- What are the benefits of an internal skeleton?

- Provides a framework and shape for the body

- Grows with the body
- Have joints to allow flexibility
- What type of skeletons do insects have and what are they made from?
- They have external skeletons (exoskeletons) which are made from chitin.
- What does the hollow shaft in long bones contain?
- Bone marrow and blood vessels
- How are long bones different to solid bones?
- They weigh less and are stronger than solid bones.
- Describe a long bone:
- The head of a bone is covered in hard, slippery cartilage to lubricate
movement against other bones.
- What is ossification?
- As an embryo, their bones are made from soft flexible cartilage. However,
during growth, the cartilage is replaced by calcium and phosphorus salts-
makes the bone hard.
- How can you determine whether a person is still growing?
- Children have cartilage in their bones because they are still growing Adults
only have a bit at the end of their bones. Determine if someone is still growing
by seeing how much cartilage they have in their bones.
- What is a simple fracture?
- A simple fracture is when the bone breaks cleanly
- What is a greenstick fracture?
- Greenstick fracture is when the bone doesnt break completely
- What is a compound fracture?
- A compound fracture is when the broken bone breaks through the muscle and
skin.
- What is osteoporosis?
- A condition (usually in older people) when bones are weakened and break
more easily
- What is a joint?
- A joint is where 2 or more bones meet
- What are ligaments?
- Ligaments join bones to other bones
- In a synovial joint, what does the synovial membrane do?
- Synovial membrane secretes synovial fluid
- In a synovial joint, what does the synovial fluid do?
- Synovial fluid lubricates and cushions bones during movement
- What does the cartilage do in a synovial joint?
- Smooth cartilage prevents friction between bones
- What are fixed joints?
- Cannot move, like the bony plates in the skull
- What are Hinge Joints?
- Joints in the elbow and the kneeBend in only one direction
- What are ball and socket joints?
- Joints in the shoulder and hip ---Allow rotation
- What are antagonistic muscles?
- When one contracts, the other relaxes (the biceps and triceps are antagonistic
muscles)
- What happens when bending the arm?
- The biceps contract, pulling the radius bonethe triceps relax.
- What happens when straightening the arm?
- The triceps contracts, pulling the ulna bonethe biceps relax.
- What is the largest bone in the arm?
- Humerus
- What is bone marrow?
- It is the place where new blood cells are produced
- What types of stem cells does bone marrow contain?
- Hemopoietic: Which can produce blood cells
- Stromal: Which produces fat, cartilage and bone
- What cells are found in a bone?
- Bone cells and blood cells
- Why does an insect not grow continuously?
- Insects grow in different stages, each time an insect makes a change into the
next growth stage it has to moult its skin, and after each moult it becomes a
little larger. After it reaches the adult stage it doesnt moult or grow anymore.
(Metamorphosis)
- When an insect moults, why does it usually eat its old skeleton?
- It usually eats its old skeleton in order to absorb calcium and protein for its
new skeleton.
- What is the difference between an open circulatory system and a closed
one?
- An open circulatory system (mainly in insects) blood isnt contained in blood
vesselsfills up the body cavity. In a closed circulatory system, blood is
pumped through vessels--- arteries, veins and capillaries.
- What is a single circulatory system and how does it work?
- Its where blood flows around the body in a single circuit (like in a fish).
HeartGills---Body---Heart. A single circulatory system has a heart with 2
chambers. Deoxygenated blood is pumped to the gills then the oxygenated
blood is pumped to the body. Pressure is lower and so the materials are
transported more slowly around the body.
- What is a double circulatory?
- Its where the blood flows through the heart in 2 circuits (e.g. in humans)
- How does the double circulatory work?
- It has 4 chambers. In 1 circuit, deoxygenated blood is pumped from heart to
lungs then back to heart. Other circuit, oxygenated blood is pumped from
heart to body then back to heart. Blood returns back to heart for another pump
otherwise there wouldnt be enough pressure for the blood to go around the
whole body. Blood is under higher pressure in a double circulatory system, so
materials are transported more quickly.
- What does the coronary artery do?
- Supplies the heart itself with glucose and oxygen
- What does the pulmonary vein do?
- Carries deoxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart
- What does the aorta do?
- Carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body
- What does the vena cava do?
- Carries deoxygenated blood from parts of the body back to the heart
- What does the pulmonary artery do?
- Carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs
- Describe the cardiac cycle:
- 1) The heart relaxed and blood enters both atria from veins. Atrioventricular
valves are open
- 2) The atria contract to push blood into the ventricles
- 3) The ventricles contract, pushing blood into the arteries. The semilunar
valves open to allow this while the atrioventricular valves close.
- What did Galen (Greek doctor) believe about blood?
- That it flowed like a tide between the liver and the heart
- Who was William Harvey and what did he find out?
- He was a British doctor and in 1628 he found out that the heart pumped the
blood around the body through blood vessels, arteries carries blood under
high pressure away from the heart, and veins had valves to prevent backflow.
- What is a heartbeat controlled by?
- It is controlled by a group of cells called the pacemaker
- How do pacemaker cells coordinate heart muscle contractions?
- The cells produce small electrical impulses, which spread across the heart
muscle, stimulating it to contract.
- What can alter the heart rate?
- Exercise (muscles demand more energy so hear rate speeds up in order to
supply more oxygen and glucose. Adrenaline (hormone) can also alter heart
rate.
- What does the sinoatrial node do? (SAN)
- It produces impulses that spread across the atria to make them contract.
- What does the atrioventricular node do? (AVN)
- Relays impulses that spread over the ventricles to make them contract.
- What are 2 methods of monitoring the heart?
- An electrocardiogram (ECG) used to monitor the electrical impulses from the
heart
- An echocardiogram uses ultrasound to produce an image of the beating heart
- Describe the condition of an irregular heartbeat:
- Irregular heartbeat occurs if the pacemaker becomes faulty- to restore
regularity, an artificial pacemaker can be implanted.
- What happens when the cuspid and semilunar valves become weak?
- If the cuspid and semilunar valves become weak or damages, it allows blood
to flow backwards and reduces blood pressure. Artificial valves can be used
to replace them
- How can a coronary heart attack or heart disease occur?
- When the coronary arteries become blocked by fat and cholesterol, it reduces
blood flow to the heart muscles and causes the above.
- How can you replace the blocked arteries?
- By the use of bypass surgery where it uses blood vessels from the leg to
replace the blocked arteries.
- What does the term hole in the heart mean?
- Some people are born with a hole in the heart. This means blood can move
from the right side to the left, so oxygenated and deoxygenated blood can
mix.
- What happens if the hole in the heart is not closed?
- Less oxygen in the blood and the reduced efficiency of transporting oxygen to
tissues.
- What are the advantages to repairing a heart? (Fitting with pacemaker or
replacement valves)
- There is less risk of rejection. Involve less traumatic operation
- Human donor isnt needed as pacemaker are mechanical
- Shorter waiting time than for a donor heart
- Patient must take anticoagulants for the rest of their life
- What is the disadvantage for repairing the heart?
- The mechanics may need replacing
- What are the advantages of heart transplants?
- Transplanted organ will last for lifetime so it wont have to be replaced
- Patient will feel better almost immediately
- What are the disadvantages to heart transplants?
- Major and expensive operation. Patient will take immunosuppressants (whole
life)
- Long waiting time and replacement heart must come from a dead donor.
- Which part of the blood carries the red and white blood cells?
- The plasma (in the blood)
- What happens when you get cut?
- When you have a cut platelets in the blood gather at the site to form a clot.
The clot prevents further blood loss.
- What other substance builds when having a cut?
- Fibrin starts to build over the wound
- How is a scab formed?
- By the combination of platelets, fibrin and plasma
- What is used to reduce clotting (clotting inside the blood vessels)
- Anticoagulants such as warfarin, aspirin, and heparin.
- What is haemophilia?
- Haemophilia is an inherited disease where the blood fails to clot due to a
faulty clotting protein.
- How does blood donation work?
- Donors go to a centre where their blood haemoglobin levels are checked.
Then, about 500cm3 of blood is taken from a vein in their arm. The blood is
screened for diseases and if its safe its then stored in sealed packages ready
for transfusion.
- Why does the donors blood group have to match the recipients?
