitoring of permanently installed
devices and/or instruments (mechanically
and/or electronically, e.g., deflections,
stresses, pressures and water flow), and
ongoing verification of integrity. To be
assessed by specialist geotechnical
engineer.
Records, measurements and results
Evaluation and discussions
Conclusions
Recommendations for either immediate actions to be taken or longer term actions
Table 2 is
stimulating
sensible an
should alwa
used, diges

There can
last phase
deformation
structures
systems, pe
or permane
all fall into
are normal
requiremen
constructio
tunnel proj
problems c
the employ

2.2 Sta
2.2.1 Gen
Geotechnic
early in the
as these co
practical, e
justify pote
Portions
Dolo
Thic
Exis
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terrain.
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In the case
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the boreho
feasibility a
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Slope stab
affecting st
be investig
instability a
embankme
of TRH18
detailed st
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For structu
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field investi
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be up to four
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and assets (
ermanently an
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nt. Sometime
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jects or anch
can arise durin
yers or infrastr
ability Asses
neral Policy
al desk study
e route locatio
ould lead to re
economical an
ential realignm
s of the route
omitic or shallo
ck active clays
sting undergro
e instability
r cuttings tha
e of stability a
ormally carried
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and viability o
ented in Coun
mite areas
d in dolomite
2), 2009.
bility of critic
tructures and/
gated. Refe
assessment g
nts against sl
(1993) and S
tage of this
s after the fin
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res to be foun
etres), it is ex
igation comme
asis of four
climate and h
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South A
ter 7: Geot
a general gui
planning tech
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mind that the p
erstood by othe
geotechnical
ing construct
tructural inte
(over the lon
nchored bridge
d road cut fac
ortant fourth p
nd contracted
es, there is a
the design lif
hored bridge f
ng the design
ructure owners
ssment Inv
y
reports relate
on stage, befo
ealignment of
nd avoid signi
ment are:
passing ove
ow undermine
or collapsing
ound services o
of structure
at require spec
ssessment inv
d out in progr
Some, or a
f the chosen
ncil for Geosci
are adequat
e work, as sp
cal cuttings a
/or portal walls
er to the in
guidelines and
liding given in
Section 2 of
investigatory
nal establishm
horizontal and
nded on high e
xtremely impo
ences, the em
simple param
height. Stag
decision base
African Pav
technical In
Section 2: G
de to geotec
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nical and Mate
professionally
er design eng
investigation
tion. Monito
egrity of ex
ng term) such
e or viaduct s
ces and road
phase. Specia
d out to fulfil
a fifth phase,
fe of the facil
foundations,
life. Should
s should be in
vestigations
ed to the poss
ore embarking
the route. Fo
ficant and ex
er:
ed land
sands
or features tha
es or tunnels/p
cial lateral sup
vestigations fo
ressive stages
ll, of these st
route before
ience (2002 a
tely compete
pecified in SA
and fill emba
s or tunnels, m
nitial suscept
d the stability
n Sections 3.6
TRH10 (1994
y work norma
ent or confirm
d vertical align
embankments
ortant that be
mbankment is
meters: top
ged, or prog
ed investigatio
vement En
nvestigation

Geotechnical I
Page 9
chnical engine
secondly, to
erials Investiga
evaluated ge
ineers.
phases, of wh
oring the beh
existing geote
h as lateral
structure foun
embankment
al maintenanc
l this very im
, which occu
lity. For exam
stability or co
such problem
nformed.
s
sible deep inst
on the Detai
or new constru
xpensive prob
at cannot be e
portals or dee
pport measure
or structures a
s: firstly, the
tages are requ
the design ha
and 2007) and
ent and
ANS 1936
ankments
must also
tibility to
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6 and 3.7
4). The
ally only
mation of
nments.
s (greater
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classified
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gressively
on stages
T
t
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T
ngineering
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nvestigations
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serve as a q
ation and Des
eotechnical de
hich the
haviour,
echnical
support
dations,
t slopes,
ce works
mportant
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mple, in
orrosion
ms arise,
tability of a po
led Geotechni
uction, alterna
lems, must b
economically r
ep cuttings or
es due to cons
and/or tunnels
desk study, s
uired during t
as progressed
d Wagener (1
I n
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m
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u
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Dolomit
The methodol
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documented a
this manual.
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guidelines issu
(2009).
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ign Report. T
sign paramete
ortion of the ro
cal and Mater
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relocated
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s on dolomitic
econdly, the g
the route loca
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985). It is es
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nvestigation
he compiler of
must bear in m
eeds to be use
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ngineers.
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ogies relating
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and are theref
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nd the SAIEG,
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ogists to: first
st to ensure
The compiler o
ers presented
oute should b
rials Design R
tions, which m
. Instabilities
ts located on
as geometrics.
c land, such in
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ation stage, to
ese investigati
ssential that i
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of any of the re
mind that the r
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l Site Characte
pment on Dolo
Dolomitic Land
by the Counc
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e SAICE.
be surpassed b
namely SANS
tly, assist in
an eventual
of the report
need to be
be submitted
eport stage,
may be more
s that could
problematic

nvestigations
tage, thirdly
o assess the
ive methods
nvestigators
chnical
port
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eport
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ately
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erization
omitic
d, 2007.
cil for
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by
1936
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2.2.2 Sub
Sub-surface
evaluation
the magnit
reflected by

For settlem
soft clayey
even at a c
are on-grad

In general,
Provide
Identify
Provide
Yield sa
Provide
Provide

Cuts and f
relating to
and TRH18
methods in
scanning (M
Modern rem
greenfields

Sufficient i
minimise po
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stability con

For road cu
slopes are
adequate s
to slope f
exceeds 10
prove the
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of water m

The spacing
critical inve
be devoted
150 metres
purposes.
spacing ne
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present, as
of the dept
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ment for the p
expanded to
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e studies repr
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tude of the a
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de sections an
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a description
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geotechnical
amples for test
in situ mois
all of the data
fills susceptibl
critical emban
8. The metho
nclude aerial
MSS) methods
mote sensing
projects. An
nvestigation o
ost constructio
must be des
nsiderations.
uts considered
normally util
slopes must be
failure assess
0 metres, spec
stability of
and discontin
ations, and ge
the soil and ro
ust be made.
g and depth o
estigation area
d to them. At
s typical for lo
Shorter interv
eeds to be co
en defining the
of boreholes
s well as the w
th to which s
South A
ter 7: Geot
ails of which c
proposed road
justify a mo
logging, and w
nvestigatio
resent an impo
ettlement or h
applied load, u
ty aspects.
ations, the de
erials and mat
depth below t
nd those with v
studies must:
of the chara
weak or comp
parameters o
ting the geote
sture, water t
a necessary fo
e to instabilit
nkments and
odologies emp
photo interpr
s (TRH18). T
techniques a
example is Li
of subsoil con
on settlement
signed for slo
d as a source
ised to optim
e maintained.
ments, where
cial geotechnic
such deep c
nuity surveys
eotechnical de
ock encounter
of bore holes
as normally re
t least two bor
ong fills, with
vals are used f
nsiderably red
e extent of dis
s must be re
width and heig
significant stre
African Pav
technical In
Section 2: G
can be found
d has been fin
ore detailed st
water table me
ons Related
ortant phase
eave. The de
uniformity of
pth may be g
terials with a c
the fill. The s
very low fills.
cter and geo
pressible (or
btained from
echnical eng
able and seep
or preparation
ty are not on
critical cutting
ployed vary, d
retation, colou
These techniqu
are sometimes
DAR, which is
nditions below
. Regardless
ope, horizonta
e of construct
mise the cut/f
Regardless o
e the depth
cal investigatio
cut slopes.
if in unweat
esign. Detail
red must be s
and auger ho
epresent only
reholes must
probing in b
for short fills.
duced and ma
scovered comp
elated to the
ht of the prop
esses are pro
vement En
nvestigation

Geotechnical I
Page 10
in TRH10. If
nalised, the in
tability invest
easurements.
d to Stabilit
of the stability
epth to which
geology and
greater than g
collapsible gra
stretches of ro
ometry of the
r heaving) st
in situ testin
gineering pro
page data.
n of the engin
nly the deep
gs are defined
depending on
ur infrared ph
ues can be co
s warranted f
s a three dime
w all fills mu
of the initial s
al slide and
tion materials,
fill balance, a
of initial susce
of a propos
ons are neces
These includ
thered or wea
ed description
supplied, and
oles depends o
a small perce
be made ben
between for co
In problem a
ay approach
pressible depo
e geological c
posed fill. On
oduced by fill
ngineering
s and Desig
nvestigations
warranted, a
itial road prism
tigation involv
This is discu
ty Assessme
y investigation
the investigat
soils in the
generally requ
ain structure a
oad pavement
e underlying la
trata.
ng in boreho
operties of th
neering solut
or high ones.
d in Section 2
n the stage, a
hotography fo
ombined with
for early slop
nsional radar
ust be carried
susceptibility t
bulging
, batter
lthough
eptibility
sed cut
ssary to
de joint
athered
ns, and
special cognis
on the specific
entage of the
eath each ma
orrelation
areas, the
15 to 20
osits.
conditions
the basis
loadings,
Re
to
m
slo
bu
Manual
gn Consider
nd provided th
m investigatio
ving drilling, i
ussed in more
ent
n for roads, a
ion must be c
area, and sev
uired for slide
are especially s
t most vulnera
ayer or layers.
les and using
he materials.
tion.
. The variou
2.2.1 and are
and on each
or moisture st
construction
e stability stu
system that e
out to enab
o failure, all fi
sance of the p
c geological co
total investiga
ajor fill, with in
Fills >
egardless of th
o failure, all fill
etres in heigh
ope, and horiz
ulging stability
Batte
A batter slope
of a fill or reta
slope of the c
rations
the horizontal
on (Chapter 6,
in situ testing
detail in the
and are necess
carried out is a
verity of the
stability prob
susceptible to
able to heavin

g probes.
us stages of i
also discusse
particular situ
tudies and m
material locat
udies, especia
enhances 3-D t
ble design pro
ills in excess o
presence and
onditions. Be
ation, special
ntervals of 10
10 metres
he initial susce
ls in excess of
ht must be des
zontal slide an
y consideration
er Slopes
e is the backw
aining wall, or
cut.
and vertical
, Section 4),
g, sampling,
next section
sary for any
a function of
problem as
blems. Wet,
o settlement,
ng problems
nvestigation
ed in TRH10
uation. The
multi-spectral
tion as well.
ally on large
topography.
ocedures to
of 10 metres
implications
ecause these
care should
00 metres to
eptibility
f 10
signed for
nd
ns.
ward slope
r the

Page 11
boreholes beneath fills should extend to a depth at least equal to a half width, or to twice the average height of the
fill, unless incompressible layers are encountered at shallower depth. Boreholes for fill stability investigations may be
terminated at shallower depths when bedrock is encountered.

2.2.3 Reporting, Scheduling and Timing
In addition to the guidelines given in Section 8 and Table 2 for the various reporting stages of project development,
in general, for greenfields or new and/or upgrade road works projects, the following reports are necessary:
Desk Study Geotechnical Report is essential prior to, or at, route location stage.
Preliminary Geotechnical and Materials Report is required prior to the compilation of the Basic Planning
Report.
Detailed Geotechnical and Materials Design Report is required approximately a month prior to the
detailed design and documentation stage.

2.3 Procurement of Geotechnical Services
Services that are typically used for geotechnical investigations include geotechnical engineering consulting services
and geotechnical or drilling contractor services.

2.3.1 Consulting Geotechnical Engineering Services
Certain road authorities in-house geotechnical and structural engineers first do their own planning, aimed at
accurately determining the total scope of geotechnical investigatory work. This includes the evaluation of results and
to prepare the necessary Geotechnical Design Report. Following this, the road authoritys tender procurement
documents for the procurement of the geotechnical consulting engineers services are prepared, to find a suitable
professional to carry out the required geotechnical investigations and prepare the design reports.

Other road authorities appoint a suitable knowledgeable and reputable registered and trusted geotechnical
engineering company, or a company with whom they normally work with to plan and carry out the necessary
investigatory work and to compile the Geotechnical Design Reports.

2.3.2 Geotechnical and Drilling Contractors
The geotechnical engineer, who is to carry out the investigative work, must compile the proposed total scope of the
work, together with its anticipated value and schedule. This must jointly be discussed with the responsible employer
or road authoritys project manager and geotechnical engineer in a timely manner. Thereafter, tenders can be
invited from geotechnical and drilling contractors, before contractors are appointed. This requirement applies to all
geotechnical investigative work referred to in this Chapter, as well as Chapters 6 and 8.

Tenders for geotechnical site exploration work are requested using documents conforming to the standard
requirements of the particular road authority. For example, SANRALs latest pro-forma project document for sub-
surface investigations, or for centre line and borrow pit investigations, together with its directives for the compilation
of tender and contract documents could be used. These are issued by SANRAL on appointment. These could also
be preceded by the Soil Engineering Map and Terrain Evaluation Report, especially for a greenfields project.

3. PO
3.1 Sub
The definiti
constructed
layers are c
the subgrad

Problem su
constructio
Underm
Dolom
Made g
Proble
Hea
wet
Colla
Disp
Saline

These all
performanc
problem su

3.1.1 Und
A road, and
could take
temporary
details, of
important f
information
mines. In
consideratio
engineer to
A specialis
recommend

The genera

3.1.2 Dol
All road p
subject to
2.2.1. The
mostly dur
phase, to
investigatio
also discuss

3.1.3 Mad
Roads and
often cross
landfills, ol
filled-up g
compressib
additional
materials o
generate e
Chapt
TENTI AL P
bsurface I n
ion of roadbe
d. The term s
constructed a
de is of param
ubgrades, req
n or pavemen
mined areas
itic subgrades
ground or fille
m soils
ving soils, ex
clays
apsible or com
persive soils
soils
have an effe
ce or load ca
bgrades are d
dermined G
d the associat
place beneat
tunnels to be
not only the
for a new gre
n must be pro
n some cases
on should be
o collect these
st mining eng
dations for the
al procedures g
lomitic Sub
projects trave
a dolomite st
ese investigati
ring the route
assess the
on methods ar
sed in Chapte
de or Filled
road structur
s zones under
d constructio
ground. Su
ble and pote
threats. For
of various typ
excessive met
South A
ter 7: Geot
PROBLEM
nstability
ed is the in sit
subgrade des
nd includes fi
mount importa
uiring special
nt layer constru
s
ed up ground
xpansive or s
mpressible soil
ect on the de
rrying ability,
discussed in th
Ground
ted structures
th a road or
mined benea
historical and
eenfields proje
oactively obta
s, these autho
given to appo
e data from th
gineer is nor
e design or fur
given for stab
bgrades
rsing dolomit
tability investig
ons are carrie
e location ph
viability of
re documented
r 6, Section 4.
d-Up Ground
res planned in
lain by old ba
n sites and s
uch fills are
entially collap
r example, th
pes, be enviro
thane, or, ha
African Pav
technical In
Section 3: Po
SUBGRAD
tu material on
scribes the com
ll layers and/o
nce.
ist geotechnic
uction comme
hrinking subg
s or fills
esign of the
the stability
he following se
s and tunnels,
existing struct
ath an existing
current mini
ect planned in
ained from th
orities may a
ointing a com
he various sou
rmally appoin
rther investiga
ility assessme
tic formations
gation as dire
ed out in prog
hase or detail
the chosen
d in Wagener
.4.2.
d
n urban or se
ackfills or man
sports fields,
by nature
sing, but co
hey may con
onmentally un
ave perched
vement En
nvestigation

otential Proble
Page 12
DES
n which the fil
mpleted earth
or in situ mat
cal input or in
ences, include
grades and so
road and roa
and the dur
ections, and a
, could cross a
ctures and tun
g road reserve
ng activities,
n an area whe
he offices of t
also refer to
mpetent person
urces, and to c
nted to carry
ations.
ent investigatio
s shall first b
ected in Sectio
gressive stage
led assessme
route. Th
(1985) and a
emi-urban are
n-made fills an
in other word
not only ve
ould also po
ntain unsuitab
nfriendly, cou
seasonal wat
ngineering
s and Desig
em Subgrades
l, or in the ab
works within t
terials. It is,
nvestigation a
the following
oft
ad structures,
ability of the
re also discuss
an already un
nnels. Mining
e. It is extrem
but also futu
ere coal or ot
the mining co
the particular
n as a sub-co
carry out a pr
out the fin
ons in Section
be
on
es,
ent
he
are
as
nd
ds
ery
se
ble
uld
ter
Prob
the
The
27,
Prob
the
Pidg
Sou
Prob
the
Inst
Env
Nov
The co
data an
subgra
to the g
Manual
gn Consider
s
bsence of any
the road prism
therefore, obv
and construct
:
, as well as
constructed
sed in Chapte
dermined zon
g companies s
mely important
re mining act
ther mining ac
ommissioner a
r mining com
nsultant to th
eliminary eval
al evaluation,
2.2 should als
Recommend
oblem Soils in S
e Art. Dolomite
e Civil Enginee
No. 7 J uly, 19
oblem Soils in S
e Art. Expansive
geon and Day
uth Africa. Vol.
oblem Soils in S
e Art, Proceedin
titute for Engin
vironmental Ge
vember 2008.
Test Data an
mpilation and
nd reporting o
des should be
guidelines give
rations
fill, pavemen
m on which th
vious that the
tion treatment
the construc
fill or layer w
er 6 (Section 4
ne, or future u
sometimes als
t to verify the
tivities. This
ctivities take
and/or chief
mpanies involv
he appointed g
luation of its s
, and to ma
so be taken in
ded Reading
South Africa
es by Dr F. Wa
er in South Afr
985.
South Africa
ve Soils by Wil
y. The Civil En
. 27, No. 7 J ul
South Africa
ngs, South Afr
neering and
eologists, 34
nd Reporting
interpretation
on potential pr
e carried out a
ven in Section
t layers, are
he pavement
e stability of
t, before fill
ctability, the
works. The
.4).
undermining
so apply for
e extent and
is especially
place. This
inspector of
ved. Serious
geotechnical
significance.
ake suitable
nto account.
State of
agener.
rica. Vol.
State of
liams,
ngineer in
ly, 1985.
State of
rican
g
n of test
roblem
according
8.

Section 3: Potential Problem Subgrades
Page 13
tables. Special consideration should therefore be given to the planning of geotechnical investigations in such areas.
The scope and results of these investigations should indicate whether the materials could be left in place after
sufficient compaction, treated to serve as a roadbed, or removed entirely. Should the material be spoiled, the type
and depth of material to be removed must be identified, the stability of the material whilst being excavated assessed,
and the necessary construction plant identified. Should the filled up ground only require in situ compaction, the
geotechnical engineer should indicate the proposed depth of in situ compaction and propose the densification
process together with the type of plant most suitable for the compaction and to ensure stability of the materials.

3.1.4 Problem Soils
3.1.4.1 Heaving and Soft, Wet Clays
It is of paramount importance to establish the spatial distribution of partly saturated potentially heaving, shrinking
and soft wet clays along a road, and where structures sensitive to movements are planned. Expansive clays are
probably among the most widespread of the problem soils in South Africa. Maps are available indicating likely areas
of these soils, an example of which is shown in Figure 2. Methods of assessing the possible heave and
countermeasures of potentially expansive roadbeds have been developed (Weston, 1980).

Figure 2. Distribution of Expansive Soils and Collapsing Sands (Williams et al, 1985)

When assessing a route or site, recognizing the magnitude of the problem requires knowledge of the whole soil
profile, not just the upper layers, which may be in inert transported or pedogenic horizons. The source of the
problem may, thus, lie well below the depth of normal shallow (up to 2 metres) test pits. Problem clays as deep as
five metres or more could affect pavements and structures.

Investigation procedures, after an intensive planning stage, normally include:
Reconnaissance site visit (field mapping) making use of available geological and soil maps and geological
publications and, if available, aerial photo interpretation.
Fieldwork program using various types of trial pit, auger hole or core drilling rigs. The type of fieldwork
depends on the vertical extent of potentially expansive residual geological material and/or alluvial deposits. From
the fieldwork, the soil profiles must be systematically described. Sealed disturbed and undisturbed samples must
be obtained. Chapter 6, Section 4 contains additional details.
Testing of samples in the laboratory.
I nterpretation of the results from the field and laboratory tests, leading to the design of countermeasures.

The eventual aim is to have confidence in estimates of:
Amount
Consol
Draina

Treating th
layers. Co
Various res
using a ran
3.1.4.2 So
Soils with a
soils with a
occurring d
to potentia
static loadin
leaching, m
Wetting up
change in v

Figure

Whilst ther
collapse set
need to be
on roads, u
is necessar
be sufficien
particular
railways wh
Chapt
t and variabilit
lidation settle
ge and beari
he surface bed
omplete remov
searchers have
nge of counter
oils and Fills
a collapsible g
a collapsible fa
decomposed so
l collapse sett
ng, as illustra
may withstand
p can result in
volume in the
3. Basic C
re are a numb
ttlement occu
satisfied unde
under certain c
ry for collapse
nt to cause sh
importance f
here the subgr
South A
ter 7: Geot
ty of heave o
ement
ing capacity
d underlain b
val is ideal bu
e published th
rmeasures whe
with a Colla
grain structure
abric both in t
oils may have
tlement, and w
ted in Figure
d relatively lar
n a large decre
soil is associa
Concept of
ber of precon
rs under static
er heavy dyna
circumstances
e to occur. T
ear failure of
for roads, he
rade is continu
S
e
t
t
l
e
m
e
n
t
0
Infiltration du
water pond
Infiltration d
broken serv
African Pav
technical In
Section 3: Po
f the stiff, par
parameters o
by clays may
ut, for various
heir experienc
en the heaving
apsible Grain
e can adverse
the field and t
a collapsible
when wetted u
3. A natural
ge imposed s
ease in volum
ted with a cha
Additional
ditions that m
c loads, not a
amic loads. R
s, an increase
he application
bridging collo
eavy duty pa
uously subject
ue to
ding
due to
vices
Soil
Inc
d
t
vement En
nvestigation

otential Proble
Page 14
rtially saturate
of the normally
include partia
s reasons, ma
ce with heavin
g layers canno
n Structure
ely affect the f
the laboratory
grain structur
up can experi
soil that has
stresses with s
me and large m
ange in soil st
Settlement
must be satisf
ll of these pre
Research has s
in the moistu
n of dynamic
oidal material.
avements, air
ted to dynami
p
a
l initially partia
crease in mois
due to water in
time
t
1
ngineering
s and Desig
em Subgrades
ed, potentially
y wet, soft clay
al or complete
ay not be the
ng clays in So
ot be removed
foundation of
y have been d
re. Loose, or
ence collapse
a collapsible
small settleme
magnitude set
ructure.
t due to col
fied before
econditions
shown that
ure content
loads may
This is of
rfields and
c loads. A
Time
Normal se
soil partia
Additional
no chang
pressure b
in moistu
ally saturated
sture content
nfilration at
t
1
Manual
gn Consider
s
expansive cla
ys underlying
e removal of t
most econom
outh African ro
d entirely (Wes
structures. P
developed (Sc
poorly compa
settlement w
soil structure,
ents at a low
ttlement unde
llapse (afte
ettlement with
ally saturated
l settlement
ge in applied
but increase
ure content
Reco
Problem Soil
State of the
by K. Swartz
by H. Elges.
South Africa
1985.
rations
ays
a high emban
the potentiall
mical or feasib
oad construct
ston, 1980).
Procedures fo
chwartz, 1985)
cted, fills are
without applyin
, from decomp
in situ moistu
er an applied

er Schwartz
ommended R
ils in South Afr
Art. Collapsib
z and Dispersiv
The Civil Eng
. Vol. 27, No.
nkment
y expansive
ble solution.
tion projects
r identifying
). Naturally
also subject
ng additional
position and
ure content.
stress. The
z, 1985)
Reading
frica
ble Soils
ive Soils
gineer in
7 J uly,
secondary
associated

Engineering
In situ
impact c
In situ
Remov
Chemic

The degree
assessed fo
constructio
3.1.4.3 Di
Dispersion
grained fra
dispersive
characterist
Ordina
Dispers
suscept

Dispersion
attractive (
progressive
are carried
3.1.4.4 Sa
Many soils
stabilizers,
precipitatio
surfacing s
(1998) iden
Section 2.1
the salts us
layers. (Net

3.2 Sub
An effectiv
consisting o
using maps
investigatio

Subsurface
divided into
In situ s
Cuts
Underne

3.2.1 I n S
The most c
ground wat
of buildings
Methods to
Longitu
illustrate
Chapt
aspect is the
cost implicatio
g solutions to
u densificatio
compaction
densificatio
ve and reuse
cal stabilisat
e of densificat
or each road p
n as dynamic
ispersive Soi
can occur in a
action of the
clays. Natur
tics:
ary clays, whi
sive clays,
tible to erosion
occurs when
(van der Waal
ely detached f
away, thus ad
aline Soils
in arid areas
such as lime a
n of these sa
seals. Conven
ntifies potenti
0 and Chapte
sing lime treat
tterberg, 1979
bsurface Dr
ve subsurface
of a desk stud
s and remote
ons. Due allow
drainage in
o three genera
subgrade
eath embankm
Situ Subgra
common applic
ter in the roa
s, either by in
o control groun
dinal and/or
ed in Figure 4
South A
ter 7: Geot
large reducti
on from the in
the collapse p
on by various
on by surface
e the material
tion with com
tion and the
project. Meas
wheel loads a
ils
any soil with h
soil has the
ral clays can
ich are relative
which deflocc
n and piping.
the repulsive
ls) forces so
from the surfa
dversely affec
have naturall
and cement, w
alts in upper
tional conduc
ally problem
er 4, Section 2
tment, or spec
9)
rainage Con
drainage sys
dy and a field
e sensing, for
wance should
road and roa
al categories:
ments and fills
ade
cation of subs
ad subgrade a
ntercepting in-
ndwater includ
r diagonally
4.
African Pav
technical In
Section 3: Po
on in volume
ncreased layer
problem of the
s types of rolle
pounding (dyn
in compacted
mpaction
depth to whic
sures that simp
are an effectiv
high exchange
e greatest inf
be grouped i
ely erosion res
culate in the
forces (elect
that when the
ce and go into
ting the subgr
ly high saline
when construc
layers in the
ctivity testing
materials and
.7. This invol
cial preventativ
nsideration
tem cannot b
investigation.
r example, ae
be made for s
ad structure c
s
surface draina
nd below the
-flows or enco
de:
spaced inte
vement En
nvestigation

otential Proble
Page 15
that collapsib
r works quanti
e roadbed or s
ers (COLTO S
namic consolid
layers at pred
ch densificatio
ply avoid wate
ve shear failure
eable sodium
fluence in en
into two main
sistant
presence of
rical surface f
e clay mass is
o suspension.
rade. (Elges,
contents. Th
cting layer wo
e pavement,
as specified
d the necessa
lves removal o
ve measures t
ns
be designed w
Methods and
erial photo in
seasonal fluctu
construction c
age is to contr
e surface bed
ouraging out-
erceptor dr
ngineering
s and Desig
em Subgrades
ble subgrades
ties required.
subgrade inclu
Section 3300 C
dation)
determined mo
on is required
er penetrating
e triggering m
percentage (E
ngineering ap
n categories
f relatively pu
forces) betwe
s in contact w
If the water
1985)
hese salts can
orks. Certain h
resulting in d
for gravels i
ry corrective
of the problem
that minimise
without a wel
d aids during t
terpretation,
uations in the
an be
rol the
levels
flows.
rains,
Mor
obt
Manual
gn Consider
s
s experience w
ude the followi
Clause 3305(b
oisture conten
d are factors t
g the collapsib
echanism.
ESP) values, ev
plications, thi
with fundame
ure water an
en individual
with water, ind
is flowing, th
n negatively in
highly soluble
deterioration o
n the COLTO
action can be
m material, red
the movemen
l-planned com
the initial reco
followed by t
moisture regi
Drainage
re detailed
ained from:
SANRAL (200
Manual, Cha
TRH15 (1994)
Drainage Fo
TRH18 (1993)
Investigatio
Construction
of Road Cutt
rations
with compacti
ing methods:
b)) including
nts
that must be
ble layers are r
even in sand.
is discussion
entally difficu
nd are, there
clay particles
dividual clay p
he dispersed c
nfluence conv
salts can also
of compacted
O Standard Sp
e taken. See
duction of the
nt of the salts
mprehensive i
onnaissance st
the normal p
me.
e Informatio
information
06): Drainage
apter 9
4): Subsurfac
or Roads
): The
on, Design,
n and Mainte
ttings
on, and the
high energy
individually
risky in road
As the fine-
focuses on
lt erodibility
fore, highly
exceed the
particles are
clay particles
entional soil
o lead to the
layers and
pecifications
e Chapter 3,
solubility of
through the
nvestigation
tage include
hysical field
n
may be
e
ce
enance

Page 16
Ground water lowering, in extreme cases.
Geotextile enclosed sloping drainage blankets for interception of general seepage under the top of subgrade
and at cut-fill transitions, as illustrated in Figure 5.

Figure 4. Interceptor Drain (from TRH15, 1994)

Figure 5. Drainage Blanket (from TRH15, 1994)

3.2.2 Cuts
The investigation and control of groundwater is thoroughly dealt with in Section 5, where investigations into the
stability of cuttings are discussed.

It is important to drain the road pavement within a cut or the surface bed of buildings to be placed within a cut.
Pore water pressures caused by the available head in the adjacent cut or from the adjacent uphill road may lead to
pavement distress. Provision for subsurface drainage must therefore be made in the road foundation in cuttings. The
provision of permanent subsoil drains below the surface or next to the pavement layers in cuttings normally also
goes hand in hand with the provision of lined side drain surface drainage systems next to the paved road, in
conjunction with sealed shoulders.

Page 17
3.2.3 Underneath Embankments and Fills
The general problems of embankment stability and settlement are considered in Section 4. Cases may arise where
road structures or buildings associated with a road project need to be founded on constructed fill embankments.

Following the initial normal shallow centreline soil survey during the preliminary or detailed design stage, the detailed
geotechnical investigations for embankments and fills must be adequately planned to allow the necessary design
calculations for typical solutions. To avoid settlement and/or instability of fills built on soft wet formations, drainage
of the roadbed is normally the first operation, followed by the removal of unsuitable materials thereafter, if possible.
Depending on the subsurface circumstances found on individual sites, special drainage measures have to be
designed. These include:
For high embankments, complicated vertical wick drains (Figure 6) or sand piles installed below ground level
in conjunction with geotextile wrapped sand or gravel horizontal drainage blankets (Figure 5). The settlement
versus time should be monitored during construction.
Introducing transverse and longitudinal temporary drainage trenches in a clayey subgrade with a pioneer
layer, or rock fill compacted in situ, prior to the embankment construction.
Where fills are to be constructed against sloping natural terrain, drainage blankets (Figure 5) used with
longitudinal collector drains installed parallel to the slope or on benches, with rock toes at the bottom, should
be considered.

Figure 6. Wick Drains Under Fill

3.3 Design of Special Subgrade Treatment Types Underneath Buildings or Culvert Sites
Typical examples of special roadbed treatment types are discussed and presented in Chapter 6, Section 4.4 and
further examples are included in Chapter 9, Section 9.2.

All portions of problematic subgrades identified underneath culvert and building sites should be categorised into
uniform sections. Each uniform section should receive either the standard roadbed treatment, or a special roadbed
treatment as specified by the geotechnical and pavement design engineers. These special roadbed treatment types
shall therefore not be the standard types as referred to in COLTO Clause 3305 (a) to (d), but shall be a combination
of specially designed operations and methods. For example:
Dynamic compaction methods (deep or shallow) over thick compressible fills, followed by conventional
earthworks and a three-pass roller compaction.
A long period of pre-wetting heaving clays at subgrade level that are left in place below the road fill.
On a heaving clay subgrade, a combination of several precautionary measures may be required. For example,
removing the dessicated partly saturated clay layers and replacing with compacted inert materials.

Page 18
For a high embankment on swampy ground, before constructing the fill a combination of several
precautionary measures might be required that involve several construction operations, such as a geogrid
mattress or geotextiles in combination with natural sand blankets.

The Detailed Geotechnical and Materials Design Report (Sections 8.2 and 8.3) should clearly elaborate on the details
of such special measures, as specified in Chapter 6, Section 7 and in Appendices A to E of this Chapter.

4. FIL
Fills, or em
fills include
materials fo

Road autho
their respe
fills. These
and definin
available to
including th
TRH10 (19
investigatio

Road fills a
located, th
conventiona
generally t
recorded on

Fig

Chapt
LLS
bankments, a
e reducing the
or fills are gen
orities genera
ctive requirem
e are particula
ng the area to
o the engineer
he TRH range
994) are pe
ons or designin
are generally d
hat is, a side
al (symmetric
reated as a s
n separate de
ure 8. To
South A
ter 7: Geot
are when soils
e grade along
nerally obtaine
lly have stand
ments and po
rly important
o investigate.
r that address
e. In the spec
rtinent, and
ng fills.
described by t
e fill (Figure
cally shaped
single entity a
sign sheets or
opographic
African Pav
technical In
S
are placed ov
g a road or r
ed from cuts (S
Figure 7
dard plans an
licies for the
when determi
In addition,
the design an
cific case of r
should be
the topograph
8), a gulley
or flat) fill
and the inves
r files.
Embankme
vement En
nvestigation

Section 4: Fill
Page 19
ver a section o
raising the ro
Section 5). A
7. Typical
nd specificatio
design and co
ining the footp
there are ma
nd constructio
road fills, TRH
consulted wh
hical units whe
y fill (Figure
(Figure 10).
stigatory and
ent Types:
ngineering
s and Desig
ls
of land to elev
oadbed out of
A typical road
Road Fill
ons describing
onstruction of
print of the fill
any guidelines
n of road fills,
H9 (1992) and
hen planning
erein they are
9) or as a
Each fill is
test data are
Side Slope
Manual
gn Consider
vate the groun
f problem are
fill is shown in
g
f
l
s
,
d
g
e
a
s
e
Fills (from
I n
Designin
More det
be obtain
TRH9
of Roa
TRH1
Desig
Emba
rations
nd level. The
eas. In hilly
n Figure 7.

TRH10, 19
nvestigating
ng Fills
tailed informa
ned from:
9 (1992): Con
oad Embankme
10 (1994): Th
gn of Road
ankments
reasons for
terrain, the

994)
and
ation may
struction
ents
he
F

Provided th
and that s
under the g
metres, or
obvious sig
engineer. T
will genera
investigatio
concordant
Desk st
Field re
Invest
Analyti

Where req
geotechnica
exercise or
of such sp
engineers

Chapt
Figure 9. T
Figure 10.
hat there are
uitable constr
guidance of s
where fills ar
gns of instabili
This ensures t
ally interact w
ons (see Figu
t with the main
tudy during w
econnaissan
igative phase
ic and a desig
uired, superv
al engineer m
as part of th
pecial measur
brief.
South A
ter 7: Geot
Topographi
Topograph
no problemat
ruction materi
uitably experi
re to be const
ty in the area
that adequate
with the geot
re 1 flowcha
n investigation
which all availa
nce where not
e
gn phase
vision of such
may have to b
e main constr
es may also
African Pav
technical In
S
ic Embankm
hic Embank
tic roadbed co
ials are readil
enced engine
tructed travers
a, it is prudent
e investigatory
technical eng
rt). The act
ns:
able informati
e is taken of f
measures as
be provided fo
ruction phase.
be included
vement En
nvestigation

Section 4: Fill
Page 20
ment Types
kment Type
onditions (as d
ly available, c
eers. Howeve
sing very dee
t to employ th
y, design and
gineer or lead
tivities are ge
on is collected
features releva
s prescribed
or either as a
. Post-constru
in the specia
ngineering
s and Desig
ls
s: Gulley Fi
es: Flat Fill
described in S
conventional f
r, where the
ep gulleys, on
he services of
construction p
der of the in
enerally cond
d and assessed
ant to the fills
by the specia
pre-construct
uction monitor
alist geotechn
Manual
gn Consider
lls (from TR
s (from TRH
Section 3 and
fills can be in
vertical height
steep side slo
an experience
procedures are
vestigatory te
ucted in a st
d
and cuts bein
alist
tion
ring
nical
These
carefu
long t
the fil
slope
stabili
rations

RH10, 1994

H10, 1994)
Chapter 6, S
nvestigated an
t of such fills
opes, or wher
ced specialist g
e followed. Th
eam for the
taged approa
ng investigated
Fills > 10
e fills need to
ully designed t
term settleme
ll, and to ensu
and foundatio
ity.
4)
)
Section 4.4),
nd designed
exceeds 10
re there are
geotechnical
his specialist
road prism
ch, running
d
metres
be
to limit
nt within
ure good
on
4.1 New
4.1.1 Fill
Generally, r
quality and
materials b
metres in v
Ensure
Ensure
A proba

Fill stability
determinati
design, incl
by the geot

Similarly, t
compressib
can be carr
Vane s
bottom
and the
SPT Te
SPT
compre
Menard
(camcom
strength
Penetr
Han
hand
reco
of la
Dyn
DCP
Cha
Dyn
Probes
shear s
subsurfa

Laboratory
undisturbed
(quick, und
of options e
Shear box
the bottom

4.1.2 Set
As a fill is c
a result of t
consolidatio
displaceme
is depende
e.g., loadin
termed sec
infinite in d

Chapt
w Fills
Stability
roadbed chara
d density are
become more
vertical height
limited long
a minimum fa
ability of fai
y assessmen
ion of the str
luding long te
technical engi
the strength
bility and perm
ried out. In si
shear tests:
of the hole a
e peak value is
est (see Chapt
N value a
ssibility of soil
Pressurem
meter) also
h of soils and
rometers:
d held/pocket
d to the cali
orded on the s
arge diameter
amic cone pe
P N values, C
pter 5, Section
amic probe su
s: The CPT an
strength of fin
face strata suc
shear streng
d samples obt
drained tests a
exist such as d
tests involve
. Triaxial test
ttlement of
constructed, th
the escape of
on occurring f
ent that occurs
nt on the perm
ng during con
condary settlem
duration!
South A
ter 7: Geot
acteristics hav
controlled. H
and more sign
be designed t
term settlem
actor of safet
lure acceptab
t requires pr
rength param
rm erosion pr
neer.
and moisture
meability, need
tu evaluation
The tests are
and then push
s used to calcu
ter 5, Section
and undraine
ls are readily a
meters and
provide mea
soft rock.
t penetromete
ibration mark
scale. This is c
auger holes.
netrometer (D
CBR values, a
n 5.4.5 and Ch
uper heavy (D
nd CUPT tests
ne grained so
ch as differing
ths may be d
tained from te
and slow, satu
differing confi
inducing shea
ts are discusse
Fills
he vertical str
air or water f
for a unit incr
s with the res
meability of th
nstruction, is t
ment. Second
African Pav
technical In
S
ve a greater in
However, as t
nificant. Most
to:
ment within t
ty (FOS) of 1
ble to the emp
rior determin
meters, setting
otection and s
e condition o
d to be establis
of shear stren
e performed a
hing the selec
ulate the shea
4.4.4). Correl
ed shear st
available.
the self-drilli
ans of deter
er: The instru
k and the ma
commonly don
DCP): Correlat
and bearing
hapter 10, Sec
PSH) testing f
s (see Chapter
ils through th
coefficients o
determined on
est holes (see
urated drained
nement pressu
ar failure in a
ed in Chapter
resses on the
from the voids
rease in press
ultant reductio
he soil. Consol
termed prima
dary settlemen
vement En
nvestigation

Section 4: Fill
Page 21
nfluence on the
the height of
t road authori
the high fill its
1.5 for slope a
ployer or client
nation of the
g density requ
storm water m
of the subgra
shed so that a
ngth can be m
at any depth
cted vane into
ar strength of t
ations betwee
trength and
ing pressure
rmining the
ment is pushe
aximum readi
ne on the side
tions exist bet
strength (q)
ction 7.3)
for settlement
r 6, Section 4
he entire soil
of permeability
n both disturb
Chapter 6, S
d tests) or und
ures, differing
cylindrical soi
3, Section 4.6
underlying so
s and the mov
sure in a soil
on in volume
lidation or sett
ary settlement
nt in deep org
ngineering
s and Desig
ls
e behaviour o
f the fill incre
ties therefore
self
and foundatio
t.
e quality of
uirements, se
measures. Thi
ade materials
accurate settle
made by way o
by first drillin
o the stratum
the soil.
en the
the
meter
shear
ed by
ing is
ewalls
tween
(see
t estimation pu
4.3.4) provide
profile. This
y, which may b
bed samples (
Section 6.3). T
drained and dr
g loading rates
il specimen by
6.3.
oils increase.
ving of the soli
is defined as
is called cons
tlement that t
t. Settlement
anic alluvium
Manual
gn Consider
f fills than the
ases, the stre
require that a
n stability
available con
ttlement verif
s involves var
s beneath th
ement predicti
f field tests su
ng to the requ
to be tested.
urposes
a means for
s is very usefu
be of great sig
laboratory co
Test methods
rained triaxial
s, or measurin
y sliding the t
Deformation o
ds closer to ea
the soils com
solidation settl
takes place ov
t that takes p
of very low pe
Settleme
Primary sett
short period o
loading in con
Secondary s
over a long tim
alluvium of ve
the secondary
almost infinite
rations
e fill itself as th
ength and de
all high fills ex
nstruction ma
fication and b
rious methods
he proposed
ons and stabi
uch as:
uired depth, c
A torque is t
measuring th
ful to pick up
gnificance.
ompacted spec
s include shea
testing, wher
ng pore pressu
top of the she
or consolidatio
ach other. The
mpressibility.
lement, the ra
ver a short per
place over a l
ermeability ca
ent
tlement occu
of time, i.e., d
nstruction.
settlement oc
me. In deep o
ery low perme
y settlement c
e in duration!
he materials
nsity of the
xceeding 10
aterials, the
batter slope
s of analyses
fill, and its
lity analyses
cleaning the
then applied
e undrained
changes in
cimens) and
rbox testing
re a number
ure changes.
ear box over
on occurs as
e amount of
The vertical
ate of which
riod of time,
long time is
an be almost
urs over a
uring
ccurs
organic
eability,
can be
Fill settleme
and water
drainage st
effects are
bridges, as

Modelling a
geotechnica
is necessar
installation
measure w
CPT and
pressureme

Laboratory
disturbed (
dimensiona
conservativ
included in

To ensure s
the special
conventiona
settlement.

4.1.3 Spe
Special con
Substa
meet th
and en
constru
Toe pro
may ne
may ext
Chapt
ent can have
runoff. It a
tructures, pipe
compounded
illustrated in
and predicting
al engineers.
ry. Field meas
of piezomet
water pressures
CUPT tests
eter (camcome
determinatio
(remoulded) a
al consolidatio
ve as many o
the small sam
successful fills
l field testing
al road prism
. Early identif
ecial Consid
nsiderations fo
andard or no
he standards f
ncapsulation v
ction alternati
otection: W
eed to be inco
tend a conside
South A
ter 7: Geot
a significant im
also affects th
es and even
. Note for ex
Figure 11.
Fig
g fill settlemen
Knowledge of
surement of p
ters or pump
s. Settlement
s, Menard P
eter). See the
on of the c
and undisturb
on test, the o
of the effectiv
mples tested.
s, it is necessa
g, sampling a
m investigation
fication of the
derations
or geotechnica
on-conventio
for fill material
viable, the g
ives utilising s
Where the toe
orporated into
erable height
African Pav
technical In
S
mpact on the
he long term
cables and pi
xample, bum
gure 11. B
nt is generally
f the in situ pe
permeability is
ping tests in
t can also be
Pressuremeter
e previous sec
consolidation
bed soils can
oedometer. H
ve drainage pa
ary to appoint
and laborator
ns (Chapter 6
problem allow
l engineers wh
onal construc
ls and costs of
eotechnical e
uch materials.
of a fill is clos
the design of
above the toe
vement En
nvestigation

Section 4: Fill
Page 22
performance
integrity of t
ipelines. Wher
ps at bridge
ump at Brid
y carried out
ermeability of
s carried out
n boreholes.
predicted from
rs and the
ction.
characteristic
be made us
However, thes
aths in the m
the specialist
ry testing can
6, Section 4).
ws this to be c
hen dealing w
ction mater
f spoiling rend
engineer may
.
se or adjacent
f the fill to pr
e.
ngineering
s and Desig
ls
of both the ro
the fill and as
re such settle
approaches,
dge Approa
by specialist
the subsoils
through the
Piezometers
m SPT tests,
self-drilling
cs of both
ing the one
se are often
materials are
t geotechnical
n be planned
. It is often
commenced in
with fills are:
ials: Where
der phased or
y be tasked
t to a water c
revent toe ero
Manual
gn Consider
oad pavement
ssociated stru
ement is differ
which results
ach
engineer at a
d and conduc
useful to pr
a timely man
large volumes
slow construc
with consider
ourse, special
osion in the lo
Oe
The oedom
dimensiona
used to de
characteris
however, h
the sample
in situ the
laterally co
rations
t in terms of r
uctures, i.e.,
rential, these
in impact loa

an opportune t
cted in uniso
re-load fills to
nner.
s of cut mate
ction or specia
ring various
l toe protectio
ong term. Suc
edometer Tes
meter test is a
al consolidatio
etermine conso
stics. The test
has its limitatio
e is confined w
material is no
onfined.
iding quality
bridges and
detrimental
ading on the
time so that
on with the
o accelerate
erials do not
al placement
design and
on measures
h protection
sts
one-
on test
olidation
t
ons as
whereas
ot

Section 4: Fills
Page 23
Side Fills: Where long side fills occur and clear lines of drainage are not evident, it may be prudent to design
sub-drainage systems so that the fill does not act as a water retention structure.
Gulley Fills: Abrupt drop-offs in bedrock on the sides of gulleys, or where the depth of transported materials
makes the interception of water flow on the bedrock interface difficult.
Retention structures: Where the optimal slopes cannot be achieved due to steep crossfalls of existing slopes,
or any other constraints and retention structures such as crib wall, gabion structures or retaining block walls are
required, these should be designed for long term performance. If the fills are major in size (> 10 m) they should
be designed and constructed under the guidance of a geotechnical engineer.

4.2 Existing Fills
Problems with existing fills manifest in various ways, including:
Toe erosion
Settlement or differential settlement
Degradation of materials
Translational slips (shallow displacements)
Creep and slide (creeping valley slides)
Internal erosion and piping
Stability failure (rotational slips)

4.2.1 Toe Erosion
Toe erosion probably leads to the highest incidence of all fill problems and failures. This is especially a problem
where a fill lies adjacent to a water course subject to periodic or flash flooding. The removal of material from the toe
area results in loss of support and is followed by progressive side slope collapse. Typically, longitudinal cracking
occurs on the upper reaches of the slope, progressively moving into the road shoulder and traffic lanes, depending
on the steepness of the slope and the extent of the erosion. Remedying such damage poses major problems and
may include reconstruction of the outer edge of the fill with some special precautionary measures to prevent future
occurrences and to stabilise over-steep slopes. Such precautionary measures can be anchored gabions, reinforced
earth walls or soil nails. An example of gabion wall construction to limit toe erosion is shown in Figure 12.

Figure 12. Toe Protection by Construction of Gabion Wall

4.2.2 Set
Settlement
grain struct

Some older
subsoils!
foundations
lasting rem
services pre
Causes
Curren
Potentia
Rate of

Various me
are availab
starting poi
Monito
Figure 1
Invest
Remed
enhance

Chapt
ttlement
occurs gradu
ture of the ma
r fills have se
In many inst
s to bridge st
medial measure
evented, it is n
s of settlemen
nt stage reach
al for further
f settlement
ethods for mo
ble to the geo
int for such in
oring: settlem
14
igatory: rota
dial methods
ements, flatte
R
s
t
i
s
m
South A
ter 7: Geot
ually as the m
aterial realigns
Figure
ettled to such
tances, such s
ructures, may
es are to be im
necessary to e
nt
ed
settlement
onitoring, inve
otechnical eng
vestigations.
ment gauges,
ry drilling, pro
s: jet grouting
er slope
Remedial me
settlement o
the N2 outsid
ncluded the
slope and sta
moisture reg
African Pav
technical In
S
moisture and a
s. This results
13. Preven
an extent th
settlement of
y sever electric
mplemented, a
establish:
estigating and
gineer, as list
, surveys, inc
obing, down th
, curtain grout
easures to ar
f this high fi
de Grahamst
flattening o
abilising the
gimes.
vement En
nvestigation

Section 4: Fill
Page 24
air migrates o
s in a denser m
nting Settle
hat the draina
abutment fills
c and fibre op
and damage t
determining
ted below. R
clinometer su
he hole testing
ting, compact
rrest
ill, on
town,
of the
ngineering
s and Desig
ls
out the mater
material, with
ement on H
age pipes and
s for example
ptic cables, an
to structures a
remedial acti
Reliable as-bu
urveys using
g
tion grouting,
Manual
gn Consider
ial, the mater
the surface gr
High Fill
structures ha
e, also places
nd sever wate
and
ons
uilt data is, ho
an inclinome
installation of
Reliab
best s
invest
rations
rial consolidat
radually lower

ave disappear
additional loa
er and other p
owever, alwa
eter probe il
f additional pile
As-Builts
ble as-builts ar
starting point f
tigations!
tes, and the
ring.
red into the
ads on piled
pipelines. If
ays the best
lustrated in
es, drainage
re the
for most

Section 4: Fills
Page 25

Figure 14. Inclinometer Probe

Collapse settlement occurs in fills that are not compacted adequately, generally as a result of insufficient moisture
and/or insufficient compaction effort, similarly to natural collapsible soils. On wetting up, densification occurs (with or
without external load, its own mass is usually sufficient to cause collapse) and failure of the fill usually follows.
Adequate control of the compaction is essential to avoid such problems. A picture of such a fill has been included in
Figure 15.

4.2.3 Degradation
The degradation of materials in fill slopes with the passage of time can be problematic. Rapidly weathering tillites,
dolerites, basalts and mudrocks have resulted in incidences of severe longitudinal cracking and even deformation of
significant proportions along the eastern and north eastern areas of South Africa. Solutions may include stabilising
moisture regimes, encapsulation and sometimes even removal and replacement of some of these materials. The
solution chosen must be supported by sound analysis, including determining risk by the geotechnical engineer.

A good example of a combined case of degradation and collapse settlement is the 30 meter high fill near
Grahamstown along the N2. The problem has been arrested by stabilising moisture regimes and adding compacted
fill benches to lower portions of each side slope. This is illustrated in Figure 15, and is the same high fill as in
Figure 13.

4.2.4 Translational Slips
Translational slips, sloughs or shallow displacements are generally rainfall induced following sustained periods of
precipitation. They are generally shallow, parallel to the fill slope and occur along the wetted front, usually at the
interface between the topsoil and vegetation and the compacted fill layers. An example of a slide or slip is given in
Figure 16. These slips need to be repaired early, as with time tension cracks develop upslope and eventually into the
road pavement, due to loss of support. Solutions include water management and, in the worst case scenario,
reconstruction of the outer edge.

4.2.5 Cre
Creep and
gulley type
colluvium o
movement
such small
Physica
Anch
Butt
Water
Cut
Sub
Butt

Chapt
Figure 15.
eep and Slid
slide problem
e fills in rugge
or even old
along the soi
movements th
al restraint,
hored pile reta
tress walls
managemen
off drains
-horizontal dra
tress drains
South A
ter 7: Geot
. Preventio
Figure
de (Creepin
ms are also kno
ed topograph
landslide deb
il/bedrock inte
hat they are n
such as
aining walls
nt, for exampl
ains
African Pav
technical In
S
on of Degra
e 16. Slide
ng Valley Sl
own as creepi
y. The fills m
bris, which a
erface, slow d
not normally vi
e
vement En
nvestigation

Section 4: Fill
Page 26
adation and
or Slip (fro
ides)
ing valley slid
may be founde
are sometimes
downslope cre
isually discern
ngineering
s and Desig
ls
d Collapse S
om TRH15,
es. These slid
ed on transpo
s marginally
eep takes plac
nible. Solution
Manual
gn Consider
Settlement i
1994)
des are a com
orted materia
stable. Whe
ce. In South
ns include:
Slak
Slaking is a
mudrocks (e
lose their str
stresses are
reduction in
when expos
rations

in High Fill

mmon mode o
als such as al
en assisted b
Africa, these
king
phenomenon
especially) swe
trength when t
e relieved from
n confinement,
sed to air and
of distress in
luvial wash,
by moisture
slides have
whereby
ell and
their
m a
, and
water.
These solut
some cases

4.2.6 I nt
Internal ero
to slake. An
leading to c
December
rectification

At Tow
the gro

4.2.7 Sta
Stability fai
saturation a
road is sho
sands. The
Remova
Leaking
Failure
Migrat
Abnorm

The failure
solutions in
drains.

Chapt
tions require i
s in South Afri
ternal Erosi
osion and pipi
ny uncontrolle
collapse of th
1977. The
n of such prob
wnshill on the
ound causing
ability Failu
ilure or rotatio
and thus high
own in Figure
e causes of the
al of vegetati
g pipes
of drainage s
ion of water
mal sustained p
surfaces may
nclude restrain
South A
ter 7: Geot
in depth analy
ca, bridging th
on and Pipi
ing failures oc
ed water flow
e fill. An exa
piping and s
blems.
e N3 outside
g a pipe chim
wall was co
Fig
re (Rotatio
onal slips in a
pore water p
18. These a
ese failures m
ion
systems
r within the fill
precipitation
y be circular
nt, such as re
African Pav
technical In
S
yses and mod
he entire area
ing
ccur when the
through the fi
ample of this i
slope failure i

e Pietermarit
mney hole, re
onstructed to
ure 17. I nt
onal Slips)
an existing fill
ressures at a
re more preva
may include:
l or its founda
n
in homogeno
etaining struct
vement En
nvestigation

Section 4: Fill
Page 27
delling to dete
a has been nec
e material use
ill can result in
is Towns Hill
is shown in
tzburg, storm
esulting in cr
o contain the
ternal Eros
are generally
point in the fi
alent in fills c
ation on falling
ous materials
tures, or wate
ngineering
s and Desig
ls
rmine the mo
cessary.
d to construct
n removal of m
along the N3
Figure 17. S
mwater at th
reep at the to
e toe bulge c
sion and Pip
y the result of
ll or in its foun
constructed fro
g grades
or non-circula
er manageme
Pr
The in
failure
solutio
fieldwo
full spe
in Roa
Section
Manual
gn Consider
ost appropriate
t the fill is dis
material and t
near Pieterm
Specialist adv
he crest of th
oe of the slo
creep failure.
ping
f some unfore
ndation. An ex
om fine graine
ar in non-hom
ent such as cu
roblem Fills
vestigation int
s and identifyi
ons and alterna
ork. This may
ectrum of, inv
ad Prism Inve
n 4.
rations
e engineering
spersive, erod
the developme
maritzburg, wh
vice is necess
he slope seep
ope. A gabio
.
eseen event c
xample from t
ed cohesionle
mogenous soil
ut off and su
to the causes
ing appropriat
atives require
y include some
vestigations de
estigations Ch
solution. In
ible or likely
ent of voids,
hich failed in
sary for the

ped into
on cavity
causing local
the side of a
ess soils and
s. Remedial
ub-horizontal
of fill
te
s
e, or the
escribed
hapter 6,

4.3 I nv
Investigatin
This may in
be conduct

Generally, a
phased app
investigatio
Desk st
Site rec
Detaile
Test
Drill
Prob
Pore
Mon
Analys
Docum
Post co

In most ca
These are
thus be con

Periodic in
technologis

Chapt
vestigation
ng the causes
nclude some,
ted by an expe
after being ap
proach as for n
on, tailored an
tudy wherein
connaissanc
ed investigat
t pitting
ing
bing
e water pressu
nitoring of mov
sis, developme
mentation and
onstruction m
ases, the rem
sometimes ou
nfined to the g
spection of e
st should ideal
South A
ter 7: Geot
Process
s of failures in
or the full spe
erienced geote
ppointed to inv
normal road p
d limited to th
n all available i
ce where the e
tion, including
ure monitoring
vements
ent and design
d possibly site
monitoring.
edial works fo
utside the sco
geotechnical a
existing fills b
ly be part of a
African Pav
technical In
S
Figure 1
n fills and dete
ectrum of, inv
echnical engin
vestigate a pa
prism investiga
he specific nee
information is
extent of the p
g (as required
g
n of a remedi
e supervision.
or a fill failur
ope of normal
aspects of the
by an experie
any road autho
vement En
nvestigation

Section 4: Fill
Page 28
18. Stabilit
ermining engi
vestigations de
neer.
articular failure
ations (Chapte
eds. Such an
collected and
problem and p
)
ial solution.
re include the
activities of t
works.
enced geotec
oritys manage
ngineering
s and Desig
ls
y Failure
ineering optio
escribed in th
e or failures, t
er 6, Section 4
approach com
d studied.
possible cause
e repair of the
the geotechni
chnical engine
ement system
Manual
gn Consider
ns and altern
is chapter. Th
the geotechnic
4). This ensure
mprises:
es are identifie
e road surfac
cal engineer,
eer or
m.
I ns
Per
exp
spe
sho
any
man
rations

natives require
hese investigat
cal engineer c
es a rational, w
ed.
ce and drainag
and the supe
Periodic
spection of F
riodic inspectio
perienced geot
ecialist or tech
ould ideally be
y road authorit
nagement sys
es fieldwork.
tions should
carries out a
well planned
ge systems.
ervision may

Fills
ons by an
technical
nologist
part of
tys
stems.
5. CUT
Road cuts
exposes the
include a to
unweathere
complicate
local metam

As for road
requiremen
to determin
available to
be consulte

The engine
For this rea
designed b
factor of sa
cuts as low
of the cut.
examination

Each cut sh
the case of

For the geo
engineering
established
determine
necessary t
out specifi
characterisi
analyses, a

It is eviden
geotechnica
the routine
handling an

Chapt
TS
are necessary
e subsurface s
opsoil horizon,
ed rock. Mo
matters furth
morphism of th
d fills, the va
nts and policie
ne the footpr
o the engineer
ed.
eering problem
ason, most roa
by an experien
afety (FOS) gr
w as 3 metres
. In some c
n of the curre
hould be rega
f shallow cuts
otechnical eng
g properties o
d. In Chapter
these prope
to obtain the
ic tasks such
ing the variou
nd determinin
nt that the m
al engineers
e road prism
nd transportat
South A
ter 7: Geot
y where the e
soil and rock s
, a transporte
ost deep cuts
her, there may
he materials a
Figur
arious road a
s for the desig
int of the cut
r addressing t
ms that can b
ad authorities
nced geotechn
eater than 1.5
require specia
cases, widenin
nt condition a
rded as a sing
in uniform ma
gineer to analy
of each mate
6, Section 4.
rties and co
services of an
h as the id
us rock types f
ng the potentia
ost economica
field investig
investigations
tion perspectiv
African Pav
technical In
S
elevation is to
stratum. An e
d soil overlyin
are composi
y be different
and even fract
re 19. Exam
uthorities hav
gn, constructio
tting and defi
he design and
be expected w
s require that
nical engineer
5. This is, how
alist attention
ng of some m
and its past pe
gle entity and
aterials, must
yse a cut slop
erial need to
3, the differen
nditions are
n experienced
entification o
for strength a
al for planar a
al and rationa
gations, in situ
s. This is a
ve.
vement En
nvestigation

Section 5: Cut
Page 29
oo high and n
example of a r
ng residual soi
ite, comprisin
rock types p
turing and fau
mple of a R
ve standard p
on and mainte
ne the area t
d construction
with cuts are m
cuts deeper t
r. This is to
wever, not a b
due to advers
much deeper
erformance.
all informatio
be gathered a
pe, an accurat
be known.
nt methods o
described.
d engineering
of faults and
and durability,
and wedge fail
al approach is
u testing and
also convenien
ngineering
s and Desig
ts
eeds to be lo
road cut is sho
ils and highly
g more than
resent in succ
lting.
Road Cut in
plans and spe
enance of road
to be investig
of road cuts,
many and gen
than 10 metre
ensure the lo
blanket require
se conditions,
cuts can be
on regarding t
and reported s
te profile of su
In addition, t
f investigation
It may also
geologist to c
d fracture zo
carrying out
lures for rock.
s to carry out
sampling, du
nt from a sam
Manual
gn Consider
wered. The c
own in Figure
weathered so
one of these
cessive strata,
Rock
ecifications lay
d cuts. These
gated. There a
including TRH
nerally increas
es in vertical d
ong term stab
ement as ther
sometimes on
carried out w
hat cut, albeit
separately.
ubsurface mat
the groundwa
ns to
o be
carry
ones,
joint

t the
uring
mple
Desi
More
may
TRH1
I nve
Cons
Main
Cutt
rations
construction o
19. A typical
oft rock gradin
se soil or roc
, e.g., igneous

ying out thei
are particular
are also many
H18 (1993), w
se with the d
depth be inves
bility and a slo
re will be insta
nly evident on
without much
t very little inf
terials is requi
ater regime n
Investigat
igning Cuts
e detailed info
be obtained f
18 (1993): Th
estigation, D
struction and
ntenance of
tings.
of road cuts
profile may
ng into hard,
k types. To
s intrusions,
r respective
ly important
y guidelines
which should
epth of cut.
stigated and
ope stability
ances where
n excavation
more than
formation in
ired and the
needs to be
ting and
rmation
from
he
Design,
d
Road
Where nece
carry out t
sampled m
particle dist
determinati
permeabilit
and X-ray d
require ge
relevant roa

For conven

5.1 Cut
An example
Steep s
Unconso
Adverse
Change
Unexpe
Erosion

Cut slope fa
Creep,
creep is
Rotatio
materia
Transla
strength
or a mu

Failure can
process in
area of the
field reconn
Chapt
essary, the ge
the works th
materials gene
tribution analy
ions. Some
ty testing, req
diffraction ana
ological expe
ad authoritys
ience, and cla
t Slopes in S
e of a cut slop
slopes
olidated loose
e groundwat
es in groundw
ected surchar
n by surface r
ailures manife
when slopes
s illustrated in
onal slips, w
als.
ational slips
h, discontinuit
ud-rush develo
also occur wh
essence remo
e cut. The exp
naissance and
Th
de
req
wi
South A
ter 7: Geot
eotechnical en
hat require hi
rally comprise
ysis, the deter
tests, such
quire the servi
alysis of rock
ertise. The ge
procurement
arity of discuss
Soils
pe in soils is sh
e material
ter conditions
water conditio
rges
runoff exacerb
est in the form
are close to t
Figure 17.
where the fail
s, where mov
ties or along w
ops (Figure 16
hen the area
oves lateral s
perienced geo
take these in
his cut slope
egradation of
quiring an at
de debris tra
African Pav
technical In
S
ngineer must
s/her expertis
es routine tes
rmination of th
as consolidom
ces of special
samples for m
eotechnical e
guidelines.
sion, cuts are
hown in Figure
ons
bated by abnor
Figure 20
m of:
he angle of re
ure surface m
vement takes
wetted fronts.
6).
within which t
upport. Stres
otechnical eng
to account in
in soil show
f whitish sof
ttenuation w
ap.
vement En
nvestigation

Section 5: Cut
Page 30
witness the in
se. The labo
sting of mater
he soil constan
meter, shearb
lised laborato
mineral identi
engineer need
hereinafter cla
e 20. Instabili
rmal sustained
0. Cut Slop
epose and wh
may be circul
place along
In extreme c
the cut is to b
ss relief follow
gineer will be
the investigat
ws
ft tuff
wall and a
ngineering
s and Desig
ts
nvestigations
ratory testing
rials, such as
nts, CBR and U
box, triaxial
ries. Thin sec
fication gener
ds to follow
assified as cut
ity of soil slop
d heavy precip
pe in Soils
ere movemen
ar or non-circ
the interface
cases, the ma
be excavated i
ws with move
able to ident
tions, analysis
Manual
gn Consider
and
g of
soil
UCS
and
tion
rally
the
t slopes in soil
es is generally
pitation
nt is relatively
cular in the c
e of layers of
aterials may be
is marginally s
ments stretch
ify such signs
and design.
These
carefu
long t
suffici
rations
ls and cut slop
y attributable

slow. An exa
case of non-h
f different or
ecome so wet
stable and the
hing upslope,
s and indicato
Cuts > 10
e cuts need to
ully designed t
term stability a
ient factor of
pes in rock.
to:
ample of toe
homogenous
inadequate
t that a flow
e excavation
beyond the
ors from the
metres
o be
to ensure
and a
safety.

Knowledge
types, dens
stability ana
Method is g
for planar o

In view of
This allows
For exampl
of the slope

The results
probability
road reserv
other meas
soils in the

Many of th
There shou
when neces
problem co
Localise
Signs of
Stress
Crack f
Bulging

5.2 Cut
To adequat
slopes is re
Rock fa
Topplin
Block s
Degrad

The causes
Loss of
Excava
Unfavou
Frac
Faul
Igne
Nature
Stru
Stat
J oin
Bedd
Water p
Unfavou
Undercu
Stress r
Erosion
Absence
Example

Chapt
of overburde
sity, and shea
alyses are gen
generally used
or non-circular
the variability
the evaluatio
le, the effect
e can be evalu
s of these an
of failure targ
ve limitations
sures to impro
slope.
he problems a
uld, thus, alwa
ssary, approp
ompounds. Th
ed seepage, s
f previous m
relief movem
formation
g of the slope
t Slopes in
tely investigat
equired. Failu
alls and slides
ng failures
slides from pl
dation throug
s of the failure
vegetation
ation method
urable geolog
cture zones
lting
eous intrusion
of the rock m
ucture
te of weatherin
ting
ding
pressures deve
urable dip of s
utting of dippi
relief in deep c
e, or inadeq
es of an inade
South A
ter 7: Geot
en or soil thic
r strength) en
nerally perform
d for analysing
r slip surfaces
y of the mater
on of the sensi
of variations i
uated.
nalyses enabl
get, or to a fac
or other phy
ove the stabilit
associated wit
ays be provis
riate steps ca
he kinds of pro
see Figure 17
movement
ments
e
Rock
te, analyse an
ures in rock slo
s
lanar and wed
gh weathering
es are many, in
gical conditio
s
materials
ng
eloping along
strata
ng strata
cuts
uate capacity
equate and an
African Pav
technical In
S
ckness, groun
nables the mod
med using sof
g circular surfa
(Bishop, 1955
ial properties,
itivity of more
in the shear s
e the geotec
ctor of safety
ysical constrai
ty of the soil s
th slopes in s
ion for obtain
n be taken to
oblems that co
from Townsh
nd design cuts
opes can take
dge failures
ncluding:
ons
discontinuities
y, of an imp
adequate inte
vement En
nvestigation

Section 5: Cut
Page 31
ndwater condit
delling of the
ftware packag
ace failures wh
5; J anbu, 1954
, probabilistic
e than one des
strength, cohe
chnical engine
(FOS) > 1.5.
ints, the engi
slope, such as
soils only bec
ning the advic
o rectify the si
ould become a
ill, Kwazulu-N
s in rock, an u
many forms i
s
permeable an
erceptor drain
ngineering
s and Desig
ts
tions and the
proposed slop
es, of which m
hile J anbus Ge
4)
methods of a
sign paramete
esion and mois
eer to design
Where this i
neer must de
drainage of th
come apparen
ce of an expe
tuation before
apparent are:
atal
understanding
including:
d effective u
n are shown in
Manual
gn Consider
e in situ mate
pe by the geot
many are avai
eneralised Me
nalysis are us
er and its cont
sture condition
the minimum
s impractical,
esign adequat
he phreatic su
nt once const
rienced geote
e the
g of the mecha
upper storm
n Figure 21.
This
of so
pores
filled
rations
erials propertie
technical engi
ilable. Bishop
ethod is favour
sed by most p
tribution to slo
ns on the ove
m slope to p
possibly beca
te retention m
urface situate
truction has c
echnical engin
anisms of fail
water interce
Phreatic Sur
is the subsurf
oil or rock in w
s and interstic
d with fluid.
es (material
neer. Slope
ps Simplified
red by some
practitioners.
ope stability.
erall stability
produce the
ause of cost,
measures or
ed within the
commenced.
eer so that,
ures in rock
eptor drain.
rface
face zone
which all
ces are

Section 5: Cuts
Page 32

An inadequate interceptor drain which is also
unlined.
A properly design, lined interceptor drain above
the crest of the slope.
Figure 21. Interceptor Drains

5.2.1 Rock Falls and Slides
5.2.1.1 Natural Slopes
Rock falls and slides in natural slopes above road cuts or fills remain a difficult challenge for the geotechnical
engineer, especially in steep topography and when large in extent. Such rock falls and slides generally occur as a
result of progressive weathering or loss of support due to erosion or vegetation loss, usually exacerbated or caused
by sustained precipitation. Injudicious use of explosives during construction may also trigger such movements.
Successful solutions have been obtained with:
Catch fences strengthened by cables and poles to intercept and retain falling or rolling rocks, see Figure 22.
Reinforced canopies to protect traffic and convey slide debris over the road, also illustrated in Figure 22.

Catch Fences Construction of Reinforced Canopy
Figure 22. Catch Fences and Canopies on Chapmans Peak Drive in Cape Town
5.2.1.2 Constructed Cut Slopes
In constructed cut slopes, rock falls or slides may occur in fracture and fault zones. The geotechnical engineer will
recognise the potential for such occurrences during the field reconnaissance stage and may require geological
assistance and aerial photographs to determine the extent. Ravelling of fractured rock may be kept at bay by rock
fall netting nailed to the surface or in shotcrete, and mesh solutions with adequate provision for drainage, as
illustrated in Figure 23.


Section 5: Cuts
Page 33

Applying Rock Fall Netting and Shotcrete to Cut Slope

Rock Cut Widening: Anchored, Meshed and
Gunite Applied for Stability
Figure 23. Applying Rock Fall Netting and Shotcrete to Cut Slope

5.2.2 Toppling Failures
Toppling failures are more frequent in natural slopes and are generally in steeply dipping or highly jointed bedded
strata such as sandstones, shales and metamorphics, which have laminated or foliated structures, such as schists.
Toppling may also occur at the crest of a constructed cut slope as a result of loss of laterally and vertically support,
sometimes exacerbated by pore water pressure development in the joints. This may be a result of the erosion or
degradation (weathering) of adjacent or underlying strata that can be exacerbated by adverse jointing. Determining
the potential for toppling failures in the design stage is difficult, especially if there are no outcrops. It is often only
apparent during and after construction. An experienced engineering geologist may be able to deduce the potential
of such problems from the discontinuity patterns on rock outcrops and on exposed rocks in test pits. An example of
a toppling failure, is shown in Figure 24.

Figure 24. Toppling and Block Failures

Section 5: Cuts
Page 34
5.2.3 Block Slides
Block slides may be the result of:
Undercutting and intersecting of dipping strata
I ntersecting discontinuities in the rock mass
5.2.3.1 Dipping Strata (Planar Failures)
The undercutting and intersecting of dipping strata are probably the greatest single cause of cut failures, examples of
which are shown in Figure 25 and Figure 26. The experienced engineering geologist or geotechnical engineer should
recognise the potential from the desk study, using regional geology and site reconnaissance stages including land
form and topography, and the study of rock outcrops and existing cuts. If the potential is not identified in these
stages, it should be detected during the preliminary investigation stage. It may even be necessary to realign the
road to the other side of a valley to avoid such problems.

Figure 25. Steep Block Slide

The inclinat
existing out
core orienta
skills of bo
geologist. I
logging is o

Where the
avoided, va
and long te
Reinforc
Gabion
Concret
Dowelin
Coverin

Chapt
tion of dipping
tcrops, studies
ation during r
oth a compet
It is for such
only done by e
intersection o
arious options
erm. These in
ced concrete w
walls
te buttresses
ng, bolting or a
g with shotcre
South A
ter 7: Geot
Figure 2
g strata can b
s on rock exp
rotary drilling.
tent drilling c
h reasons tha
experienced en
of dipping str
s are available
clude retainin
walls
anchoring lam
ete to prevent
Figure 2
African Pav
technical In
S
26. Slide on
be assessed fro
osed in test p
This is a spe
ontractor and
at most road
ngineering geo
ata in a cut f
e to provide a
g structures s
minated or clos
t spalling and
27. Dowell
vement En
nvestigation

Section 5: Cut
Page 35
n Unfavour
om joint orien
pits and bulldo
ecialised exerc
d an experien
authorities s
ologists.
face is eviden
a safe slope i
such as:
sely bedded st
delay weather

ling as a St
ngineering
s and Desig
ts
rable Beddin
ntation studies
ozer slots, and
cise requiring
nced engineer
specify that c
nt and cannot
n both the sh
trata, as illustr
ring (see Figu
tabilisation
Manual
gn Consider
ng Plane
s of
by
the
ring
ore
be
hort
rated in Figure
re 23)
Method
Most r
that co
done b
engine
rations

e 27
Core Loggi
road authoritie
ore logging is
by experience
eering geologi
ing
es specify
only
ed
ists.

The retenti
drainage ho

The failure
parameters
Rock jo
Contin
Dry and
Angle o
Depth o
Cohesi

The assess
filling mate
investigatio
range of va
5.2.3.2 I n
Where two
on these d
block (wedg
potential.
whether th
exposed ro
excavation
Prior recog
necessary e

The expert
recovered c

Other para
wedge failu
Again, a p
represent t
cut to each

Chapt
Figur
ion of free dr
oles to preven
e mode in di
s are required
int shear stre
uity of rock jo
d wet density
of friction of
of tension cra
ion along rock
sment of the
erial and the
ons. The geo
alues to the va
ntersecting D
o daylighting d
iscontinuities
ge) failure is i
J oint surveys
his is likely in
ock in test pits
process facilit
nition of such
expertise, plan
drilling and lo
cores, is an es
meters that m
ures in the p
robability of f
the variability
h of the design
South A
ter 7: Geot
e 28. Gabi
rainage is cru
nt pore water p
ipping strata
by the geotec
ength
oint
y (total unit we
f the sliding su
ack
k joint
inclination of
physical chara
otechnical eng
ariables for a p
Discontinuiti
discontinuities
to slide down
illustrated in F
by an experi
the proposed
s and/or bulldo
tates the desi
h requirements
nt and equipm
ogging of core
ssential input t
may be requir
proposed cut
failure approa
in real project
n parameters.
African Pav
technical In
S
on Cavity W
ucial to the st
pressures dev
is essentially
chnical engine
eight) of the s
urface
the core reco
acteristics of
gineers own
probabilistic an
es (Wedge F
intersect beh
n along the lin
Figure 24. Wa
enced engine
d cut. Such a
ozer slots. Fu
ign and execu
s is, however,
ment to carry o
es, especially
to the analysis
ed by the exp
are similar to
ach, where th
ts, indicates th

vement En
nvestigation

Section 5: Cut
Page 36
Wall to Reta
tability of suc
veloping, and t
y planar. In
eer:
sliding mass
overed from d
the rock are
experience an
nalysis of failu
Failures)
hind the cut fa
ne of intersec
ater in the join
eering geologis
survey is ini
rther investiga
ution of stabil
, necessary fro
out these mea
regarding to t
s of possible w
perienced geo
o planar failur
he input para
he sensitivity
ngineering
s and Desig
ts
ain Unfavou
ch slopes. M
to lower the w
carrying out
drilling, the q
obtained from
nd knowledge
ure for each of
ace, the poten
ction, if this is
nts can also p
st and the us
tially carried
ating jointing
ising measure
om both a saf
sures without
the spacing, o
wedge failures
otechnical eng
res described
meters are va
of the stability
Manual
gn Consider

urable Dip S
ost of the me
water table.
plane failure
uality of the
m the prelimin
e is needed to
f the remedial
ntial exists for
s steeper than
provide upliftin
e of stereogra
out on rock o
in the rock, a
es, such as ro
fety point of v
delaying cons
orientation, co
.
ineer for dete
above.
aried to
y of the
P
T
an
ge
rations
Strata
easures includ
e analysis, th
drilling, recov
nary and deta
to assign the
l options.
r a wedge of
n the angle of
ng forces, enh
aphic projectio
outcrops and
as it is exposed
ock bolting and
view and to p
struction unne
ondition and jo
ermining the p
Stereog
Projections
These show the
nd orientation
eology on a m
de installing
he following
very of joint
ailed drilling
appropriate
rock resting
f friction. A
hancing such
ons indicate
possibly on
d during the
d dowelling.
roviding the
ecessarily.
oint filling of
potential for
graphic
e slopes
n of the
map.
5.2.4 Deg
Degradatio
liquification
rocks. The
result in a
sediments i

Typical exa
crystalline m
5.2.4.1 Ka
Karoo Sedim
Exposed
resistan
with tim
the road
Shales o
of the c
Shales a
to loose
state is

Early recog
ensures tha
drain, and
shotcreting
5.2.4.2 Co
Some of t
heavy ripp
performed
slopes bec
invariably w
developmen
the crest o
collapse oc
Knysna and
Chapt
gradation
n of the mat
n of the cemen
e early identific
significant re
is shown in Fig
amples of roc
materials.
aroo Sedime
ments are gen
d mudrocks (
nt sandstones
me. Often the
d.
of this origin a
constructed ro
and mudstone
en and excava
not maintaine
gnition by the
at sufficient w
also for pre
) to delay or p
onglomerate
he naturally
ping to excava
well over ma
come concave
wetter, with
nts channellin
of such cuts,
ccurs. Examp
d Plettenberg
South A
ter 7: Geot
terials in a ro
nting agents in
cation of degr
eduction in m
gure 29.
Fig
cks that have
ents
nerally compri
(shales and
and indurated
cut slope is to
are infamous f
ck face and u
es are infamou
ate, but rapid
ed during cons
e geotechnical
width is provide
eventative me
prevent weath
es
cemented sed
ate, resulting
ny years. Ho
e. As the
time, and so
ng more wate
the cementin
les of these a
Bay areas, wh
African Pav
technical In
S
ock cut can t
n sediments a
adation due to
maintenance c
gure 29. De
e the potenti
sed of interbe
mudstones
d shales unsup
oo steep and t
for their slaki
pslope creep o
us for their be
dly weather
struction.
engineer or
ed for a debris
easures to be
hering.
diments that
in near vert
owever, as tim
bottom reach
metimes exac
er onto the ro
g agent (mos
are the Enon
hich is illustrat
vement En
nvestigation

Section 5: Cut
Page 37
take place th
and pedogenic
o exposure in
costs and eve
egradation
ial to degrad
edded sandsto
s) often unde
pported in the
the mudrock f
ing tendencie
of the shoulde
ehaviour in the
to silts and
engineering g
s trap outside
e designed (
require blast
tical cut slop
me passes, ma
hes of the c
cerbated by a
oad reserve a
stly iron) soft
Conglomerate
ted in Figure 3
ngineering
s and Desig
ts
hrough weathe
c materials, an
cut faces can
en prevent fa

of Sedime
de are Karoo
ones, shales an
ergo slaking
e cut slope, lea
fragments spi
es. In a cut sl
er breakpoint.
e roadbed. In
d clays in the
geologist
the side
(such as
ting and
es have
any such
cuts are
adjacent
and over
tens and
es in the
30.
P
c
t
a
s
e
T
c
fe
p
Manual
gn Consider
ering (decom
nd slaking or e
lead to preve
ilure. An ex
nts
sediments, c
nd mudstones
and disintegr
ading to rock
ll over into the
ope, this resu

n many situatio
e roadbed, esp
Pedogen
Pedogenic mat
chemical proce
ransported or
altered to a ce
tructure, resu
engineering pr
The cementing
cementation ca
erricretes are
pedogenic mat
rations
mposition), stre
exfoliation of s
entative action
xample of deg
conglomerates
s.
ration, leaving
falls and topp
e drains and s
ults in ongoing
ons, they requ
pecially if a fr
ic Materials
terials are form
ess where eith
residual soils
emented granu
ulting in the
roperties being
g agent and de
an vary. Calcr
the most com
terials.
ess release,
sedimentary
ns that could
gradation of
s and basic
g the more
pling failures
shoulders of
g breakdown
uire blasting
ree draining
med by a
her
are
ular
g altered.
egree of
retes and
mmon

Section 5: Cuts
Page 38

Figure 30. Enon Conglomerate near Knysna

To mitigate these failures, steps are taken to curtail water flowing down or penetrating into the cut slope from the
top. Additional measures to reduce the likelihood of such collapse posing a hazard to road users include lined
interceptor drains at the crest of slopes, physical barriers, drop-zones or even shotcreting. A well-designed
interceptor drain at the crest of a cut slope is illustrated in Figure 21.
5.2.4.3 Basic Crystalline Materials
Many of the basalts and dolerites in South Africa are prone to rapid weathering (Orr, 1979). On exposure to the
atmosphere these materials deteriorate rapidly, visible as the deposition of fine material at the foot of the slope. The
weathering also causes a loss of the matrix around large corestones (or spheroids), which eventually fall from the
slope as illustrated in Figure 31. Application of mesh and shotcrete is usually the best solution, but the problems
need to be identified before, or during construction, and excavation.

Figure 31. Corestones Falling from Slope
Corestones falling from slope due
to inadequate debris trap width
unable to attenuate material.

Section 5: Cuts
Page 39
5.2.5 Investigation Process
As with the investigation of large (high) embankments, the experienced geotechnical engineers investigation needs
should be programmed and coordinated to take place under the routine road prism investigations, wherever possible.
This also provides the means and opportunity for the execution of these works and facilitates interaction between the
geotechnical engineer and/or leader of the routine investigations and the experienced geotechnical engineer. They
also provide for the ancillary needs, such as traffic accommodation, sample storage and transport. The kinds of
investigations the geotechnical engineer is likely to require are:
Investigate groundwater conditions
In situ testing to determine permeability of the subsoils
In situ testing to determine strength parameters
Disturbed and undisturbed sampling for routine and specialised testing

5.3 Failure of Existing Cuts
In this section, typical problems in existing cuts are discussed, first for cuts in soils and then for cuts in rocks.

5.3.1 Cut Slopes in Soils
Problems in cut slopes in soils include:
Erosion
Creep
Materials degradation
Ravelling
Stability failure (rotational slips)
Translational slips

5.3.1.1 Erosion
Erosion in existing cut slopes occurs from:
Excessive runoff from above the slope crest due to either the absence, or inadequate capacity, of lined
interceptor or cut off drains, as illustrated in Figure 32
I nterceptor drains filled with debris and not cleaned
Leaking services
Heavy, sustained rainfall

Figure 32. Erosion of Cut Face due to Inadequate Interceptor Drain above Slope

Section 5: Cuts
Page 40
The extent of damage is exacerbated by the presence of dispersive or erodible materials (see Chapter 6, Section
4.4.6). Severe erosion, as may occur after abnormal rainfall, may render portions of a slope unstable or susceptible
to translational slides, and in such cases may require special measures to reinstate the slopes. Many repairs by
maintenance staff are unsuccessful, and the situation sometimes degrades to such a state that major remedial
measures are required. Solutions may include:
Provision of adequately lined interceptor or cut off drains
Repairing leaking services
Re-top soiling and re-vegetating the slope
Applying soil retention systems such as biojutes and netting systems

5.3.1.2 Creep
Creep describes the situation where soil slopes are somewhat steeper than their angle of repose and the soil particles
slide over each other to reach a state of equilibrium. Creep is usually limited to the outer edges of a slope and is
slow. But, it is accelerated by deep wetting. Creep is very common in fine grained materials of low cohesion, such as
sands. Following heavy rainfall, the situation could transform into a translational failure.
5.3.1.3 Degradation of Materials
Materials degradation takes place through weathering (decomposition), stress relief and by exposure to the
elements, as described in Section 5.2.4. Where severe, the geotechnical engineer needs to address the problem.
5.3.1.4 Ravelling
Ravelling in soils occurs as a result of the removal of the finer particle support for larger particles by rain or wind,
which then roll down the slope. Where severe, the geotechnical engineer needs to address the problem. Solutions
vary from re-top soiling and re-vegetating the slope to applying soil retention systems, such as biojutes and netting
systems (Figure 33), held in place by wooden pegs or soil nails, dowels or galvanised steel pins.

Figure 33. Netting System and Re-Vegetating

5.3.1.5 Stability Failure (Rotational Slips)
Stability failures or rotational slips vary in severity from minor, causing partial road closures, to catastrophic,
rendering a road unusable for many months. An example of a rotational slip is shown in Figure 34. These failures
may happen overnight, with little warning to alert road users. Road officials or maintenance staff may, however,
recognise signs of imminent failure and raise the alarm. These signs include:
Cracking in the road or shoulder

Section 5: Cuts
Page 41
Cracking in the slope above the cut or in the cut off/interceptor drain
Humps forming in the cut slope
Material displacements, into the side drain or roadway
Sag development in the roadway or shoulder
Water seeping or piping out of the cut slope
Trees falling over or away from the vertical
Increased animal activity, movement away from the affected area

Figure 34. Rotational Slip

The first reaction to any such occurrence or signs of imminent failure should be to safeguard the users of the road by
immediately erecting the necessary road signs and closing the road to traffic. The routine road maintenance
manager or relevant road authority should be contacted immediately, and will arrange immediate inspection by their
engineering staff. SANRAL requires a monitoring action to be performed when such an event takes place and have
special slope monitoring forms for this purpose. Following this, a geotechnical engineer may be appointed for an
assessment of the failure and an investigation into the causes and likely remedial solutions.

The geotechnical engineer will, from his field inspection and the available information, be able to form a quick
assessment of the type of failure, its extent and probable cause, and recommend what action should be taken to
remedy the situation. An investigation may be needed to verify assumptions, to determine the extent of the
movements, to determine what conditions to allow for in modelling the failure and to determine the ground water,
soil density and soil strength parameters to use in any analyses.

Such investigations take the form of those outlined for the investigations for new cuts (Section 4.2.7). Because the
cost of a road closure to the economy can be vast, most road authorities will have a contingent amount in the annual
budget for the investigation and repair of such failures. Some road authorities even have an accelerated system in
place for obtaining approval to proceed with the procurement of services in emergency circumstances.
5.3.1.6 Translational Slips
These are slips where movement takes place along the interface of layers of different or inadequate strength, or
along wetted fronts. Invariably these movements take place after abnormal and/or sustained rainfall. These are
sometimes referred to as rain induced instability, and the failures are generally shallow and parallel to the original
slopes. Various researchers have investigated this phenomenon, and correlations have been made with rainfall
intensity, duration and the time lapse before movement occurs. In some cases, movements took place after 3 days
while in other cases after only 8 days of continuous rainfall. The material grading, thickness, density, permeability,
upslope catchment area and vegetation all influence the moisture penetration, rate of movement and time before
equilibrium is breached. Where the materials become saturated, a slide or a mud-rush may develop. An example
from Kaaimans Pass between George and Wilderness is shown in Figure 35.

Rotational slip of an existing
cut. I nadequately stabilised
by toe gabions only.

5.3.2 Cut
Cut slopes
Ravelli
Rock fa
Rocksl
Wed
Plan
Topplin

5.3.2.1 Ra
Ravelling d
the rock fa
erosion, an
open joints
controlled b
rock bolts.
5.3.2.2 Ro
Rock falls a
are genera
through we
rock fall is g

Rock falls
interbedded
Chapt
F
t Slopes in
in rock include
ing
alls
ides
dge failure
nar failure
ng failure
avelling
describes the s
ace. The cause
nd root wedg
s. Ravelling is
by measures s
See Figure 23
ock Falls
affecting exist
lly triggered b
eathering, ero
given in Figure
are particular
d with, lesser
South A
ter 7: Geot
Figure 35. M
Rock
e:
situation wher
es range from
ing, exacerba
s generally ad
such as shotc
3 for rock fall
ting rock slope
by an event,
osion and dow
e 25.
rly evident in
resistant mud
African Pav
technical In
S
Mud and Ve
re rocks beco
m stress relief
ated by the e
dressed unde
reting, or utili
netting and sh
es generally o
or sequence
wnpours, some
the Karoo Fo
drocks and sha
vement En
nvestigation

Section 5: Cut
Page 42
egetation S
me dislodged
to weathering
entry of water
er ongoing ma
ising rock fall
hotcrete.
occur in the n
of events, su
etimes of hig
ormations wh
ales. Remedia
ngineering
s and Desig
ts
Slide on Kaa
from
g and
r into
intenance. Ho
netting pinne
natural slopes
ch as loss of
h intensity an
ere sandstone
l measures inc
Peri
shou
auth
Syst
drai
min
tops
sym
be i
prev
in e
Manual
gn Consider

aimans Pas
owever, where
d to the slope
above constru
vegetation o
nd/or long dur
es and siltsto
clude:
Periodic
odic inspectio
uld be an esse
horitys manag
tematic and re
nage systems
or sloughing (
soil), as well a
mptoms of pote
ncluded. The
vent a substan
xisting cuts.
rations
ss
e severe, rave
e by dowels, s
ucted cuts in
r gradual loss
ration. An ex
ones are unde
Inspection o
on of existing c
ential part of a
gement system
egular mainten
s, repair of ero
(translational s
as recognising
ential failures
ese measures c
ntial number o
elling can be
steel pins or
rock. They
s of support
xample of a
erlain by, or
of Cuts
cuts
any road
ms.
nance of
osion and
slips of
should
can
of failures

Section 5: Cuts
Page 43
Rock bolting and/or dowelling to secure blocks
Protecting soft, weathering susceptible strata by shotcreting
5.3.2.3 Rock Slides
Rock slides are generally the result of planar or wedge type failures.
(i) Wedge Failures
Wedge failures in existing slopes occur where two day lighting discontinuities intersect behind the cut face, and a
wedge of rock resting on the discontinuities slides down along the intersection. Such failures can be triggered by
extreme precipitation or seismic events, or ongoing weathering and opening of joints from thermal changes and
stress relief. The reaction to an occurrence depends on the extent and consequences of the failure. That is, how
large the wedge is, whether it affected the road, the verge or side drain, and whether the safety of the travelling
public was endangered. Such reaction may therefore vary from clearing the debris to road or lane closures, and is
usually followed by joint orientation surveys and analysis by a geotechnical engineer. Remedial measures could
include concrete buttresses, rock bolting and even the installation of cable anchors. An example of a wedge failure is
given in Figure 24.
(ii) Planar Failures
Planar failures occur along planar surfaces including bedding planes, joints and planes of movement in metamorphic
rocks, particularly with cleavage, laminated or schistose (flaky layer) structures. The most common planar type
failure in existing rock cuts occurs when dipping strata are undercut or when such strata are intersected in a rock
cut. Movement occurs when the plane along which failure occurs is steeper than the angle of friction. Rising pore
water pressures, which provide uplifting forces thereby lowering the friction along the failure surface, are generally
the trigger of such movements.

Remedial measures may include the securing of in place rock slabs that remain on the slope, for example, concrete
buttresses, doweling or bolting laminated or closely bedded strata, and covering with shotcrete to prevent spalling
and delay weathering. The retention of free drainage is crucial to the stability of such slopes. Most of the remedial
measures include installing drainage systems to prevent pore water pressures developing and to lower the water
table.

In carrying out plane failure analysis the following parameters are required by the geotechnical engineer:
Rock joint shear strength (cohesion and friction angle)
Density (total unit weight) of the sliding mass
Angle of friction of the sliding surface
Depth of tension crack
Continuity of rock joints

5.3.2.4 Toppling Failure
Toppling failures in existing constructed rock cuts generally occur at the crest of cuts. A toppling failure is illustrated
in Figure 36. They usually occur in bedded or jointed strata such as sandstones, shales and metamorphics which
have laminated or foliated structures, such as schist. They can also occur in other formations such as dolerites, or
any materials where the centre of gravity of individual blocks falls outside of the base of the block. Toppling occurs
as a result of loss of support, laterally and vertically sometimes exacerbated by pore water pressure development in
the joints. This may be a result of the erosion or degradation of adjacent or underlying strata, sometimes
exacerbated by adverse jointing. Remedial measures include rock bolting and/or dowelling to secure blocks, and
protect soft, weathering susceptible strata by shotcreting.

Section 5: Cuts
Page 44

Figure 36. Toppling Failure (from TRH18, 1993)

6. STR
Structures
tunnel port
shown in F
interaction,
the structu
consideratio
Bridge a
Selecti
Conside
or sensi
Pattern
Likely a
Lateral
Scour a

In addition
piling; spec
must be inv

6.1 I nt
Intrusive in
primarily ai
foundations
required ty
exploration
work, since
requiremen
widening o
relevant ro
commencin

Chapt
RUCTURES
associated w
tals, and facil
Figure 37. Ge
, determining
res are founde
ons governing
and bridge ab
ion of piles, c
erations result
itive undergro
and intensity
nd permissible
l support issu
around bridge
, other critica
cial provisions
vestigated, int
trusive Inve
nvestigations
imed at verify
s. Normally,
ype and scope
in advance
e initial results
nts. Howev
or upgrade inv
ad authoritys
ng any work.
South A
ter 7: Geot
S
with a road pr
ities such as
eotechnical inv
the load, defo
ed. Aspects w
g:
butment inte
caissons or s
ing from driv
ound services
of pressure
e settlement
ues
e piers due to
Figu
al items such
s for flooding,
terpreted, eva
estigations
apply to brid
ying the as-bu
it is not po
e of testing f
of the comm
s generally infl
ver, all prop
vestigations m
s geotechnical
African Pav
technical In
Sect
roject include
toll administr
vestigations fo
ormation and
which require
eraction
spread footin
ving resistanc

distribution
t of the structu
river hydraulic
re 37. Pede
as: problems
water seepag
luated and rep
for Bridge
dge upgrade
ilt depth and
ossible to dec
for bridge fou
mencement of
luence the eve
posals for br
must first be d
and bridge e
vement En
nvestigation

tion 6: Struct
Page 45
bridges, brid
ration and bo
for structures
bearing capa
investigation
ngs for structu
ce of differen
beneath struc
ure
c action. An e
estrian Brid
excavating re
ge or uplift p
ported.
Upgrades
projects and
details of exis
cide fully on
undation upgr
f the explora
entual explora
ridge founda
discussed with
engineers, prio
ngineering
s and Desig
tures
dge culverts,
ooth buildings
are primarily
city character
include the te
ural support
nt types of pile
cture footings
example of thi
dge Over th
estricted areas
ressures; and
are
sting
the
rade
ation
ation
ation
the
or to
More
obtai
updat
Plan
Road
which
Manual
gn Consider
gantries, reta
. A pedestria
concerned w
istics of subsu
echnical desira
es, particularly
s is shown in
he N1
s, which may
d, unusual con
Investigat
detailed infor
ned in Chapte
ted Code of P
ning and De
d Structures
h is included in
rations
aining walls, t
an bridge ove
with the soil an
urface materia
ability, as well
y where close
Figure 38.
require shori
nditions for ro
ting Structur
rmation may b
er 7 of SANRA
Procedure fo
esign of High
in South Afric
n Appendix D.
tunnels and
er the N1 is
nd structure
als on which
as practical
to buildings

ing or sheet
ock blasting,
res
be
Ls
or the
way and
ca (2011),
.

Section 6: Structures
Page 46

Figure 38. Scour around Bridge Piers

6.2 Modus Operandi and Reporting
The modus operandi for planning, scoping, responsibility, acquisition of tenders, methodology and execution of
geotechnical investigations for structures are fully documented in Chapter 7 of SANRALs Code of Procedure for the
Planning and Design of Highway and Road Structures in South Africa (2011) and also in Annexures 18.2 and 18.3
thereof. All of this has been included at the end of this Chapter as Appendix D.

The compilation and interpretation of test data and reporting is carried out in accordance with Section 8.

7. TU
The need fo
constructin
ground con
economical
the technic

The 3.9 km
Worcester i

The site inv
Geolog
Charac
Ground
Presenc
conditi

This requir
carrying ou
laboratory
analysis of
investigatio
undergroun
made feat
affected, b
tunnel.

As with the
manual, a
Chapt
NNELS
or a tunnel is
g a tunnel, is
nditions and co
site, as well
al and econom
m Hugenot Tun
is the longest
vestigation mu
gical structure
cter of the str
dwater condi
ce of ad
ions on the si
res examining
ut field inves
testing of
f information
ons must als
nd works, ser
tures which
by the constru
e other investi
a systematic,
South A
ter 7: Geot
generally app
likely to be th
onstraints aris
as favourable
mic merits of a
nnel, shown in
road tunnel in
ust establish, i
e
rata
tions
dverse ge
ite
g existing inf
stigations, in
samples tak
and test da
o locate any
rvices and ot
may affect
uction of the
igations cover
staged app
African Pav
technical In
Se
parent at the r
he dominant c
sing from exist
e line, level an
alternative sch
n Figure 39, th
n Africa.
Figure 3
n three dimen
eological
formation,
situ and
ken, and
ata. The
y existing
her man-
, or be
proposed
red in this
proach is
vement En
nvestigation

ection 7: Tunn
Page 47
route location
cost element o
sting infrastruc
nd positions fo
hemes and alig
hrough the du
39. Hugeno
nsions:
Tunne
Adit: Horizo
Azimuth: H
defined north
Chimneying
its way upwa
rates of gravi
Invert level
Overbreak:
the neat tunn
Portals: Ent
Regolith: La
Stand-up tim
at the point o
ngineering
s and Desig
nels
stage of a roa
of the project.
cture in the vi
or shafts and
gnments.
Toits Kloof m
ot Tunnel
el Terminolo
ontal entrance
orizontal angl
h base line or m
g: Process of
rds along deco
itational groun
l: Bottom leve
Overexcavati
nel line
trances and ex
ayer of loose
me: How long
of excavation
Manual
gn Consider
ad project. In
As tunnelling
cinity, it is ess
portals. This
mountains on t
gy
to a tunnel
e measured cl
meridian.
internal erosio
omposed mate
ndwater inflow
el of the inside
ion of rock bro
xits of the tun
rock resting o
g the ground s
rations
n view of the h
g costs vary w
sential to loca
s enables the
the N1 betwee
lockwise from
on of ground w
terial as a resu
w.
e of the tunne
oken out in ex
nnel
on bedrock
safely stands
high costs of
widely due to
ate the most
appraisal of
en Paarl and

a
working
ult of high
el
xcess of
by itself
recommend
tunnelling h
stages sugg

Table 3.
Stage 1:
Assem
of stru
Geolo
Aerial
Site r
Interp
Stage 2:
Work
Co
Na
Co
Est
Pro
Invest
excav
Prelim
assess
Stage 3:
Extens
Open e
Invest
Detai
Fac
Dis
Th
Recom
Stage 4:
Record
Probi
Trials
Monit
Stage 5:
Contin

7.1 Sta
7.1.1 Des
The desk st
Geologi
Hydrolo
Undergr
Mine sh
Landfill
Air phot
Topogra
Satellite
Ortho p

Chapt
ded. At each
however, inve
gested in SAIC
Progres
Desk Study
mbly of availa
uctures and un
ogical, geote
photographs
econnaissan
pretation of inf
Preliminary
ks, sufficient to
onfirm the feas
arrow route op
onsider the pre
tablish the bal
ovide direction
tigations may
vations, drilli
minary Repo
sment and rec
Detailed Sit
sive drilling a
excavations
tigation of old
led Tunnel I
ctual informat
scussion and i
e proposed de
mmendations f
Constructio
ding ground c
ng ahead of t
s for grouting,
toring structu
Post Compl
nued monitor
age 1: Desk
sk Study
tudy must inc
cal informatio
ogical Informat
round services
hafts and quar
sites
tographs
aphical maps
e imagery
photographs
South A
ter 7: Geot
h stage, the
estigations co
CEs Site Inves
ssive Invest
y and Site Re
ble informat
nderground se
echnical and h
nce (walkover
formation colle
y Site I nvest
o:
sibility
ptions
eliminary desig
ll park cost of
n to the plann
include initial
ing of boreh
rt that summa
commendation
te Investiga
and sampling
, test adits, pi
d mine worki
nvestigation
tion including
nterpretation
esign with sup
for investigatio
on Stage Inv
conditions a
the face, drillin
rock bolting a
ures and build
letion Monito
ring as determ
k Study and
lude the follow
on
tion
s and structur
rries
African Pav
technical In
Se
uncertainties
ntinue throug
stigation Code
tigation Sta
econnaissanc
tion including
ervices
hydrological
site inspectio
ected, needs
tigation (Fea
gn
the project
ing of the deta
hydrologica
oles and som
arises work do
ns for the next
tion and Des
g programme
lot tunnelling,
ngs, recordin
n Report com
borehole logs,
of findings of
pporting drawi
ons in the con
vestigations
s excavation p
ng and in situ
and shotcrete,
ings
oring
mined by the d
d Site Recon
wing:
res
vement En
nvestigation

ection 7: Tunn
Page 48
about the sit
gh the constru
e of Practice (2
ages for Tu
ce (Pre-Feas
topographica
l enquiries
on)
assessment
asibility)
ailed site inve
l studies, ge
me testing
one, records in
t stage
sign (Design
e with in situ
, rock bolt test
ng condition of
mprising
, test data, gr
test results, e
ings and plans
nstruction stag
proceeds
testing
, monitoring m
design require
nnaissance
ngineering
s and Desig
nels
te are reduce
uction stage a
2009) are show
nnelling Pr
sibility)
l and geologic
for preliminar
estigation
eophysical inv
nformation ga
n)
and laborator
ting, grouting
f buildings a
roundwater inf
expected grou
s
ge
movements
ements
e (Pre-Feasi
Manual
gn Consider
ed and the ne
as indicated T
wn in brackets
ojects
cal maps, repo
ry site investig
vestigations, s
thered, includ
y testing
tests
nd structure
formation, pla
nd behaviour
ibility)
Coun
The followin
the Council o
Plans
Maps
Borehole
Geophys
rations
ext steps ind
Table 3. The
s in Table 3.
orts, plans and
gation
selected open
des preliminary
es
ans and section
and possible
ncil for Geos
ng can be sour
of Geoscience
e
sical data
icated. For
titles of the
d records
n
y site
ns
problems
cience
rced from
e:
(i) Geo
Plans, map
geological m
certain urb
information
and librarie
may also pr

The possib
by seismic
and epicen
structures a

The freque
seismic eng
good refere
activity, the
higher seism

The four vo
invaluable s
volumes foc
(ii) Hyd
Hydrologica
investigatio
Undergroun
Copies of p
and founda
is also nece
position, de
(iii) Min
Where mine
maps, plan
and author
activities be
levels. Th
activities, w
(iv) Lan
The locatio
Industrial a
Details and
(v) Aer
For new roa
be comm
interpretati
outcrops, v
use, draina
subsurface
stereo pairs
1:10 000 to
Affairs.
(vi) Top
Topographi
scale of 1:
information
Chapt
ological I nfo
s, borehole an
maps of Sout
ban areas. Th
n on the forma
es as well as f
rovide data ob
ility of seismic
events is prim
ntre of an ear
also have an i
ency response
gineers well v
ences. For the
e effects of m
mic design acc
olumes on the
source of gen
cus on the en
drological I n
al information
ons on, for exa
nd Services an
plans and reco
ations should
essary for bor
epth and meth
ne Shafts and
e shafts exist,
ns and other in
rities. Careful
elow tunnel le
he presence o
which could inv
ndfill Sites
on of filled in p
and domestic l
plans should
rial Photogra
ads and road
missioned and
on assists in
volcanic intrus
age lines an
geology an
s of aerial pho
o 1:50 000, m
pographical M
ical maps are
:50 000 eithe
n may be glea
South A
ter 7: Geot
rmation
nd geophysica
h Africa are a
hese maps ar
ations encoun
from the geolo
btained from u
c and tectonic
marily influenc
rthquake. Ho
nfluence.
e curves for u
versed in thes
e provinces of
mining induced
celerations.
e Engineering
neral and, in s
gineering prop
formation
is obtained f
ample, aquifer
nd Structures
ords showing
be obtained, e
red tunnels, t
hod of backfilli
d Quarries
, or old mines
nformation sh
consideration
evel may have
of mine gase
volve blasting
pits is importa
landfills are a
be obtained f
aphs
tunnels, aeria
d should in
identifying ge
sions and kars
d land form
d geomorpho
otographs, usu
may be obtaine
Maps
available for
er in hard cop
aned from GPS
African Pav
technical In
Se
al data can be
available. Mo
re supplemen
tered in variou
ogy departme
underground e
c activity must
ced by the na
owever, the d
se with struct
se aspects. P
f Gauteng, Nor
d seismicity m
Geology of So
some cases, si
perties and be
from water au
rs, should be i
underground
especially whe
to assess the
ing.
are suspected
hould be soug
n must be giv
disturbed the
s and subsid
near the prop
ant because th
source of toxi
from the relev
al photographs
nclude stere
eological featu
st formations.
s provide us
ologic activiti
ually at a scal
ed from the D
most areas in
py or electron
S systems, for
vement En
nvestigation

ection 7: Tunn
Page 49
sourced from
re detailed ge
nted by expla
us areas. Na
ents of univers
engineering pr
t be establish
ature and mag
dynamic stiffn
ctures founded
Pinto (2003) a
rthwest, Mpum
ust also be ta
outh Africa by
ite specific inf
ehaviour of co
uthorities and
investigated.
services such
en shallow tun
effect of sett
d to exist due
ht from officia
ven to establis
e overlying roc
ence could a
posed tunnel,
hey are gener
ic substances,
vant authoritie
s generally ne
eo pairs. E
ures such as f
. Vegetation,
seful indicato
ies. Overlap
le varying bet
Department of
n South Africa
nic format.
r example Gar
ngineering
s and Desig
nels
m the Council o
eological maps
anation bookle
ational, region
sities may also
rojects.
ed. The leve
gnitude of the
ness propertie
d on various s
and the SANS
malanga, Limp
aken into acco
y A.B.A. Brink
formation on t
nstruction ma
hydrologists.
h as sewers, p
nnels and cut
lements on ex
to the presen
al mining reco
shing their po
ck, while flood
also present h
also need to b
rally loose, an
, dangerous g
s.
eed to
Expert
faults,
land
rs of
pping
ween
Land
a at a
Much
rmins
Ove
phot
betw
obta
Affa
Map
Affa
Bosm
Cap
for o
offic
Manual
gn Consider
of Geoscience.
s at a 1:50 00
ets which pro
al and local a
o be consulted
l of amplificat
e seismic impu
es of the rock
strata are bes
10160 Nation
popo and Free
ount, as this r
(1979, 1981,
the geology o
terials.
The possible
pipes, tunnels
and cover tun
xisting works.
nce of spoil he
ord repositorie
osition and ph
ed workings a
hazards. Fut
be established
d may be uns
ases as well a
Aerial Pho
rlapping stere
tographs, usu
ween 1:10 000
ained from the
irs. Chief Dir
pping of the De
irs, Aerial Pho
man Street, Pr
e Town. Phot
online ordering
ce.
rations
. The 1:250 0
00 scale are a
ovide useful
uthorities, loc
ed. Local civil
tion induced i
ulse, e.g., the
k mass, regol
st handled by
nal Standards
e State affecte
results in pred
1983 and 19
of southern Af
e effect of tun
wells, cellars,
nnels are env
Of special n
eaps, shafts an
es, the mining
hysical conditi
and loose fill a
ture mining o
d.
stable and wa
as deleterious
otographs
eo pairs of aer
ally at a scale
0 to 1:50 000,
e Department
rectorate: Surv
epartment of
oto Division loc
retoria or Mow
tographs are a
g from the Mo
000 regional
available for
background
al museums
consultants
n structures
e magnitude
lith and the
y competent
s (2008) are
ed by mining
dicting much
85) form an
frica. These
nnelling and
, basements
visaged. This
note are the
nd adits and
g companies
ion. Mining
above tunnel
or quarrying
ater bearing.
substances.
rial
e varying
, may be
of Land
veys and
Land
cated in
wbray,
available
owbray

Section 7: Tunnels
Page 50
Garmap suite of street, topographic and waterways maps, or online-based information systems such as Google Maps
and Google Earth.
(vii) Satellite I magery
The availability of online satellite images of all portions of the earth makes this tool particularly useful, especially
during the initial stages of a project for identification of major geological or topographical features. Whilst basic
images are available to all, high resolution images may have to be purchased. Digital images may be exported in
electronic format for use in reports or as background information on plans or maps. An example of an image from
Google Earth is shown in Figure 40.

Figure 40. Google Earth Satellite Image of J oints and Faults in Gneissic Terrain in
Kamieskroon Area of Namaqualand

(viii) Ortho Photographs
These are available at a scale at 1:10 000. Unlike aerial photographs, ortho photographs have been corrected for
distortion over the full area of the photograph. Contours from these and similar maps are useful to create a first-
order digital terrain model (DTM) of the site.

7.1.2 Site Reconnaissance (Walkover Site Inspection)
In carrying out a reconnaissance of the corridor along possible tunnel alignments, it is essential to map rock
outcrops, the position and dip of boundaries and faults, and other geological features. Particular attention should be
paid to land use and topographical features. Attention should also be given to general accessibility. Long
established local land owners must be engaged in discussion with long established local land owners.
(i) Land use
The following features in an urban, rural or agricultural environment should be identified:
Urban Environment
Position and description of buildings and structures
Evidence of subsurface structures
Pipes and tunnels that may be affected by tunnelling, whether by drilling and blasting or boring
Industries that have the potential to spill, such as, filling stations and chemical works on or near the line of
the tunnel

Section 7: Tunnels
Page 51
Rural environment
Evidence of any subsurface structures, such as pipelines
Mining and quarrying as may be indicated by spoil heaps, stockpiles and excavated pits
Inspection of nearby road and railroad cuttings, borrow pits and quarries may provide confirmation of regional
geology
Agricultural
Changes in vegetation or crops, which could be as a result of filled pits, as illustrated in Figure 41.
Changes in stratigraphy
Subsurface moisture conditions

Figure 41. Changes in Vegetation as a Result of Filled Pit

(ii) Topographical Features
Surface and land forms may provide indications of:
Instability
Shallow holes
Changes in slope
Landslides
Subsidence
Depressions
Springs, subsurface water channels

Particular attention should be paid to the possible portal areas. The survey should ideally be preceded by Aerial
Photo Interpretation (API) to identify points of geological interest or importance. Photographic records of all
significant observed features are essential.

If the site is not readily accessible due to remoteness, security concerns or socio-political sensitivity, the site
reconnaissance (walkover) survey would then probably form part of the Stage 2: Preliminary Investigation Stage
(Feasibility Stage).

7.1.3 Site Reconnaissance Report
The compilation of this report should be in accordance with the employers requirements and/or the guidelines given
in Section 8.

7.2 Sta
The desk st
of the preli
a preferred
the third st
involves:
Limited
Auger h
Open ex
In situ p
Selected
Geophy

The same
followed. S
is planned
most inform
investigatio
stage shou

Apart from
environmen
This is part
or more of

7.2.1 Pre
The inform
investigatio
longitudina
conditions
alignment a
should be p
may be ne
contaminat
times.

This report
prior to com

7.3 Sta
The detaile
design para
cases when
total profes
likely to be
design app
methods an

7.3.1 Pla
The investi
problem ar
investigatio
Extent
Depth
I nterfa
Ground
Chapt
age 2: Preli
tudy and reco
minary site inv
d route, estima
tage, the deta
number of bo
holes
xcavations
profiling and s
d laboratory te
ysical investiga
procedures fo
Some special
to allow proje
mation per un
on. Provided w
ld ideally take
the limited in
nt. Care must
ticularly applic
the sites inve
eliminary Tu
mation gained
on should be
l section with
and any othe
and design op
planned, indic
eeded. The re
ted areas and
t is generally i
mmencement
age 3: Deta
ed site investig
ameters and g
n favourable o
ssional time is
e, encountere
proaches are
nd large scale
nning
igation must
reas exist, ap
on should thus
t
properties and
aces between
dwater condi
South A
ter 7: Geot
iminary Site
onnaissance (w
vestigation. T
ates costs and
iled investigat
oreholes
sampling
esting
ations (see Ch
or the procur
considerations
ect budget co
nit of input an
well-indexed m
e no more than
ntrusive metho
t be exercised
cable at this s
stigated will n
unnel Repo
from the des
summarised
notes on the
er special haz
ptions discuss
ating where s
eport should
dangerous ga
included in th
of the detailed
ailed Site In
gations and d
guidelines. Th
or non-proble
s expended on
d, or when c
insufficient a
trials to deter
establish the
ppropriate mea
s establish:
d nature of a
soils and rock
tions
African Pav
technical In
Se
e I nvestiga
walkover site in
This stage faci
d decides on t
tion. Stage 2
apter 6, Sectio
rement of spe
s may also be
osting with de
nd typically co
maps and the
n 10% of the t
ods (test holes
when undert
stage where th
not be develop
ort
k study, the r
in a prelimi
likely range o
zards. The fe
ed. It should
special investig
also draw att
ases. Occupa
e Basic Plann
d design stage
nvestigation
design stage is
he cost of this
ematic geologi
n this phase.
hallenging str
nd the geote
rmine appropr
geological str
asures must
all the soils and
ks
vement En
nvestigation

ection 7: Tunn
Page 52
ation (Feasi
nspection) is t
ilitates the sel
the nature an
investigation g
on 4.3)
ecialised servi
e necessary. T
efined accurac
omprises no m
necessary ref
total time exp
s and pits), th
taking intrusiv
he investigatio
ped.
reconnaissanc
inary report.
of characterist
easibility of th
d also lay out
gations and ex
tention to haz
ational Health
ing Report fo
e. The report
ns and Des
s the most im
s phase, even
ical conditions
The exceptio
ructures are i
echnical engin
riate design pa
ructure, succe
be catered fo
d rocks presen
ngineering
s and Desig
nels
ibility)
the focus
lection of
d cost of
generally
ces and tend
The client may
cy, e.g., 15
more than 10%
ferences are a
pended.
he preliminary
e investigation
on may be for
ce or walk ove
This includ
tics of each ge
he tunnel sho
the direction
xpertise (such
zards to site i
and Safety iss
r the project,
ing guidelines
ign
mportant phase
though it is
s are encount
on is when cha
nvolved. For
neer must res
arameters or c
ession and ch
or to determin
nt in the zone
f
C
u
t
T
t
p
t
d
Manual
gn Consider
ers outlined i
y require that
%. This pha
% of the cost
available, this
y investigation
ns to limit dam
r site selection
er inspection,
es a provisio
eological form
ould be discus
along which
h as undergrou
nvestigators,
sues must be
which is gene
given in Sect
e as the factu
the most imp
tered. Typical
allenging grou
r these situati
sort to advan
construction so
aracter of the
ne the charac
of interest
I ntrus
for Tunnels
Care must be
undertaking in
to limit damag
This is particu
the investigati
purposes only
the sites inves
developed.
rations
in Section 2.3
t a feasibility i
ase probably p
of the total g
s preliminary i
n poses no dam
mage to the e
n purposes on
, and the prel
onal geologica
mation, likely g
ssed and, if p
the detailed i
und inspection
such as unst
strictly attend
erally subject
tion 8 should b
ual data is con
portant, is usu
ly, less than
und conditions
ions, empirica
nced analyses
olutions.
e strata prese
cter and mag
sive I nvestig
exercised whe
ntrusive invest
ge to the envir
larly applicabl
ion is for site s
y, and one or m
stigated will no
3 should be
nvestigation
provides the
geotechnical
nvestigation
mage to the
nvironment.
nly, and one
liminary site
al map and
groundwater
positive, the
nvestigation
ns of mines)
able slopes,
ded to at all
to approval
be followed.
nverted into
ually less for
10% of the
s are, or are
al or recipe
s, numerical
ent. Where
gnitude. The
gations
en
tigations
ronment.
le when
selection
more of
ot be

Section 7: Tunnels
Page 53
Unstable or caving ground
Rock faults, fracture zones, fissuring, jointing and bedding surfaces
Weathering levels
Igneous intrusions
Cavities in soluble formations such as limestone or dolomites

Further to obtaining information required for the location and design of the tunnel, shafts and portals, information is
also required for construction purposes, including:
Selecting the method of excavation and construction
Predicting stability and timing of support installation
Predicting type of support
Predicting and controlling water conditions
Predicting overbreak, assessing the need for special expedients
Ensuring the safety of the works and workers

Areas of uniformity, suited to particular methods of tunnelling, should be established. The selection and investigation
of portal positions, generally in hillside or valley locations, must be carefully carried out as these can be in difficult
ground conditions. Unloading during excavation may result in instability, fracture or ground movements where
unstable surface deposits are located.

In planning these investigations, the requirements of the Occupational Health and Safety Act (OHS, 1993), the
National Environmental Management Act, (NEMA, 1998) as well as other pertinent legislation covering the
environment and other legal issues as described in Chapters 1 (Section 3) and Chapter 6 (Section 2) must be
considered. Large projects may also warrant the appointment of a full time site safety officer. The consultant must
be aware of the specific safety requirements of the particular client.

7.3.2 Detailed Investigation Contract
The same procedures for the procurement of specialised services and tenders detailed in Section 2.3 should be
followed. In preparing the required documentation, the specific project specifications need to be comprehensive and
make due allowance for necessary changes as the investigation and information appraisal proceeds. The contractor
should be required to appoint a geotechnical engineer or an engineering geologist competent in all aspects of the
investigatory work, to work in close liaison with the engineers representatives.

7.3.3 Investigation Methods
The following investigation methods are used for tunnel investigations:
(i) Rotary Core Drilling, Core Recovery and I n Situ Testing
Boreholes should be sited at each portal, shaft and key positions to interpret geological features, such as faults.
These may be identified during the preliminary investigation stage from aerial photo interpretation, geophysical
testing and field reconnaissance. Further boreholes are sited to interpolate between points and to fill any gaps. As a
three dimensional understanding of the site is required, some of the holes are off-axis. Boreholes should extend to
at least two tunnel diameters below the proposed invert level. Where boring appears feasible, further boreholes
should be located clear of the tunnelling line to avoid interference with tunnel construction. Where cut and cover
operations are envisaged, holes should be within the excavated strip. Inclined holes are necessary to provide the
required information, especially in dipping strata.

Good core recovery (> 90%) is required, necessitating the use of split double tube or triple tube core barrels. In soft
ground, provision should be made for continuous undisturbed sampling.

The presence or absence of groundwater is a critical factor in tunnelling, particularly when tunnels are driven
beneath rivers or lakes. Moderate inflows can slow progress and be expensive to control. High inflows can destroy
face stability, result in mud rushes and chimneying. Water table measurements and seasonal variations should be
made utilising piezometers (see Chapter 5, Section 4.5.3). Note should be made of all water strikes and of artesian
conditions. Groundwater flow characteristics can be determined by pumping tests. In examining the feasibility of
dewatering or lowering groundwater tables, the effect of these on ground settlement, neighbouring structures and
on groundwater supplies should be considered.


Section 7: Tunnels
Page 54
Accurate borehole locations on site and as marked on plans is essential. Borehole survey techniques should be used
at intervals to check inclination and azimuth. Where piezometers are not installed, all boreholes and penetrations
should be backfilled by tremie grouting. Comprehensive drilling and in situ testing records are necessary.

In situ testing in soft ground conditions may include pressuremeter, dilatometer, vane shear, SPTs, CPT, CUPT and
other probings. In situ testing in rock includes packer tests.
(ii) Trial Pits
Trial pits are generally used in soft ground at portal, shaft and shaft positions as well as for shallow tunnelling. They
allow direct profiling and undisturbed sampling as well as in situ testing, such as penetrometer and jacking tests.
Careful consideration must be given to the positioning of trial pits as they can cause difficulties during construction.
All holes need to be backfilled with suitable compacted materials. The safety measures provided in SAICEs Code of
Practise: The Safety of Persons Working in Small Diameter Shafts and Test Pits for Civil Engineering Purposes
(2003) must be adhered to at all times.
(iii) Large Diameter Boreholes
Headings or shafts allow deeper in situ inspection, testing and sampling at crucial positions. These provide vital
information such as stand up time in potentially unstable formations. They may also allow for rock bolt testing and
in situ stress measurements in rock as described in Section 7.4 Construction Stage Investigations of SAICEs 2003
Code of Practice.
(iv) Field Trials
Field trials remove some of the uncertainties regarding interpretation of test data. Examples are:
Short trial tunnels, driven to assess actual tunnelling conditions and the suitability of support measures such as
rock bolting, shotcrete and mesh, steel arches and grouting.
Pilot tunnels along the line or parallel to the proposed main tunnel. These enable full scale assessment of
tunnelling conditions and in situ testing to enable the design of tailor made support, as well as providing access
to allow for multiple headings, whilst providing an escape route in the event of an emergency.

These methods are, however, both costly and time consuming. Their application is largely a function of the size and
complexity of the tunnel project.

7.3.4 Guidelines for Assessing Testing Requirements
7.3.4.1 Tunnelling in Soils
Laboratory testing of soils includes classification tests as well as strength, consolidation and permeability tests.

In granular soils, stability and support are largely a function of ground water flow. Early indications can be gained
from water rest levels and permeability tests, but more reliable measurements require the installation of piezometers.
Particle size distribution and porosity are inputs to assess the suitability of various stabilising methods, such as
dewatering, ground freezing, slurry, bentonite shields or grouting.

In cohesive soils, stability and support are largely a function of the in situ shear strength. Measurements of shear
strength can be carried out by in situ vane tests, and in stiff firm clays, by laboratory triaxial tests on undisturbed
samples.
7.3.4.2 Tunnelling in Rock
The stability of the rock is a function of the rock mass and rock material properties. Rock mass properties can only
be determined by core logging, down the hole photography, borehole to borehole geophysical methods and field
trials. Laboratory testing to assess material properties include:
Unconfined or triaxial compression tests, particularly where rock is weak relative to overburden pressures.
These are also useful for support considerations.
Tensile and indirect tensile tests, which are also useful for support considerations.
In situ measurement of ground stresses using photo-elastic cells or pressuremeters, dilatometers and Goodman
J acking in soft rock. These are also useful for support considerations.
Creep, swell or slake tests, particularly in argillaceous rocks.
Mineralogical analysis for swell potential.

Excavation
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42. For d
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South A
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ection 7: Tunn
Page 55
out by drilling
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Section 7: Tunnels
Page 56
7.3.6.1 Design Philosophy
In the design of tunnels, the limiting equilibrium or working stress philosophy is traditionally followed. This relies on
a global lumped factor of safety against failure, and occasionally for serviceability. More recently, geotechnical
design has followed structural design in adopting partial factors of safety and a limit states design approach. The
choice as to which approach is followed may be specified by the client, left to the choice of the designer, or
regulated. Eurocode 7 is regulated in the UK since 2010 (Eurocode, 2004).

The selected design philosophy generally allows for an observational method approach. This involves developing a
base design using the most likely values for the geotechnical parameters, based on the information available, and not
necessarily using a conservative selection based on variation in the data. The designer has to identify the
shortcomings in the data and in the predicted geotechnical behaviour. These lead to the derivation of a plan of
monitoring during construction to identify critical limits to trigger the implementation of predetermined contingency
actions, for which provision is been made. Some clients are, however, sceptical of such an approach.
7.3.6.2 Design Parameters
In the selection of appropriate design parameters, the specialist geotechnical consultant has to consider the type of
tunnel, applied loading, dynamics, settlement criteria and the nature of the geology, i.e., stratigraphy and stress
history. These parameters should also account for: the in situ state of the geo-materials, for example normally
consolidated or over consolidated; and soil-structure interactions, such as, drained or undrained behaviour; and,
strain levels.

There are two classes of geotechnical design parameters, fundamental and specific:
Fundamental parameters: These are dependant only on the properties of the material constituents and are
independent of the in situ state and structure of the material. They are typically determined from basic testing
on disturbed or reconstituted samples. Sophisticated analysis and design calculations are required to take
account of stress history, applied stress paths and the effects of structure and fabric. The critical state or steady
state effective angle of friction represents an example of a fundamental strength parameter.
Specific parameters: These, in addition to the material constituents, are influenced by the in situ state and the
structure or fabric of the material. These parameters are typically determined from specialised testing that model
the structural loading on high quality undisturbed samples that preserve the in situ state of the material. The
resulting parameters represent all the behavioural aspects associated with the in situ material under the intended
loading. These parameters can, therefore, be used in relatively simple design calculations. An example of such a
parameter is the tangent Youngs modulus of a material, determined from a triaxial test on an undisturbed
sample, loaded with an appropriate stress increment.

Identifying points of changes in ground or water conditions requiring changes in design are of major importance.
Such areas may be very small in extent, but they are of no lesser significance to the safety of the users, the integrity
of the construction, or the functionality.

Characteristic values of design parameters are derived using statistical methods and defined confidence levels. Due
cognisance must be taken of the sample size. The more limited the amount of information, the less reliable the
statistical interpretation. Where large volumes of data are generated, it is appropriate to represent the data using
statistics such as sample size, average value, standard deviation, and percentiles, and to identify outliers. These
statistical values are particularly useful in carrying out sensitivity analyses during the design process. Statistical data
can best be presented graphically and can, at least, provides some indication of the nature of the distribution of the
data.

Considerable experience is, however, required when using statistical concepts in geotechnical engineering. Simple
averaging of values does not properly account for the variability of the parameter, or for parameter dependencies. It
is common practice to model natural phenomena using the normal probability distribution. This assumption
simplifies the manipulation of statistical data and the prediction of confidence levels where the average and median
values coincide. Geotechnical data, however, do not always conform to a normal distribution, and even if it does, the
distribution is likely to be flat, that is with a large amount of variability.

It is essential that the consultant liaises with the rest of the design team during this phase of investigation to ensure
that appropriate design parameters are determined, and that these parameters are understood and correctly used by
the designers.

7.3.7 Detailed Tunnel Investigation Report
The guidelines given in Section 8 should be used to compile the report, and should also include:

Section 7: Tunnels
Page 57
All the information gained from earlier investigations as well as borehole reports, log sheets, test results
and geological plans, and sections showing their positions together with all strata and groundwater levels
encountered in the boreholes. Symbolic codes and colours should be used to distinguish between different soil
and rock types, see Figures 10 and 11 in Chapter 5, Section 4.3.4. The soil and rock types must be fully
described, and areas of inferred geological structure shown with an indication of the degree of confidence of the
interpolations.
Additional information such as plans showing:
Services, structures, and condition reports
Position and condition of underground mineshafts and workings, and measures needed to stabilise them
Presence and characteristics of groundwater, mine gases and other hazardous substances
Consulting engineers interpretation of the investigation results and expected ground conditions. Due
consideration must being given to possible problems in tunnelling, controlling groundwater and providing
temporary and permanent support.
Proposed design and supporting plans and drawings. The observed, measured and inferred conditions and
properties on which the design is based must be given, highlighting any special, relevant geotechnical features.
The classification of the ground into zones of similar ground and water conditions, and construction and support
methods is similarly important.
Recommendations for investigations during the construction stage.

SAICEs Site Investigation Code of Practice (2009) should also be consulted for more information.

7.4 Stage 4: Construction Stage Investigations
It is essential that predictions made on the ground structure and materials are confirmed as construction proceeds.
This includes continuous updating of geological sections, recording water inflows, joint spacing and orientation,
regular sampling and testing of rock or soil samples, and other relevant data such as overbreak occurrences.

Probing ahead, by drilling short distances ahead of the tunnel face, gives advance warning of undiscovered fault and
fracture zones, material changes and hazards, such as, water bearing fissures. This also provides a means of
treating materials ahead of the drive.

The construction of test adits allows the execution of in situ stress measurements to determine lining requirements.
These measurements include uniaxial tests using flat jacks, biaxial tests using doorstopper cells and Leeman/CSIR
cells for triaxial stress measurements. Continual defection or convergence measurements, rock bolts and grouting
tests, as well as shotcrete trials, are regularly conducted to determine their efficacy for both primary support and the
final lining. Ongoing monitoring of structures, buildings, as well as the ground surface in the corridor of the tunnel,
is a further necessity.

Post construction reports and records must include:
All test and geological data
Construction experience in the ground conditions encountered
Equipment and methods employed
Hazards and difficulties encountered, and measures adopted to address these.

The importance of this phase cannot be over-emphasised as the whole of the tunnel structure is exposed during
construction. Many recommendations made in the geotechnical reports may have to be altered or even reversed
based on the evidence, which becomes available during construction. If conditions on the exposed site turn out to
be more favourable than indicated by the site investigation, the design may possibly be altered, with significant cost
savings.

The ongoing assessment of actual conditions and analyses with those predicted is, and must, remain an integral part
of the whole design approach, as is post construction monitoring described in the next section.

The Construction Report compiled by the supervising engineers on completion of the construction project should
include a specific section or volume covering the construction of the tunnel, problems encountered, solutions
executed, as-built records, plans, geological sections, logs, and, test and monitoring data.

7.5 Sta
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ection 7: Tunn
Page 58
ring
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Page 59
ND REPOR
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Report. All t
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sition of Test
Page 60
t submitted to
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ects as specifie
Manual
gn Consider
orting
ble
er,
val,
as
ng
be
ble
Volume 6 Ge
hese particular
Design Report
also included
d in this docum
of the area tra
emperatures,
n of all road
borrow pits or
e the stability
ecommended
Where cutt
and include on
her the standa
al occurring w
d to A2 or A1
es, or cuts to
results for all
Chapter 6 app
ation of mater
8 and in Chap
quarry or cutt
s regarding th
e in premixed
part of an up
their founding
lement analys
enerally taken
orehole logs, a
ed in Chapters
Requi
The re
this sec
require
They a
guidan
other a
rations
eotechnical an
r project docu
t(s) referred t
d. These doc
ment, but not
aversed by th
rainfall, topo
construction
r quarries insi
y of the road
. Also, the pr
tings used as
n the key plan
ard types or a
within and bel
1 size for inclu
be utilised as
centre line an
pendices.
rials from the
pter 7, Appen
tting, togethe
he availability
concrete, asp
pgrading prog
g. Details, in
yses for each
n from the Fi
and in situ tes
s 6 and 10.
SANRALs R
rements
eporting stipula
ction reflect th
ements of SAN
also provide go
nce for reportin
authorities or
nd Materials
uments must
o in Section
cuments are
t necessarily
he proposed
graphy and
soil or rock
ide the road
d prism are
roposed use
sources of
n.
any specially
ow the road
usion in the
s sources of
nd proposed
road prism,
ndix A. The
r with their
of cement,
phalt or soil
gramme, are
cluding cost
alternative
nal Detailed
sting results
Reporting
ations in
he
NRAL.
ood
ng for
clients.

References and Bibliography
Page 61
REFERENCES AND BI BLI OGRAPHY
BISHOP. A.W. 1955. The Use of the Slip Circle in the Stability Analysis of Slopes. Geotechnique, 7(1): 7-17.
BRINK, A.B.A. 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985. Engineering Geology of Southern Africa. Volumes 1 to 4.
BRITISH STANDARDS. 1981. BS 5930: Code of Practice for Site Investigations. British Standards Institution.
London.
COLTO. 1998. Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Works for State Road Authorities. Committee
for Land and Transport Officials. Pretoria.
COUNCIL FOR GEOSCIENCE. 2002. Engineering Geological Site Characterisation for Appropriate
Development on Dolomitic Land. DRAFT. Council for Geoscience and South African Institute for
Engineering Geologists.
COUNCIL FOR GEOSCIENCE. 2007. Approach to Sites on Dolomitic Land. Available from
www.geoscience.org.za.
DME. 2004. Environmental Management Programme. Regulations 48 to 51 of Govt. Gazette # 26275 of 23
April 2004. Department of Minerals and Energy.
DME. 2002. Environmental Management Programme. Regulation 52 submitted in support of application for a
prospecting right or mining permit in terms of The Minerals and Petroleum Resources Development Act (Act
28 of 2002). Department of Minerals and Energy.
ELGES, H. Problem Soils in South Africa State of the Art. Dispersive Soils. The Civil Engineer In South Africa,
Vol. 27 No. 7 J uly 1985.
EUROCODE 7. 2004. Geotechnical Design. Part 1 General Rules, Part 2 Design Assisted by Laboratory
Testing and Part 3 Design Assisted by Field Testing. European Committee for Standardization. CEN.
J ANBU. N. 1954. Stability Analysis of Slopes with Dimensionless Parameters. Harvard Soil Mech. Serv.
46:81 pp.
NEMA. 1998. National Environmental Management Act. Act 107 of 1998.
NETTERBERG. F. 1979. Salt Damage to Roads - An Interim guide to its Diagnosis, Prevention and Repair. J ournal
for the Institute of Municipal Engineers of South Africa (IMIESA), 4(9), 13-17.
OHS. 1993. Occupational Health & Safety Act No. 85 of 1993, As Amended.
ORR, C.M. 1979. Rapid Weathering Dolerites. The Civil Engineer in South Africa. J uly 1979. pp 161-167.
PINTO, P.E., Lupoi, A., Franchin, P. and Monti, G. 2003. Seismic Design of Bridges Accounting for Spatial Variation
of Ground Motion. ACI I nternational Conference on Seismic Design of Bridges. San Diego. 2003.
SAICE. 1989. Code of Practice: Lateral Support in Surface Excavations. South African Institution of Civil
Engineering, Geotechnical Division.
SAICE. 2002. Guidelines for Soil and Rock Logging in South Africa. South African Institution of Civil
Engineering, Geotechnical Division.
SAICE. 2003. Code of Practice: The Safety of Persons Working in Small Diameter Shafts and Test Pits
for Civil Engineering Purposes. South African Institution of Civil Engineering, Geotechnical Division.
SAICE. 2009. Site Investigation Code of Practice. 1st Edition. South African Institution of Civil Engineering,
Geotechnical Division.
SACS. 1980. Stratigraphy of South Africa. Geological Survey of South Africa, Handbook 8. South African
Committee on Stratigraphy.
SANRAL. 2011. Updated Code of Procedure for the Planning and Design of Highway and Road
Structures in South Africa. South African National Roads Agency Limited.

References and Bibliography
Page 62
SANRAL. 2006. Drainage Manual. 5th - Edition fully Revised. South African National Roads Agency Limited. ISBN
1-86844-328-0.
SANS 1936. 2009. Development of Dolomite Land Part 1: General Principals and Requirements (ICS
07.060; 93.020) and Part 2: Geotechnical Investigations and Determinations (ICS 07.060:93.020).
SABS webstore www.sabs.co.za.
SANS 10610 Series. 2008. Basis of Structural Design and Actions for Buildings and I ndustrial Structures.
South African National Standards. Pretoria. DRAFT. SABS webstore www.sabs.co.za.
SCHWARTZ. K. 1985. Problem Soils in South Africa State of the Art. Collapsible Soils. The Civil Engineer In
South Africa, Vol. 27 No. 7 J uly 1985.
TRH2. 1996. Geotechnical and Soil Engineering Mapping for Roads and the Storage of Materials Data.
Technical Recommendations for Highways. ISBN 0 7988 1776 8. CSRA. Pretoria (available for download
www.nra.co.za)
TRH9. 1992. Construction of Road Embankments. Technical Recommendations for Highways. ISBN 0 7988
2272 4. CSRA. Pretoria (available for download www.nra.co.za)
TRH10. 1994. The Design of Road Embankments. Technical Recommendations for Highways. ISBN 1 86844 093
1. CSRA. Pretoria (available for download www.nra.co.za)
TRH15. 1994. Subsurface Drainage for Roads. DRAFT. Technical Recommendations for Highways. ISBN 1
86844 155 5. CSRA. Pretoria (available for download www.nra.co.za)
TRH18. 1993. The Investigation, Design, Construction and Maintenance of Road Cuttings. Technical
Recommendations for Highways. ISBN 1 86844 094 X. CSRA. Pretoria (available for download
www.nra.co.za)
WAGENER, F. 1985. Problem Soils in South Africa State of the Art. Dolomites. The Civil Engineer in South
Africa, Vol 27 No. 7 J uly 1985.
WEST, G., Carter, P.G., Dumbleton, M.J . and Dumbleton, L.M. 1980. Site Investigation for Tunnels. Lake.
WESTON, D.J . 1980. Expansive Roadbed Treatment for Southern Africa. Proceedings for 4
th
International
Conference on Expansive Soils. Denver.

SOIL
No enginee
importance

Moistu
Streng
Volume
Permea

The purpos
consistent,
present in o

It is theref
characterist
follows ar
preferred

Descripti

This guidel
engineering
J anuary 19
soil/rock inv
of proposed
the AO-Soi
purposes.

As what fo
importanc
embodied
on site with

As directed
can be divid
and uncem
strongly ce

They can b
deposits, or

The descrip
Williams, in
In cases w
to hardnes
description

Moi (i)
For exampl
may depen

Colo (ii)
Using Burla
natural stat
pit profile t
Table A.1.

L (AND WE
ering structure
e that the follo
ure/ water, w
gth, which affe
etric change
ability, which
se of classify
concise, and
order to enabl
fore important
tics mentione
re not to be
by SANRAL
ion of Soils
line briefly de
g purposes in
973) and subse
vestigations.
d symbols to
l Survey Draw
ollows is only
ce that all in
d in Section 1
h them for qua
in the Introd
ded into the tw
mented deposi
mented depos
be further sub
r combination
ption of soils
n the following
here weathere
ss and degr
order then be
isture Condit
le, dry, slightl
d on the grad
our
ands colour di
te in the test
to the next.
SA
EATHERED
e is better th
owing aspects
which affects it
ects its stabilit
e, which affect
h concerns rat
ying the soils
d systematic i
le useful conc
t that any soi
d above, bot
e seen as t
for use in th
and Rocks
escribes the J
n Southern Af
equently upda
Some addition
be used as a
wing in the D
y a brief sum
nvestigatory
1 of Guideli
ality assurance
uction chapte
wo principal g
its, while the
sits.
bdivided into f
s of these.
in test pit pro
g order: mois
red /decompos
ree of weathe
ecomes MCHW
tions
y moist, mois
ding and/or the
iscs or Munsel
pit profile, but
Mottling or bl
APEM CHA
D ROCK) PR
an the mater
of its characte
s entire behav
ty and ultimate
ts possible dist
tes of drainage
and rocks e
nternationally
lusions to be d
l classification
h in terms of
the only cla
heir projects.
in Test Pits
J ennings, Brin
frica (as orig
ated in 2002,
nal guidelines
bbreviations o
Detailed Repo
mmary, as am
y site staff h
nes for Soil
e purposes.
r of the above
groups; soils a
term rocks
four further ca
ofiles should u
ture condition
sed rock is en
ering as defi
WSSO, where
st, very moist,
e clay content
ll colour chart
t should be de
lotching etc. s
A - 1
APTER 7: A
ROFI LI NG
rials on which
er are adequa
viour
e bearing cap
tortion of the
e within the so
encountered d
y accepted me
drawn therefr
n adopted, sh
f material cha
ssification s
.
s and Auge
nk and Willia
ginally publish
as directed be
are given in T
on simplified s
orts, or on sim
mended for S
have a copy
and Rock Lo
ementioned up
and rocks, th
refers to the
ategories, i.e.
utilize the foll
n, colour, cons
ncountered, p
ined in Sectio
e H refers to h
, or wet, with
t of the materi
as the standa
etermined in a
should also be
APPENDIX
G OF TEST
, or of which
tely described
acity
structure
oil, affecting c
during site ex
ethod of desc
om.
ould make us
aracteristics a
systems ava
er Holes
ms paper R
hed in the Civ
elow, which is
Tables A.1 to
soil profiles an
mplified soil p
SANRALs ow
y of the abo
ogging in Sou
pdated publica
he term soil e
hard, rigid o
rock, residua
lowing descrip
sistency, struc
profilers may u
on 3 of the 20
hardness and W
moist being
ial.
ard. For unifo
a wet state w
e noted. Abb
X A
PITS AND
it is built. I
d:
changes in bot
xploration is
cribing the va
se of a system
nd classificati
ailable, but
evised guide
vil Engineer in
s now advocat
A.4 and A.6 o
nd cross-sectio
profiles prepar
wn purpose
ovementione
uth Africa (2
ation, geologic
embracing the
or weathered
al soil, transpo
ptors accordin
cture, soil type
under consiste
002 documen
W to the degre
around the O
rmity, the colo
hen comparin
breviations for
AUGER HO
It is therefore
th strength an
to provide a
arious types o
m that would
on methodolo
rather those
to soil profil
n S.A. Vol. 1
ted for use in
of this Append
ons normally
red for pavem
es, it is of t
ed updated
2nd Impress
cal formations
comparatively
to some deg
orted soil, and
ng to J ennings
e and origin (
ency wish to
nt referred to
ree of weather
MC of the ma
our should be
g materials fr
r the colours a
OLES
e of primary
nd volume
n accepted,
of materials
address the
ogy. What
e that are
ing for civil
5, No. 1 in
all SANRAL
ix in respect
depicted on
ment design
he utmost
version as
ion 2002)
s or deposits
y soft, loose
gree, and/or
d pedogenic
s, Brink and
(MCCSSO).
rather refer
above. The
ring.
aterial. This
e noted in its
om one test
are given in

Table A.1
Colour
Black
Blue
Brown
Green
Grey
Khaki

Con (iii)
The consist
effort requi
A.3 give the

Table A.2
Consiste
Very Loos
Loose
Medium D
Dense
Very Dens

Table A.3
Consiste
Very soft
Soft
Firm
Stiff
Very stiff

Sometimes
rock, nor fit

Table A.4 g

Table A.4
Consiste
Very weak
Weakly ce
Cemented
Strongly c
Very stron

1. Standard
and Cros
Abbr
nsistency
tency is a mea
ired to dig into
e recommend
2. Consiste
ncy
se
Density
se
3. Consiste
ncy
there is diffi
t into the gran
gives a guide t
4. Naturally
ncy
kly cemented
emented
d
cemented
ngly cemented
d Abbreviat
ss-Sections
reviation C
Bl. M
B. O
Br. R
Gn. W
G. Y
Kh.
asure of the d
o the soil, or t
ed definitions
ency of Gran
Nomencl
V loose
Loose
Med dense
Dense
V dense
ency of Coh
Nomencl
V soft
Soft
Firm
Stiff
V stiff
culty in classi
nular scale, e.g
to terms that c
y or Artifici
Nomencl
V W cem
W Cem
Cem
Str cem
d V Str Cem
tions for Ma
s or Simplifi
Colour
Mauve
Orange
Red
White
Yellow
density, hardn
to mould it wi
of consistency
nular Soils
ature Des
Very
Crum
Sma
e Cons
pick
Very
of ge
High
tools
esive Soils
ature Desc
Pick
easil
Easil
40
Inde
up t
pene
Pene
pick
pick
Inde
by b
ifying the con
g. pedogenic
can be used.
ially Cemen
ature Desc
Som
and
Cann
crum
Disin
Mate
dislo
Firm
inde
blade
Hand
firm
A - 2
ain Colour
ied Soil Pro
Abbrevia
M.
O.
R.
W.
Y.

ness or toughn
ith the fingers
cy.
scription
y easily excava
mbles very eas
all resistance to
siderable resis
y high resistan
eological pick
h resistance to
s for excavatio
cription
head can ea
ly moulded by
ly penetrated
0 mm; moulde
ented by thum
to 10 mm; v
etrated with a
etrated by thu
point into so
for excavation
ented by thum
blow of pick po
nsistency of a
c materials, or
nted Soils
cription
me material ca
thumb. Disint
not be crumb
mbled by stro
ntegrates unde
erial crumbles
odged with som
m blows of s
ntations of 1m
e.
d-held specim
blow. Similar
Description
ofiles
ation
ness of the so
s. e.g., very l
ated with spad
sily when scra
o penetration
stance to pen
nce to penetra
for excavation
o repeated blo
on
asily be pushe
y fingers.
by thumb; sh
d with some p
mb with effort;
very difficult
n ordinary han
umb nail; slig
oil; cannot be
n.
mb nail with d
oint; requires p
cemented m
r stabilized roa
n be crumble
tegrates under
bled between
ong pressure
er light blows
under firm bl
me difficulty u
harp pick po
mm to 3mm. G
men can be b
appearance to
ns on Soil S
oil, and is an o
oose, dense, e
de.
ped with geol
by sharp end
netration by s
tion of sharp
n
ows of geolog
ed in to (up t
harp end of pi
pressure.
; sharp end o
to mould wit
nd spade.
ght indentatio
e moulded by
difficulty; sligh
power tools fo
material which
ad pavement l
ed by strong p
r a knife blade
strong fingers
between th
of a hammer
lows of sharp
under a knife b
oint on a ha
Grains cannot
broken with h
o concrete.
Survey: Dra
observation b
etc. Table A.
logical pick
of geological
sharp end of
end; and requ
gical pick requ
to) the shaft
ick can be pu
of pick can be
th fingers; ca
on produced b
y fingers; requ
ht indentation
or excavation.
h may not pr
layers, etc.
pressure betw
e to a friable s
s. Some mate
humb and ha
head to a fria
pick point. Gr
blade.
and-held spec
be dislodged
hammer head
awings
ased on the
2 and Table
pick
geological
uires blows
ires power
of handle;
shed in 30
pushed in
an just be
by pushing
uires hand
n produced
roperly be a
ween fingers
state.
erial can be
ard surface.
able state.
rains can be
cimen show
with a knife
with single

Stru (iv)
This indicat
cohesive so
structure as

Table A.5
Structure
Intact
Fissured
Slickensid
Shattered
Micro-shat
Stratified
Laminated
Foliated
Pinholed
Honeycom
Matrix-sup
Clast-supp

Soil (v)
The soil typ
the grain si
MIT (Massa

Table A.6
Grain siz
(mm)
< 0.002
0.002 to
0.06
0.06 to 0.
0.2 to 0.6
0.6 to 2.0
2.0 to 6
6 to 20
20 to 60
60 to 200
> 200
* Dilatanc
occurs. If
water will a
become du

NB: It is im
important i
viability of a

ucture
tes the prese
oils with a gra
s shown in Ta
5. Structur
e
ed

ttered
&
d &
mbed
pported
ported
l Type
pe or texture
izes as describ
achusetts Inst
6. Particle
ze Classific
2 Cla
o Silt
.2 Fine s
6 Medium
0 Coarse
Fine gr
Medium
0 Coarse g
0 Pebble
Cobb
Bould
cy is a propert
a part of satu
appear on the
ll as the wate
important to e
in assessing th
a Borrow Pit a
nce, or absen
nular structure
able A.5.
re of Cohesi
Description
Structureless,
Soil contains d
stained or uns
This term qua
surfaces whic
Very closely to
resulting in gr
stiff to very st
As above, but
These and oth
describe sedim
relict structure
Pinhole-sized
require a hand
Similar to pinh
may be specif
Clasts support
Clasts touchin
in each horizo
bed in Table A
itute of Techn
Size Classe
cation No
y
t
sand
m sand
sand
ravel
gravel
gravel
es /
bles
ders
ty whereby a m
urated silt is p
e surface. If
r is withdrawn
estimate the p
the Class of Bo
area.
nce, of joints
e, it is not rec
ive Soils
no discontinu
discontinuities
stained and of
alifies other te
h are smooth
o extremely cl
ravel sized soi
tiff and difficu
t sand-sized fr
her accepted g
mentary struct
es in residual
voids or pores
d lens to ident
holed but void
fied in mm).
ted by matrix
ng (matrix may
on is describe
A.6. Boulders,
nology) Classif
es Common
menclature
Cl
St
F. S
M. S.
C. S.
F. Grav
M. Grav
C. Grav
Pb
Bl
material consi
placed in the p
the pat is the
n into the dilat
percentage bo
oulder Excavat
A - 3
in the soil an
corded. Cohes
uities identified
s which may b
f variable orig
rms to describ
or glossy and
losely spaced
l fragments w
lt to break dow
ragments
geological term
tures in transp
soils.
s (up to say 2
tify.
ds and pores >
y or may not b
ed on the basi
, cobbles, grav
fication of Gra
nly used in E
Mineralog
Secondary
minerals &
Primary & s
Primary min
Primary min
Primary min
Primary and
minerals (s
Primary and
minerals (s
Primary roc
pedogenise
(sometimes
Primary roc
ferricrete a
Rocks
isting of close
palm of the on
en squeezed in
ting material.
oulders in the
tion in terms o
nd the nature
sive soils, on t
d
be open or clos
in.
be discontinuit
d possibly stria
continuities
which are usua
wn.
ms may be us
ported soils an
mm) which m
> 2 mm; (pore
be present).
is of grain size
vel, sand, silt
in/Fragment s
Engineering
gical compos
minerals (clay
Fe-oxides)
secondary min
nerals (mainly
nerals (mainly
nerals (mainly
d pedogenised
ometimes vein
d pedogenised
ometimes vein
ck minerals an
ed minerals
s quartz)
ck Minerals (so
nd quartz)
ly packed soil
ne hand and s
n the palm, o
profile as acc
of the COTO S
e of these join
the other hand
Asso
Geolo
Comp
sed,

ty
ated.
Expan
lly
ed to
nd
Slope
isotro
may
Collap
comp e size
Comp
e, and can be
and clay, etc.
size shall alway
g (The MIT
ition I d
y Gr
So
Sh
nerals Ch
W
Di
y quartz) Gr
y quartz) O
y quartz) O
d
n quartz)
O
d
n quartz)
O
d O
ometimes O
O
grains increas
shaken to and
r probed with
curately as po
Specifications,
nts. In the c
d, exhibit seve
ociated Engin
ogical Proble
pressible
nsive/shrinkin
e instability/no
opic porosity
psible and/or
pressible/porou
pressible
e a combinatio
The internat
ys be used.
Classificat
dentification
reasy or soapy
oils hands.
hiny when we
halky feel on t
When dry rubs
ilatant*
ritty feel on te
bserved with
bserved with
bserved with
bserved with
bserved with
bserved with
bserved with
ses in volume
d fro, or tappe
h a finger the
ossible, as this
, but also in as
case of non-
eral types of
neering
ems
g soils
on-
us
on of any of
tionally used
ion)
n test
y feel.
t.
teeth.
off hands.
eeth
naked eye
naked eye
naked eye
naked eye
naked eye
naked eye
naked eye
as shearing
ed, a film of
surface will
s is not only
assessing the

Orig (vi)
It is extrem
transported
prove more
example re
surrounding
very import
transported

Table A.7
Transpor
Soil Type
Talus (coa
colluvium)
Hill wash
colluvium)
Alluvial or
gulley was
Lacustrine
deposit
Estuarine
deposit
Aeolian
deposit
Littoral de
Sandy soi
mixed orig

Wat (vii)
Some refer
within the
table when
complete a
(1973) give

Anc (viii)
All significa
trail hole, i.
presence of

Bulking, or
grain struct

The pebble
could be ela

The depth
refusal of a

The type of
hand excav

gin
mely importan
d or a fill. It
e difficult for t
esidual shale
gs, i.e., the to
tant to be abl
d soils origin a
7. Origins o
rted
e
Agen
Trans
arse
)
Gravit
(fine
)
Sheet
r
sh
Strea
e Strea
in pan
subte
in cav
Tidal
tides
saline
Wind
eposit Wave
ls of
gin
Sheet
termit
ter Table
rence should a
depth investig
the accompa
and proper gu
en in the Biblio
cillary Notes
ant features sh
.e high/mediu
f carbonate, ir
lack thereof,
ture.
e, or even mo
aborated upon
at the bottom
any type of au
f machine use
vation, or was
nt to determi
is generally
he transported
. In determ
opography and
le to identify w
assists in the i
of Transpor
ncy of
sportation
ty
twash
ms or gulleys
m depositing
n, lake or
erranean pool
vernous rock
rivers and
depositing int
e water
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A - 4
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A - 5

Figure A.1. Standard Symbols for Soil Profiles (after Franki, 1995)

A - 6

Figure A.2. Standard Symbols for Profiling Rocks (after Franki, 1995)

B - 1

SAPEM CHAPTER 3: APPENDIX B
ROCK PROFILING OF CORES, TESTPITS OR QUARRY FACES
The geological classification and identification of rocks is a very complex science requiring a high level of skill and
experience. Any errors or oversights in this process invariably lead to claims by the contractor during the construction
phase and it is thus a requirement that all logging be carried out by a professional and experienced engineering
geologist or geotechnical engineer. Notwithstanding the above, a full geological appraisal may be unnecessarily detailed
if the scope is only restricted to centreline soil on uniform geology on flat topography and some borrow pit
investigations.

For bridge structures, cuttings, lateral support systems, quarry and deep soil/rock road prism surveys, the detailed
methods described in Section 3 of Guidelines for Soil and Rock Logging in South Africa (2nd I mpression)
should be followed. This method prescribes the description of rock in the following order (MCWFDHR):
Moisture
Colour
Weathering
Fabric
Discontinuities
Hardness
Rock Name

I n addition, especially where the water table position from measurements is known, or when holes are drilled on
topographical locations where wet conditions are to be expected during certain times of the year, the moisture condition
(M), (e.g. wet below W.T.) for each layer should also be recorded before the colour (C) on the core log. The depth of
the water table (if any) should be indicated.

I n addition, the existence of any potentially deleterious secondary minerals such as clay, shale, mica, sulphides or
soluble salts in potential quarries, must be identified and commented upon. If the presence of such minerals is
suspected, it is considered prudent to carry out further microscopic/X-ray assessment of thin slides in order to more
accurately identify and quantify potential problems.

As what follows is either a repetition of tables in the above-mentioned SAI CE, AEG and SAI EG approved
document, or are additional guideline descriptors as amended for SANRALs own purposes, it is
recommended that all investigatory site staff have copies of both documents with them on site for quality
assurance purposes.

Table B.1. Colour
Term Description
Speckled Very small patches of colour: < 2 mm
Mottled Irregular patches of colour: 2 6 mm
Blotched Large irregular patches of colour: 6 20 mm
Banded Approximately parallel bands of varying colour*
Streaked Randomly orientated streaks of colour*
Stained Local colour variations associated with discontinuity surfaces
* Describe colour thickness using bedding thickness criteria (e.g. thickly banded, thinly streaked, etc).

B - 2

Table B.2. Weathering
Degree of
Weathering
Extent of
Discolouration
Fracture
Condition
Surface
Characteristics
Original
Fabric
Grain Boundary
Condition
Unweathered None Closed or
stained.
Unchanged Preserved Tight
Slightly
weathered
< 20% of fracture
spacing on both
sides of fracture
Discoloured,
may contain
thin filling.
Partial discolouration.
Often unweathered
rock colour.
Preserved Tight
Moderately
weathered
> 20% fracture
spacing on both
sides of fracture
Discoloured,
may contain
thick filling.
Partial to complete
discolouration. Not
friable except poorly
cemented rocks.
Preserved Partial opening
Highly
weathered
Throughout - Friable, possibly pitted. Mainly
preserved
Partial separation.
Not easily indented
with knife. Does not
slake.
Completely
weathered
(Residual
soil)
Throughout - Resembles a soil. Partially
preserved
Complete
separation. Easily
indented with knife.
Slakes.

Table B.3. Fabric or Grain Size Classification
Classification Size (mm) Recognition
Very fine grained < 0.2 Individual grains cannot be seen with a hand lens
Fine grained 0.2 0.6 J ust visible as individual grains under hand lens
Medium grained 0.6 2 Grains clearly visible under hand lens, just visible to the naked eye
Coarse grained 2 6 Grains clearly visible to the naked eye
Very coarse grained > 6 Grains measurable

Table B.4. Discontinuity Spacing
Separation (mm) Micro-Structure Spacing
(foliation, cleavage, bedding,
etc.)
Discontinuity Surface
Spacing (fractures, joints,
etc.)
< 6 Very intensely Very highly
6 - 20 Intensely Very highly
20 - 60 Very thinly Highly
60 200 Thinly Highly
200 600 Medium Moderately
600 2000 Thickly Slightly
> 2000 Very thickly Very slightly

Table B.5. Discontinuity Surface Description
J oint filling
J oint fill type Definition (wall separation specified in mm)
Clean No fracture filling
Stained Colouration of rock only. No recognisable filling material.
Filled Fracture filled with finite thickness
Discontinuity orientation
Discontinuity inclinations (i.e. of joints, bedding, faults)
Roughness of discontinuity planes
Classification Description
Smooth Appears smooth and is essentially smooth to the touch. May be slickensided*.
Slightly rough Asperities on the fracture surface are visible and can be distinctly felt.
Medium rough Asperities are clearly visible and fracture surface feels abrasive.
Rough Large angular asperities can be seen. Some ridge and high side angle steps evident.
Very rough Near vertical steps and ridges occur on the fracture surface.
* Where slickensides occur, the direction of the slickensides should be recorded.

B - 3

Table B.6. Rock Hardness
Hardness COLTO
Classification
Description Range of Minimum
UCS (MPa)
Very soft rock R1 Material crumbles under firm blows of pick point.
Can be peeled with a knife. SPT refusal. Too hard
to cut triaxial sample by hand.
1 3
Soft rock R2 Firm blows with pick point: 2 4 mm indentation.
Can just be scraped with a knife.
3 10
Medium hard rock R3 Firm blows of pick head will break hand held
specimen. Cannot be scraped or peeled with a
knife.
10 25
Hard rock R4 Breaks with difficulty, rings when struck. Point
load or laboratory test results necessary to
distinguish between categories.
25 70
Very hard rock R5 70 200
Extremely hard rock - > 200

The Rock Name is the last facet to be described in the MCWFDHR sequence to be recorded/described on the core log,
two typical example formats are appended at the end of this Appendix.

The end product Borehole Log is not complete until the additional relevant data (obtained from the drillers field
sheets) has also been recorded and which is normally entered on to the left-hand side of the borehole log sheet. The
core log (right-hand side) of the borehole log purely comprises a description of the recovered core, whereas the entire
borehole log includes the relevant data applicable to the actual drilling of the hole, (some of it quantified/analysed) viz.
machine type, drill runs, core barrel sizes, casings, RQD determination, core recovery, sampling and in situ testing data,
water loss and water rest levels etc., all which are equally critically important inputs to be entered onto the
borehole log by the profiler, to ensure an overall accurate end-product.

B - 4

B - 5

C - 1

SAPEM CHAPTER 7: APPENDIX C
ASPECTS COVERED IN THE DETAILED GEOTECHNICAL AND MATERIALS
EXPLORATION AND DESIGN REPORT FOR GREENFI ELD/ UPGRADE PROJ ECTS
C.1 Introductory Executive Summary
Appointment: The terms of Reference describing the Consulting Engineers Commission and Scope and
Programming of Geotechnical Investigative Works.
General Description of Project.
Summary of Problem Areas, Design Recommendations and Special Construction Requirements.

C.2 Physiography
Location and general nature of terrain. Also cover or cross refer to Environmental Management Plan if already dealt
with separately. Some of these sections may be dealt with together, e.g., Topography and Drainage
Topography
Drainage
Climate
Vegetation
Land use
Infrastructure

C.3 Geology
General geology of area (Refer to Geological Plans, Soil Survey Maps, Sections, etc.)
Detailed geology and geomorphology along route
Influence of geology and geomorphology on design and construction
Effect of geology and geomorphology on availability of construction materials
Geologically unstable areas (e.g. sinkholes, natural slopes shallowly undermined land, etc.)

C.4 Road Prism Investigation
This section should contain a detailed description of the route with regard to cuts, fills, and the identification of
problem areas. (Refer to Chapter 6, Section 4). Include numbering of cuts and fills and problem areas with
associated important stake values. It should also describe the identified problem areas in which instance, unless
similar conditions are encountered, each area must be described separately, e.g., fills over swampy areas or sections
of the route underlain by dolomite or shallowly undermined land.

C.4.1 Soil Survey and Subsurface Investigations

(i) Description of I nvestigations
NB : If portion of route is underlain by dolomite, cross-refer to the separate Dolomite Stability Investigation Report
carried out during the Route Location/Preliminary Geotechnical and Materials Investigation Report stage. Include this
preceding report into the Detailed Geotechnical and Materials Design Report if possible.

Mention when the various detailed investigations took place and by whom they were undertaken.

State the number of test pits dug or the number of auger holes drilled, the number of boreholes drilled and cored,
the number of disturbed and undisturbed samples taken and for what purpose. Elaborate on the geophysical
exploration methods used. Refer to plans, sections, etc., showing positions of all test pits, boreholes, etc. Also
mention where the test results, logs, plans, etc., are bound in the Report. Use the prescribed forms/formats
specified in this Manual.

(ii) Results of Soil Survey
This section should include geotechnical evaluation and discussion on:
Moisture conditions and water tables. Tabulate marshy/vlei areas along route.
Construction materials (suitability thereof) available from boxedout excavations within road prism. When it
comes to cuttings, discuss suitability and tests results for various materials encountered.
C - 2

Location and extent of unsuitable founding material below fills, warranting C.4.2 (ii).
Identification, depth(s) and quantities of suitable topsoil along the route.
Identification and quantities of unsuitable (spoil) materials along the route and in cuttings. NB: Clayey topsoil/
overburden sources can be utilised meaningfully for topsoiling/reinstatement of the environment and landscaping
purposes respectively.
Excavatability in cuttings (more fully elaborated upon in C.4.3 below)
Proposed special treatment types for roadbed/in situ subgrade, as referred to in Chapter 6, Section 4 , and as
indicated on the AO-Soil Survey Plans vs. km distances
Proposed standard road bed treatment types as discussed in Chapter 6, Section 4, and as also indicated on the
AOSoil Survey Plans vs. chainages.

Refer to test results, tables, plans, chainages, etc. where relevant. Use the prescribed forms.

C.4.2 Stability Assessments and Proposals
(i) Dolomitic Land or Shallowly Undermined Land
Appropriate reference should be made here to any preceding Dolomite Stability Investigation Report(s) prepared
(during the early stages of the investigation) and such reports could be appended to this Detailed Geotechnical &
Materials Investigation and Design Report.

(ii) Embankments
Discuss the stability of the embankments considering founding conditions, potential lateral sliding, anticipated
settlement (type, extent, period), or heave. NB: Consider behaviour of existing embankments/road fills as
appropriate.
If special measures are required to improve the stability of certain embankments, discuss for each the
embankment geometry the proposed measures, e.g., the removal of unsuitable materials, special sub-surface
drainage measures, monitoring of seepage, the construction of pioneer layers, the provision of reinforcement,
rock toes and rock fills, the need for impact rolling, progressive construction and/or surcharging, required on-
going monitoring, possible lateral support systems required, etc. Elaborate on proposed systems to be
considered, e.g., Reinforced Earth (NB patented trade name rather use other term such as Soil reinforcement
otherwise other suppliers complain), piled anchored walls, etc. Refer to test data, borehole information, include
calculations, provide plans and geological cross sections, typical details, sketches and preliminary breakdown of
additional costs as necessary.
Recommend drainage measures and required culvert class, etc. List precautionary measures relating to storm
water handling.
Recommend slope batters.
Recommend erosion control measures and options.
Provide stability analysis outputs where appropriate.
Discuss the various proposed in place subgrade treatment types envisaged for the various embankments and also
indicate this on the Soil Survey Plans vs. km-distances. (See C.4.1 (ii) above). Explain/indicate typical details for
each type on the Soil Survey plans.

(iii) Cuttings
Tabulate and discuss the geometry of all new (also upgrade projects) cuttings and pro-actively specify the surface
and subsurface drainage requirements in terms of Chapters 4 & 5 of TRH 18: 1993. NB: In the case of upgrade
projects, also consider experience gained from history of the existing cuttings, via available Slope Management
System.
By considering individual cases and site specific geology, recommend rock fall control (TRH 18:1993 Chapter
5.6.1) for cuttings susceptible to this phenomenon. (NB: In the case of upgrade projects, also consider available
incident data obtained from existing Slope Management System.)
Recommend permanent erosion control measures.
Discuss the general stability of the cuttings considering geological features, in situ materials, moisture conditions,
water table and the recommended permanent drainage measures. Recommend safe and maintainable batter
slopes.
Discuss proposals to enhance the stability of certain cuttings, e.g., special drainage measures, flatter or benched
slopes, special methods of excavation (see C.4.3. below also), permanent rock bolting or active anchors, other
retaining systems such as local gabions or concrete retaining block walls, bolted meshing, with or without
guniting, required on-going monitoring, etc. Refer to test data, joint orientation surveys, borehole information,
C - 3

provide plans and geological cross sections, typical details and sketches, as well as preliminary breakdown of
additional costs as necessary. NB: Do not forget experience gained from the history of existing cuttings.
Provide stability analysis outputs where appropriate.
Discuss the proposed in place subgrade treatment envisaged for each cutting, and indicate this on the Soil Survey
Plans versus the km-distance.

C.4.2 Classification of Excavation

Tabulate per cutting, divide into depth zones as may be applicable, insert specified excavation classification (e.g.
in accordance with COLTO). Provide proposed definition and preliminary assessment of bulking factors, etc.
(Refer to test pit/auger hole and /or core borehole positions and logs, provide plans, geological cross-sections,
seismic data, or other geophysical exploration methods if applicable, etc. as necessary).
Then, tabulate the proposed classifications per cutting for tender documentation purposes. (Tabulate volumes,
i.e., in situ cut volumes as well as percentage of each class of excavation, these volumes adjusted to compacted
fill, or layer work volumes, for tender quantification purposes, or for possible use of the Mass Earthworks (cut to
fill) proportion thereof, in the Mass Haul Diagram referred to below.)

C.5 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
(i) General Introduction
Elaborate on the various types of materials required for the specific project in hand.

(ii) Usable Material from Road Prism (Refer to C.4.1 (ii) where necessary)
Discuss efforts attempting to attain balance of earthworks, referring to Mass Haul Diagram as applicable and where
necessary. Discuss origin and quantities of spoil, proposed spoil areas, etc.

Summarise quantity and implications of usage including stockpiling or spoiling of surplus effect on balance of
earthworks, costs, effect on construction program, etc., absolute proposed usage of the various in situ materials
based on the results discussed in C.4.1(ii).

(iii) Borrowpits (Refer to Chapter 8)
Discuss the positions, practical haul distance, quantity, quality and suitability of the materials. Elaborate on the
general shortcomings/good attributes of the various materials and how these can best be put to use, e.g., by
modification/stabilization. Use the prescribed forms referred to in sections C.8 to C.10 in this Appendix. Discuss the
environmental issues associated with the borrow pit and any special measures that may have to be implemented
during their exploitation. Refer to test data, borrow pit plans, etc. where necessary. Indicate where the test data are
bound in the report. Any implications and/or limitations with respect to future closure of the borrow pit according to
the standard Environmental Management Plan (EMP) should also be included.

For commercial sources, list name of source, location, product range, material test results, quantities available and
contact details.

(iv) Rock Quarries (Refer to Chapter 8)
Discuss the position, quality, quantity, suitability, method of working, and other aspects for each proposed quarry.
Use the prescribe forms referred to in sections C.8 to C.10. Mention environmental issues associated with the quarry
and any special measures that may have to be implemented during their exploitation. Refer to test data, plans,
sketches, etc. and also mention where the data is bound in the report. Copies or references to copies of the
approved EMP should be included in the report together with discussion on any associated cost implications.

For existing as well as potential commercial sources, each quarry must be listed together with product range, the
relevant location and owner contact details. Refer to test data and any other relevant information that may be bound
elsewhere in the report.

(v) Sand Sources (Refer to Chapter 8)
As for C.5 (iii) and (iv) above.

(vi) Water Sources
Discuss aspects such as:
Location of sources
C - 4

Owner details
Seasonal availability (perennial; non-perennial)
Quantity available
Water test results (salinity, potability, etc)
Suitability for specific applications

Refer to results and evaluation of any testing undertaken.

C.6 Pavement Design
(i) General Introduction
(ii) Traffic Surveys and Growth Projections (refer to data)
(iii) Alternative Pavement Designs and Calculations
(iv) Cost-Benefit Analyses
(v) Influence of Terrain, Drainage, Geology and Construction Materials on Pavement Design
(vi) Summary and Proposed Pavement Design for:
Freeway
Ancillary roads

(vii) Summary of Schedule of Quantities Together with Cost Estimate

C.7 Structures
NB: The Geotechnical Investigation and Design Report shall be signed by both the compiler and the geotechnical
engineer who planned/supervised the investigation, evaluated the results, prepared the geotechnical/foundation
design parameters and recommended the most appropriate foundation type.

The Geotechnical Investigation Design Report shall also be a Design Report, i.e. the report shall provide clear
guidance by the geotechnical engineer to the structural/bridge engineers, enabling the selection of the most
appropriate solution and foundation type for the structure/bridge envisaged and the allowable differential
settlements. The responsible geotechnical engineer shall evaluate and elaborate in the report on alternative
foundation systems and/or solutions, if ground conditions or depth to a competent founding horizon suggest such a
possibility. Settlement and load capacity analyses should be summarised in the report. The design report shall thus
not only contain all of the necessary soil (and/or groundwater) parameters required for the design of the proposed
foundation, (or pile type) for each bridge/major culvert/minor culvert, but also for the respective approach
embankments. It should be realised that in some cases the detailed designs of foundations/piles/abutments are to
be carried out by another geotechnical engineer who was not originally involved in the geotechnical investigation.

The report shall be compiled under the headings and in the sequence listed below:
Introduction
Description of the site(s) *
Geology, soil profile and water table *
Investigations carried out *
Geotechnical evaluation *
Evaluation of alternative foundation systems/types *
Recommendations *
References
Annexures

NB: The items marked * shall be dealt with under the heading of each structure for which investigations have
been conducted.

[The Geotechnical Investigation Design Report including appropriate Appendices as directed by the Project Manager,
needs to be bound into Volume 6 of the tender documents. The Volume 6 report, together with the inspection of the
site, shall provide the contractor with sufficient information to reasonably anticipate any problems which may occur
during the execution of the works. This will enable the contractor to tender a realistic price for the construction of
the work and to select the most appropriate equipment and techniques].

C - 5

The aspects covered under the above-mentioned headings shall include, but not be limited to, the following, as
relevant:

(i) I ntroduction
Terms of reference and description of the project, with specific reference to the structures involved.
Description of the stage, as described in Chapter 6 and the purpose for which the investigation was conducted.

(ii) Description of the Site(s)
Location of the site(s)
Accessibility of the site(s)
Trafficability of the site for construction equipment
Listing of sources from which data is available or was obtained
Description of regional geology, geomorphology, vegetation, drainage and other general features of importance

(iii) Geology, Soil Profile and Water Table
Formation(s) underlying site
Typical soil profiles described
Water table information
Geological cross-section provided if applicable

(iv) Investigations Carried Out
Name(s) of firm(s) responsible for the field work (consultant, contractor).
Name(s) of person(s) responsible for the interpretation of the geophysical work and for the profiling and/or core
logging.
Date(s) on which the work was conducted.
Description of the types of field work undertaken number of pits, auger holes or boreholes and probes, and
equipment used.
Laboratory testing programme on soils/rock (including groundwater quality testing w.r.t. possible effect on
concrete.

(v) Geotechnical Evaluation
Discussion of stability classes (if on dolomite formation).
Evaluation of the soils encountered, identifying their stability or potential problems they may present e.g.,
tendency to heave, collapse, settle.
Evaluation of hard rock geology (if encountered) identifying the type, quality, strength, degree of weathering,
fracturing, excavatability classes. Mention reference used to arrive at excavation classes.
Provide geotechnical/foundation design (or pile design) parameters etc.
Potential for boulders and other obstructions to be encountered in deep seated foundations.
Discussion of problems experienced during investigation or to be expected during construction.
Discussion/evaluation of groundwater table(s) and expected variations.
Discussion of field and laboratory testing (including chemical tests) carried out i.e.,
Evaluation of results obtained and comments on their reliability.
Evaluation of in situ testing results/geophysical investigations.

(vi) Evaluation of Alternative Foundation Systems/ Types
Maximum tolerable total settlement(s) and maximum tolerable differential settlement(s) applicable to the various
bridge foundation components, as obtained from bridge design engineer.
Discuss and evaluate alternative foundation types with pros and cons to be considered by bridge or structural
engineers.
Motivate preferred foundation (or pile) type.

C - 6

(vii) Recommendations
Excavatability classes (i.r.o conventional foundations and caissons, or for piling).
Founding options to be considered (in the light of (vi) above).
Estimated safe bearing pressure and predicted foundation settlements (differential and total) for the respective
materials/depths on which founding could be considered.
Recommended founding depth and allowable bearing pressure at that depth.
Precautionary protective measures against corrosion of concrete/steel in foundations.
Recommended pile type (if piling seems essential/economically viable).
Recommended design parameters, e.g., friction values and rock socket parameters for the design of piles.
Specified FOS to be designed for piling; and applicable pile design code.
Recommended supplementary geotechnical investigations to be conducted or to be allowed/budgeted for during
construction phase (if any).
Construction problems anticipated.

(viii) References
List reference used for the classification of materials in respect of soil condition and rock hardness and
excavatability classes.
Others as applicable to the investigation, evaluation, or to the recommendations.

(ix) Annexures

Locality plan to appropriate scale
Results of geophysical investigations (if any)
Borehole, auger hole and test pit logs (with coordinates and elevations)
Photographs of borehole cores recovered
Laboratory test results/in situ testing results
Geological cross-section(s) drawings (if appropriate)
Drawings to scale, for each bridge/major culvert or other structure, showing the location(s) including levels of all
positions investigated, physical features of the site and setting out points in relation to proposed bridge
foundation layout(s).

C.8 Laboratory Test Data
Reporting (w.r.t. the Road Prism Exploration, borrow pits, quarries and commercial sources) shall only be carried out
using the standardised series of reporting sheets. In special instances, e.g., foundation indicators, consolidation,
shear box, triaxial tests, etc., modified laboratory test sheets will be accepted, i.e., where no standard form exists.
All pavement materials designs should be recorded on the standard D3, etc. forms used for the As Built Materials
Books.

Individual results recorded on forms emblazoned with a commercial laboratorys name and logo will not be
acceptable for inclusion in the Reports and Project Documents.

Seismic data should be tabulated and also reported/shown on the Centreline Soil Survey Long Section/Plan drawings.

C.9 Subsurface Investigation Data
Standard boreholes log sheets must be used for all boreholes and auger holes. An example thereof is bound in
Chapter 7, Appendix B. Any laboratory test results on soil or groundwater samples retrieved from trial holes, which
cannot be reported on these sheets, should be presented on appropriate sheets.

C.10 Drawings
The following drawings should be included in the Detailed Geotechnical and Materials Investigation Report:
Key plan
Geological plans and sections
Soils map (if required)
Centreline soil survey long section/plans
Long sections, cross sections of deep cuttings * and high embankments * (See NOTE below)
C - 7

Layout plan(s) of proposed quarries/borrow pits (including test pit positions and cross sections based on the soil
profiles and borehole logs
Other special plans and drawings, pertaining to each particular problem area as required
Interpreted seismic or other geophysical exploration data

NOTE: If certain cuttings and/or embankments were subjected to supplementary detail geotechnical investigations
(over and above, the normal road prism exploration) in order to arrive at Stability Assessments and Proposals (in
terms of Section C.4.2. of this Appendix), additional plans and sections indicating the position of these supplementary
investigation positions and explaining the various soil/rock horizons encountered/investigated including water-
table(s), etc., should be presented including preliminary plans/sections depicting the stability proposals/sequence of
construction features, etc.

Also, if material from cuttings is to be used as sources for pavement layer materials, plans indicating the position and
number of the cutting as well as the exact location and coordinates of test pits/auger holes, or core boreholes are
required. The source remains a cutting and should not be renamed a borrow pit.

D 1

SAPEM CHAPTER 7: APPENDIX D
BRIDGE AND CULVERT FOUNDATI ON INVESTIGATI ON
Note: THESE EXTRACTS ARE FROM ROAD AUTHORITY SANRALS CODE OF PROCEDURE FOR THE
PLANNING AND DESI GN OF HIGHWAY AND ROAD STRUCTURES I N SOUTH AFRI CA (FEB. 2002),
WHI CH I S CONSIDERED TO REPRESENT GOOD PRACTI CE)

NOTE: The following pages in this Appendix D are extracts from Chapter 7 and Annexures 18.2 & 18.3 of the
above-mentioned SANRAL Code of Procedure dated February 2002.

I t will be noted that some of the content has been updated (in italics) as well as additional guidelines
included here and there (in italics), in order to align it with Chapter C7 of the report writing guidelines
as outlined in Chapters 6 and 7 of the SAPEM manual.

D.7 Geotechnical Investigations
D.7.1 Introduction

NB: This entire Appendix needs to be read in conjunction with Chapter 7, Section 2 and/ or Chapter 6,
as the specific project type or case in question may require.

This abstract generally sets out the procedure for Geotechnical Investigations for Structures other than Tunnels.

The purpose of geotechnical investigations in this case is to provide an accurate assessment of subsurface conditions
for all types of highway and road structures, including toll-buildings, etc., forming part of a particular project. The
geo-investigations are therefore aimed at arming the Geotechnical Engineer/Engineering-Geologist in arriving at the
various soil/rock/groundwater parameters/properties necessary for settlement and/or stability prediction and other
soil/structure interactions cum design. In other words, for them to consider in a technical sense and then to select
and recommend suitable foundation types for adequate and economic foundation designs for each and every facility.
Also the bridge versus approach embankment interaction, bridge abutment settlements and slopes need to be looked
into, etc.

It is essential that thorough upfront planning be done by the responsible Geotechnical Engineers/Engineering-
Geologist, the investigative work then be carried in a competent manner, soil and rock profiles, groundwater
conditions are described in detail using standard terminology, the necessary samples be recovered, the results are
reported in full, the geotechnical evaluations and calculations are prepared by experts and the validity of the
information is not disclaimed by such professionals.

The eventual preparation of a comprehensive and reliable Geotechnical Investigation and Design Report to be
included in the Tender Documents. It also needs to provide guidance to Contractors in assessing risks, with the
preparation of tenders and with the execution of the work.

In cases where existing works are to be modified and/or extended, the information obtained from the original
investigations shall be used to plan additional investigations, if any. Where investigations are contemplated for New
work, enquiries should be made to ascertain whether any previous investigations have been carried out in the area.
Certain local authorities maintain data banks and much valuable information can be obtained from such sources.

Depending on circumstances, investigations may extend from superficial visual inspections to sophisticated surface
and subsurface testing. These will have to be agreed with the Client at the appropriate stage of work.

D.7.2 Scope of Investigations

The scope of investigations contemplated for the stages described in Chapter 6, Section 1.3, is given as a guide.
These stages are mostly applicable to new Greenfield projects and therefore thee scope of investigations for any
specific project will thus have to be modified in conjunction with the Client to suit the specific project, the
circumstances and conditions.

D.7.2.1 Preliminary I nvestigation and/ or Route Location Stage
The subsurface conditions shall be assessed by visual inspection of local ground conditions, examination of the
available geological records and information contained in the section dealing with Preliminary Geotechnical and
Materials Report in this manual.

At Sites for Bridges with deck areas exceeding 750 m
2
, the extent of the investigation should be of a sufficient scope
and nature so as to reveal whether problematic founding conditions are present or not.

D 2

D.7.2.2 Preliminary Design (Basic Planning) Stage
Exploratory subsurface (drilling) investigations on the centre line of the road shall be carried out for those major
bridges and culverts at which problematic founding conditions are expected.

D.7.2.3 Detail Design and Documentation Stage
It is essential that a general geotechnical investigation of foundations for structures, based on the findings of the
preliminary (basic) design of the road, be completed before the conceptual design of any structure is contemplated.
Based on these results, conceptual designs could be prepared. It is possible that during the preparation of the
conceptual designs it will come to light that detailed information with regard to the foundation conditions is lacking.
In this event, a further phase of the foundation investigation should be entered into during which parameters that
have a direct bearing on the proposed designs may be determined.

Thus, depending on the information that is available on the foundations and the extent of the planned works, a
three-stage foundation investigation might be required. These stages would consist of a preliminary stage, a general
investigation stage and a detail investigation stage.

D.7.3 Quotations and Tenders

The Geotechnical Engineer shall discuss the proposed investigations with the Client before commissioning any work
on behalf of the Client. After agreement has been reached on the work to be undertaken and whether geophysical
investigations are required, the engineer shall obtain at least three quotations for such geophysical investigations
(refer to Section D.7.5.3), and he shall submit a report including his recommendation to the client for a ruling.

After the geophysical investigations have been completed the engineer shall prepare draft tender documents for the
detailed investigation which will include some or all of the following: exploratory holes, in situ testing, laboratory
testing, survey to set out and pick up positions and levels of exploratory holes, profiling holes, logging cores and
photographing of cores. The draft documents shall be submitted to the Client for approval before tenders are
obtained for the work.

In the case of SANRAL projects, documentation shall be based on the SANRAL Pro Forma document for Geotechnical
Investigations, with the FIDIC General conditions for construction for building and engineering works designed by the
Employer (1999).

The new Standard Specification for Subsurface Investigations (2010) and any other specific Project Specifications
shall apply. Open tenders shall be invited for the work unless the estimated value of the work is considered by the
client to be too low to justify calling for open tenders. In such cases, contractors selected with the approval of the
client, shall be invited to quote for the work.

D.7.4 Responsibility for Investigations and Designs

Geotechnical Investigations, the ensuing geotechnical evaluations and foundation design recommendations should
be carried out and prepared by knowledgeable and experienced Geotechnical Engineers (Registered Professional
Engineers).

The logging/profiling of test holes/joint surveys of open rock faces, etc., should ideally be done by Engineering-
Geologists (Registered Natural Scientists) or by Registered Geotechnical Engineers who are experienced in the type
of investigative fieldwork envisaged.

D.7.5 Extent and Sequence of Investigation

This section describes the general procedure only and does not prescribe in detail how the investigations should be
undertaken.

The investigation normally takes place in a number of phases. (Refer to D.7.2 above). The phases include a desk
study, site reconnaissance, preliminary field work, detailed investigation and verification of conditions during
construction. In certain instances, the process may be iterative, with some phases being repeated prior to final site
selection and commencement of detailed investigation.

The Geotechnical Investigation shall be planned to obtain the necessary information at minimum cost. In planning
an investigation it is important to consider the cost of the foundation and the sensitivity to foundation movement of
the structural system being supported.
The following is a guide to the information which may be obtained in the various phases:

D 3

D.7.5.1 Desk Study
Topographical maps and aerial photographs should be consulted to gain information on the general topography
and prominent features.
Geological and soil maps should be consulted to gain information on the basic geology and soils.
Local authorities and other organisations should be approached to establish whether they have knowledge of
investigations conducted in the area or have records available. The Greater Johannesburg Metropolitan Council,
for example, maintains a comprehensive data bank.
The government mining engineer should be approached for information on mining operations where such
operations are known to have been undertaken.
The study of overlapping aerial photographs through a stereoscope will usually be of value in identifying
geological features such as faults, dykes, geological boundaries, rock and soil types, rock exposures, drainage
patterns, etc. These features are often not apparent in the field.

D.7.5.2 Site Reconnaissance
A site reconnaissance should be undertaken to gain geotechnical information for visible features, establish the
suitability of various geophysical testing methods and investigate accessibility for drilling equipment.

Features such as boundary fences, gates, rail tracks, transmission lines, telephone lines, water pipes, electricity
cables, exposed rock, exposed material in cuttings and quarries, depressions, sinkholes, springs, boreholes, changes
in natural vegetation and damage to structures should be recorded.

D.7.5.3 Geophysical I nvestigations
Wherever practicable, for example on sites underlain by dolomite, where it is an essential part of the investigation, a
geophysical investigation shall first be undertaken and may comprise a seismic or resistivity, or gravimetric, or
electromagnetic evaluation of the subsurface conditions of sufficient extent and depth to assist in the selection of the
most appropriate and economic detailed investigation, as well as in the positioning of the bases. It should be noted
that a proper geophysical investigation can substantially reduce the number of boreholes required at any site.
Recommended geophysical methods are summarized in Annexure 18.2.

D.7.5.4 Detailed I nvestigations Exploratory Holes
D.7.5.4 (a) Purpose
The purpose of exploratory holes is to permit visual examination, testing of the in situ material and for the recovery
of samples to appropriate depth.

D.7.5.4 (b) Choice of Equipment
In most instances, advantages are gained from using similar equipment, both in terms of type and capacity, for the
detailed investigation as will be used for the construction of the foundations. For example, where augered piles are
expected to be installed and circumstances permit, it is preferable to include the use of a large diameter auger rig
similar to that which will be used for the installation of piles. This will provide a direct indication of the problems
likely to be experienced during construction. Conversely, the use of a backactor for the excavation of test pits holds
distinct advantages on a site where it is certain that shallow spread footings are envisaged. Rotary core drilling is
often the most suitable method of investigation below water level (or below high groundwater tables), for recovery
of undisturbed samples and for coring into hard materials. This would include various in situ testing methods carried
out in boreholes, auger holes or trial pits.

For investigating the conditions in dolomitic areas, down the hole hammer percussion boreholes are normally
drilled, as they have been found to be the most effective. Only operators experienced in dolomite should be used for
this work. The chips collected must be logged by an experienced chip logger and any voids encountered during
drilling must be diligently recorded.

D.7.5.4 (c) Sequence of Work
Generally hand or machine (backactor) excavated test pits would be used first, followed by large diameter auger
holes (if access is possible), and finally small diameter cored holes if necessary. Planning should be flexible enough
so that the work can be varied as necessary in the light of fresh information. To obtain the greatest benefit from the
investigation, it is essential that there is adequate direction and supervision of the work by competent personnel who
have appropriate knowledge and experience and the authority to decide on variations to the investigation when
required.

D 4

D.7.5.4 (d) Safety and Personnel and the General Public
The safety requirements specified in the new SAICE Code of Practise on the Safety of Men working in Small Diameter
Shafts and Test Pits for Geotechnical Engineering Purposes (2008) and in the new Standard Specifications for
Subsurface Investigations (2010), shall be complied with, as well as those in the Occupational Health and Safety Act
(Act 85 of 1993) including the new Regulations.

D.7.5.4 (e) Spacing and Depth
The foundation investigation shall cover the full length and width of the structure including the approach
embankments. Additional holes may be required beyond the extent of the structure to establish the locations of
geological discontinuities

In general, for bridges the number of exploratory holes required depends on the lengths of the individual bases,
information gained from investigations and the variability of the subsurface conditions.

The following is a rough guide for the initial selection of the number of exploratory holes at each base:

Length of bases Recommended Number of
Exploratory Holes at Each Base
Up to 5 m 1
Between 5 and 15 m 2
Between 15 and 30 m 3
Longer than 30 m 4

Where one hole per base is required, the holes shall be located at alternating ends of the individual bases. A
minimum of two holes is required at each river bridge base, unless reliable information indicates uniform conditions.

For culverts and retaining walls, where exploratory holes are required, the initial pattern of holes should be staggered
along the length of the structure. The holes shall be placed approximately 15 m apart.

For approach embankments, where exploratory holes are required, the initial layout of the holes should be a grid
pattern with the holes about 30 m apart measured along the road centre line and at 20 m apart measured at right
angles to the road centre line.

D.7.5.4 (f) Preparation of Records, Logging and Profiling
This work shall be in accordance with the prescriptions given in the SAPEM Appendices and in the appropriate
chapters in the new Standard Specifications for Subsurface Investigations (2010), including specified additional
Project Specifications (for the specific project in hand) in this regard.

D.7.5.4 (g) Material of Archaeological Interest
If material is exposed which may be of archaeological or palaeontological interest, work at that location shall be
stopped immediately. The area shall be fenced off and the engineer shall refer the matter to the National
Monuments Council for assessment in order that further procedures may be planned.

D.7.6 Geotechnical Investigation Design Report

NB: This section must be read in conjunction with Section 2.2.3 in Chapter 7.

NOTE:
The Geotechnical Investigation and Design Report shall be signed by both the Compiler/Writer of the report and by
the Geotechnical Engineer who planned/supervised the investigation, evaluated the results, prepared the
geotechnical/foundation design parameters and recommended the most appropriate foundation type.

NB: The Geotechnical Investigation Design Report shall always also serve the purpose of a Design Report w.r.t. the
geotechnical components (such as bridge foundations or toll-building foundations) of a road project, i.e., the report
shall contain geotechnical parameters for design and shall also provide clear guidance to the Structural/Bridge Design
Engineers (guidance as prepared by the Geotechnical Engineer who carried out the geotechnical investigation)
enabling the selection of the most appropriate solution and foundation type for each building or structure/bridge and
its particular allowable differential settlements.

[Or, the required details contained in the Report for example pertaining to high embankments/deep cuttings/lateral
support measures, is normally aimed at the attention of the Road Engineer.]

D 5

The responsible Geotechnical Engineer shall also evaluate and elaborate in the Report on alternative foundation
systems and/or solutions, if ground conditions or depth to a competent founding horizon suggest such a possibility.
Settlement and load capacity analyses/calculations should be summarised in the report. Lateral support/slope
stability analyses/calculations, as well as alternative solutions, shall be summarised as well. This Geotechnical
Investigation Design Report shall thus not only contain all of the necessary soil/rock (and/or groundwater)
parameters required for the design of the proposed high embankments and/or deep cuttings, but shall also give clear
guidance with respect to the proposed foundation (or pile type) for each bridge/major culvert /minor culvert,
including the respective approach embankments.

The reason for this requirement, over and above the fact that it is any case required from a Quality Assurance point
of view, is that in some cases, depending on the type of tender documentation, or depending on the structuring or
phasing of the project by individual Road Authorities, the detailed designs of foundations/piles/abutments or of
lateral support systems are in many cases eventually the responsibility of another Geotechnical Engineer who was
never involved in the original Geotechnical Investigation.

To include and to provide all the necessary interpreted geotechnical design parameters are therefore
an essential and vital element in any geotechnical investigation design report.

The Report shall be compiled under the headings and in the sequence listed below:
Introduction
Description of the site(s) *
Geology, soil profile and water table*
Investigations carried out *
Test results/data
Geotechnical evaluation *
Evaluation of alternative foundation systems/types *
Recommendations *
References
Annexures

Note: * The items marked * shall be dealt with under the heading of each structure for which investigations had
been conducted.

[The Geotechnical Investigation Design Report including appropriate Appendices thereof as directed by the Project
Manager, need to be bound into the Volume 6 section of the tender documents (see Section 14.2.5). The Volume 6
report, together with the inspection of the site, shall provide the contractor with sufficient information to reasonably
anticipate any problems that may occur during execution of the works. This will enable the contractor to tender a
realistic price for the construction of the work and to select the most appropriate equipment and techniques].

The aspects covered under the above-mentioned headings shall include, but not be limited to, the following, as
relevant:

D.7.6.1 I ntroduction
Terms of reference and description of the project, with specific reference to the structures involved.
Description of the stage, as described in Chapter 6, Section 1.3, and the purpose for which the investigation was
conducted.

D.7.6.2 Description of the Site(s)
Location of the site(s)
Accessibility of the site(s)
Trafficability of the site for construction equipment
Listing of sources from which data is available or was obtained
Description of regional geology, geomorphology, topography, vegetation, drainage and other general features of
importance

D.7.6.3 Geology, Soil Profile and Water Table
Formation(s) underlying site
Typical soil profiles described

D 6

Water table information
Geological cross-section provided if applicable

D.7.6.4 Investigations Carried Out
Name(s) of firm(s) responsible for the field work (consultant, contractor)
Name(s) of person(s) responsible for the interpretation of the geophysical work and for the profiling and/or core
logging.
Date(s) on which the work was conducted
Description of the types of field work undertaken number of pits, auger holes or boreholes and probes, and
equipment used
Laboratory testing programme on soils/rock, (including groundwater quality testing w.r.t. possible effect on
concrete)

D.7.6.5 Test Results
Summary of test results
Discussion of results (factual)

D.7.6.6 Geotechnical Evaluation
Discussion of stability classes (if on dolomite formation).
Evaluation/interpretation of the soils encountered, identifying their stability or potential problems they may
present, e.g., tendency to heave, collapse, settle.
Evaluation/interpretation of hard rock geology (if encountered) identifying the type, quality, strength, degree of
weathering, fracturing, excavatability classes. [Mention reference used to arrive at excavatability classes.]
Provide geotechnical/ foundation design (or pile design) parameters, etc.
Potential for boulders and other obstructions to be encountered in deep seated foundations.
Discussion/interpretation of problems experienced during investigation or to be expected during construction.
Discussion/interpretation of groundwater table(s) and expected variations.
Discussion/interpretation of field and laboratory testing (including chemical tests) carried out, i.e.,
- Evaluation of results obtained and comments on their reliability.
- Evaluation of in situ testing results/geophysical investigations.

D.7.6.7 Evaluation of Alternative Foundation Systems/ Types
Discuss and evaluate alternative foundation types, with pros and cons to be considered by bridge or structural
engineers.
Motivate preferred foundation (or pile) type

D.7.6.8 Recommendations
Excavatability classes (i.r.o conventional foundations and caissons, or for piling).
Maximum tolerable total settlement(s) and maximum tolerable differential settlement(s) applicable to the various
bridge foundation components, as obtained from bridge design engineer.
Type of foundation best suited.
Founding options to be considered. Estimated safe bearing pressure and settlement for the respective
materials/depths on which founding could be considered.
Recommended founding depth and allowable bearing pressure at that depth.
Precautionary protective measures against corrosion of concrete/ steel.
Recommended pile type (if piling seems essential).
Recommended design parameters e.g. friction values and rock socket parameters for the design of piles.
Specified FOS to be designed for piling; applicable pile design code.
Recommended supplementary geotechnical investigations to be conducted, or to allow for during construction
phase (if any).
Construction problems anticipated.

D 7

D.7.6.9 References
List reference for the classification of materials in respect of soil condition and rock hardness and excavatability
classes.
Others as applicable to the investigation, evaluation, or to the recommendations.

D.7.6.10 Annexures
Locality plan to appropriate scale
Results of geophysical investigations (if any)
Borehole, auger hole and test pit logs (with coordinates and elevations)
Photographs of borehole cores recovered
Laboratory test results/In situ testing results
Geological cross-section (s) drawings (if appropriate)
Drawings to scale, for each bridge/ major culvert or other structure, showing the location(s) including levels of all
positions investigated, physical features of the site and setting out points in relation to proposed bridge
foundation layout(s).

D 8

ANNEXURE 18.2: GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS

Table 18.2.1: Geophysical Methods in Ground I nvestigation [Table 3, BS 5930 (1981)]
Problem Example Method And Remarks
Geological Stratigraphical Sediments over bedrock

(i) Sands & gravels over bedrock,
water table low in sands & gravels

(ii) Sands & gravels overlying clay,
water table high in sand & gravels

(iii) Clay over bedrock

Sediments over bedrock generally
Land

Seismic refraction

Resistivity

Resistivity or seismic refraction

Marine
Continuous seismic reflection profiling
Erosional (for
caverns; see
shafts below)
Buried Channel

Buried karstic surface
Seismic Refraction
Resistivity for feature wider than
depth of cover
Resistivity contouring
Structural Buried fault, dykes Resistivity Contouring
Seismic reflection or refraction
Magnetic gravimetric (large faults)
Resources Water Location of aquifer
Location of saline/potable interface
Resistivity and seismic refraction
Sand and gravel Sand, gravel over clay

Gravel banks
Land: Resistivity

Marine: Continuous seismic profiling,
side scan sonar, echo sounding
Rock Intrusive in sedimentary rocks Magnetic (weathering may give low
resistivity)
Clay Clay pockets Resistivity
Engineering
parameters
Modulus of
elasticity, density
and porosity
Dynamic deformation modulus

Check on effects of ground
treatment
Seismic velocity at surface, or with
single or multiple boreholes (cross
hole transmission)

Boreholes geophysics
Rock rippability Choice of excavation methods Seismic (velocities at surface)
Corrosivity of
soils
Pipeline surveys Surface resistivity, redox potential
Buried
artifacts
Cables

Pipes
Trenches on land

Submarine trenches

Submarine pipelines
Magnetometer
Electromagnetic field detectors

Echo sounding, side scan sonar

Side scan sonar, magnetic,
continuous seismic profiling
(especially if thought to be partially
buried) with high frequency pinger
Shafts, adits and
caverns
Shaft, sink holes, mine workings Resistivity
Magnetometer contouring, infra-red
air photography on clear areas
Cross hole transmission
Detailed gravity for large systems

D 9

ANNEXURE 18.3: TESTS

Table 18.3.1 Some Laboratory Tests on Soils
Test Material Sample
Type
Remarks References
Gradings Analysis
Sieving

Sedimentation

Granular soils and gravels

Cohesive and fine grained soils

D

D

Usually carried out in conjunction with
Atterberg limit tests to give an
indication of the soil behaviour and to
classify the soil

SANS 3001
BS 1377 (1975)
Atterberg Limits Cohesive and fine grained soils D Plastic limit, liquid limit, plasticity index
and linear shrinkage. Give indication of
soil behaviour
SANS 3001

Moisture Content Soil or rocks D/U Frequently carried out as part of other
tests.
Required for determination of degree
of saturation
Essential for expansive clay
investigations
SANS 3001
BS 1377 (1975)
Specific Gravity Soils or rocks D Used in conjunction with other tests
such as density, moisture content and
sedimentation
SANS 3001
BS 1377 (1975)
Bulk Density Soils D/U May be carried out on undisturbed
samples in the lab
Cohesionless soils must be tested in
situ
Used with above two tests to
determine degree of saturation and
void ratio
SANS 3001
BS 1377 (1975)
Triaxial
Compression
Undrained
unconsolidated

Consolidated
undrained with
p.w.p.
measurements

Consolidated
drained

Saturated, normally consolidated
clays

Saturated normally consolidated
clays
Partially saturated clays (soaked)

Clayey sands, sandy, clays, silts

Partially saturated clays (soaked)

U

U

U

U

Undrained shear strength (=0)
Short term stability
In fissured clays, sample size has a
significant effect

Effective strength parameters (c, )


Long term stability

Bishop &
Henkel (1962)
Marsland
(1971)

Bishop &
Henkel (1962)
Akroyd (1957)

Bishop &
Henkel (1962)
Akroyd (1957)
Direct Shear Box
Immediate

(b) Drained

Saturated clayey sands, silts and
clays

Clayey sands, sandy clays & silts
Dry or saturated sands

U

U
R

Undrained shear strength.
Triaxial tests generally preferred

Angle of shearing resistance (c=0)

Akroyd (1957)

Akroyd (1957)
Akroyd (1957)
Bishop (1948)
Unconfined
Compressive
Strength
Saturated intact clays U Simple and rapid substitute for
undrained triaxial test
Akroyd (1957)
One Dimensional
Consolidation

Triaxial
Consolidation

Rowe Cell
Consolidation

Recompacted sands

U

U
R

U/R
Gives measure of compressibility, pre-
consolidation pressure and coefficient
of consolidation.

Triaxial consolidation gives measure of
elastic modulus

Rowe cell uses larger samples and
confining pressure may be varied
Akroyd (1957)

Akroyd (1957)
Bishop &
Henkel (1962)

Rowe & Barden
(1966)
D = Disturbed
I = In situ
R = Remoulded
U = Undisturbed

D 10

Table 18.3.2. Some Laboratory Tests on Rock
Test Material Sample
Type
Remarks References
Moisture
Content, Bulk
Density, Porosity
All rocks C/L Gives indication of strength, modulus of
elasticity and degree of weathering
Int Soc Rock
Mech (1979)
Swelling Test Mainly argillaceous
rocks
C/L Indicates moisture sensitivity of rock and
possible volume changes
Duncan et al
(1968)
Point Load Test Isotropic rocks C/L Quick and cheap indicator of rock
strength
Useful aid to core logging

Uniaxial
Compression
Test
Most rocks which can
be cored
C Strength of intact rock Upper limit for
jointed rock mass strength
Widely used for predicting bearing
capacity and skin friction
Gives elastic properties of intact rock
core if strain is measured
This will over-estimate modulus of
jointed rock
Hoek (1977)
Hawkes &
Mellor (1970)
Clark (1966)

Triaxial
Compression
Test
Very soft/soft rock
intact weathered
rock
C As above
Only weak rocks may be tested with
commonly available equipment
Hoek (1977)
Direct Shear Box
Test
Usually applied to
rock discontinuities
or intact rock
L/I Gives shear strength along
discontinuities or of intact soft rocks
Hoek (1977)

C = Core Sample
I = In situ
L = Lump Sample

D 11

Table 18.3.3. Some I n Situ Field Tests
Test Material Remarks References
Standard
Penetration
Test (SPT)
Mainly sands and weak
rocks
Also used on other soils
Refer CSRA Standard Specifications for
Subsurface Investigations
Performed generally at 1.5 m intervals in
boreholes
Gives indication of consistency/relative
density of soil
Results correlated with many soil
properties and empirical design methods
Webb (1976)
SAICE & NITRR (1978)
Sanglerat (1972)
Ervin (1983)
Dynamic Cone
Test or
Dynamic Spoon
Test
Most soils Performed by driving cone or spoon with
no intermediate drilling or reaming of
hole
Not as widely accepted as SPT test but
cheaper to perform
Disturbed sample obtain from spoon test
Results correlated with SPT results
Webb (1976)
Sanglerat (1972)
Ervin (1983)
Static Cone
Test (Dutch
Probe)
Loose granular soils and
soft to firm clays
Gives point resistance (cone) and total
resistance (cone and friction sleeve)
Results correlated with bearing capacity
and compressibility
TMG6 (1984)
Webb (1976)
Sanglerat (1972)
Ervin (1983)
Piezocone Saturated, loose, granular
soils and soft to firm clays
Tip resistance, sleeve resistance and
dynamic pore pressure are measured
while continuously driving the probe into
the ground
Clemence (ED) (1986)
Pressuremeter Soils and weak rocks Pressuremeters may either be inserted
into boreholes, be driven into the ground
in a slotted casing or be self boring
Results give indication of elastic modulus
and soil strength
Menard (1965)
Windle & Wroth (1977)
Ervin (1983)
Goodman Jack Soft to hard rocks Jack inserted into NX sized borehole
Rock loaded by curved plates and
deformations measured
May be installed in horizontally drilled
holes and rotated to determine degree
of anisotropy
Results give indication of elastic modulus
of in situ rock mass
Goodman et al (1968)
Piezometer All soils and rocks Used to determine groundwater pressure
at various depths in the ground
In permeable ground, standpipe
piezometers are used; but in
impermeable conditions or where rapid
response is required, hydraulic,
pneumatic or electric piezometers are
used
BS 5930 (1981)
Penman (1960)
Vane Shear
Test
Saturated cohesive soils Normally restricted to saturated clays
with an undrained shear strength of less
than 100 kPa
This method can give peak and residual
undrained shear strengths
BS 5930 (1981)
Ervin (1983)
Plate Bearing
Test
Moist soils and soft rocks

Generally above water
table
Test performed in trench or auger hole
by jacking circular plates against the
soil/rock
May be carried out horizontally (across
width of hole) or vertically (jacking
against a kentledge)
Size of plate depends on the zone of
influence and hole size and stiffness of
material generally 75 300 mm for
horizontal tests and 200 1000 mm for
vertical test
Ervin (1983)
Wrench (1984)

E - 1

SAPEM CHAPTER 7: APPENDIX E
EXAMPLES OF SPECI AL ROADBED TREATMENT TYPES
For SANRAL projects: To be entered onto soil survey drawings in SANRALs Volume 6 & Detailed Design Drawings,
and in Tender Documents.

Roadbed
Type
Description Explanation
A1 COLTO Clause 3305(b) Three-pass roller compaction
A2 COLTO Clause 3305(c) Preparing and compacting the in situ roadbed (ISRB)
to 90% MOD AASHTO density

B COLTO Clause 3305 (c) As above but the in situ roadbed can be processed in
situ and compacted on 90% MOD AASHTO density

C1 COLTO Clause 3305 (d) In situ treatment of the roadbed by ripping the
rock at roadbed level to be processed as BSL (bottom selected
layer) according to COLTO Clause 3304 (b)

C2 COLTO Clause 3305 (d) As above but blasting the rock at roadbed level
to be processed as BSL

D
CUT OR
FILL
This special treatment shall comprise of the following over and above
benching in as required: (see Drawings)
Draining the roadbed in accordance with COLTO Clause 3305 (e)
Removing unsuitable material to a minimum depth of 400mm below BSL,
even if in cut, in accordance with COLTO Clause 3305 (a)
Provisional geotextile (type.. or similar) at minimum depth of 650mm
below BSL
500mm (minimum) Compacted pioneer rock layer (provisional 250mm
penetration)
Compacted blinding fill separation layer of 150mm thickness on top of
pioneer layer
Fill layers, if in fill as specified
(Structural layers as specified)
For seasonal soggy
conditions of limited
depth (< 1 m)
E

FILL
This special roadbed treatment shall comprise of the following over and
above benching-in as required: (see Drawings)
Removing unsuitable material to specified depth (950mm) below fill
layers (or in exceptional cases below BSL) in accordance with COLTO
Clause 3305 (a)
Provisional heavy duty geotextile (type .. or similar) at reduced
excavation level
750 mm (minimum) Compacted pioneer rock layer (provisional
250 mm penetration)
300 mm Sifted gravel filter blanket layer of top of pioneer layer
150 mm Compacted blinding fill separation layer on top of pioneer layer
150mm Compacted blinding fill separation layer on top of filter blanket
layer
For permanent soggy
conditions overlain by
1m of unsuitable
soils
This special treatment shall comprise of the following over and above
benching in as required: (see Drawings)
Removing unsuitable material to specified depth (1950mm) below fill
layer (or in exceptional cases below BSL) in accordance with Clause 3305
(a)
Provisional heavy duty geotextile (type or similar) at reduced
excavation levels
17500 mm (minimum) Compacted pioneer rock layer (provisional 250
mm penetration)
300 mm Sifted gravel filter blanket layer of top of pioneer layer
150 mm Compacted blinding fill separation layer on top of pioneer layer
150 mm Compacted blinding fill separation layer on top of filter blanket
layer
Fill layers, as specified
For permanent soggy
conditions overlain by
2 m of unsuitable
soils

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