- If it doesnt match then the donated blood will clump inside the recipient and
cause larger problems.
- What can unsuccessful blood transfusions cause?
- Agglutination (blood clumping)
- What can blood group A accept blood from?
- A or O
- What can blood group B accept blood from?
- B or O
- What can blood group AB accept blood from?
- A or B or O
- What can blood group O accept blood from?
- O
- What kind of habitats do amphibians need?
- Moist habitats as they absorb oxygen through the skin
- How does the gas exchange in a fish work?
- The oxygen is absorbed by the filaments in the gills, the oxygen is then
transported away from the gill filaments by the blood supply
- What does the human thorax contain?
- The trachea- a flexible tube surrounded by rings of cartilage to stop it
collapsing
- Bronchi- branches of the trachea
- Bronchioles-Branches of a bronchus
- Lungs-to inhale and exhale air for gas exchange
- Alveoli-site of gas exchange
- Intercostal muscles-to raise and lower the ribs
- Pleural membrane- to protect and lubricate the surface of the lung
- The diaphragm-a muscular sheet between the thorax and abdomen
- Where does oxygen enter and leave?
- Oxygen enters the blood in the lungs and leaves the blood in body tissues
- Where does carbon dioxide enter and leave?
- Carbon dioxide enters the blood in the body tissues and leaves from the lungs
- What affects the exchange of gas?
- Surface area, the larger the surface areamore area for absorption= more
oxygen being absorbed. (Lungs have a huge surface area)
- During breathing the volume and pressure of the chest cavity are
changed by what?
- The intercostal muscles and the diaphragm
- What happens during inspiration? (Breathing in)
- Intercostal muscles contract, ribcage moves upwards + outwards (raises).
Diaphragm contracts + flattensthis increases the volume of the chest cavity,
pressure inside the lungs falls so air rushes in.
- What happens during expiration? (Breathing out)
- Intercostal muscles relax, ribcage moves downwards + inwards (lowered).
Diaphragm relaxes, pushing up. Decreases the volume of the chest cavity.
Pressure inside the lungs rises so air is pushed out.
- What is tidal air?
- Tidal air is the volume of air breathed in or out in a normal breath
- What is vital capacity air?
- It is the maximum volume of air that can be used for gas exchange in the
lungs---- A maximum breath in followed by a maximum breath out
- What is residual air?
- Residual air is the volume of air that stays in the lungs when we breathe out
- Describe gas exchange:
- Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli + oxygen diffuses from
the alveoli into the blood
- How are alveoli adapted for gas exchange?
- Have a massive surface area
- Have a moist, thin permeable surface
- Have excellent blood supply
- What defences does the respiratory system have which protects itself
from disease?
- Trachea + bronchi produce mucus to trap dust + microorganisms
- Trachea + bronchi are lined with millions of cilia which move the mucus from
the lungs into the throat where its swallowed
- What happens during an asthma attack?
- During an asthma attack the lining of the bronchioles becomes inflamed.
Mucus builds up in the airways and the muscles around the bronchioles
contract--- constricting the airways
- What is asbestosis and what is it caused by?
- Its a respiratory disease,+ (industrial disease). Caused by inhaling asbestos
fibres. Fibres get trapped in air sacs reducing gas exchange. Causes
coughing + breathlessness.
- What is asthma, what is it caused by + how can it be treated?
- Its a respiratory disease, causes coughing, wheezing, tightness of chest. Can
be treated by using an inhaler containing medicine which relaxes the
bronchiole muscles
- What is bronchitis?
- Its the inflammation of bronchi
- What is cystic fibrosis and how can it be treated?
- Its a genetically inherited respiratory disease. When too much sticky mucus is
produced in the lungs. Makes breathing difficult. Can be treated using an
inhaler.
- What is lung cancer + what is it caused by?
- Caused by lifestyle decisions (like smoking). The tar in cigarette smoke
causes cells in the lungs to mutate and grow uncontrollably- reducing the
surface area of lungs.
- What is pneumonia caused by and what does it cause?
- Usually caused by a virus/ bacterial infection. It causes inflammation in the
lungs where fluid builds up.
- What happens during physical digestion?
- Chewing food in mouth, squeezing food into the stomach to break down into
smaller pieces so that it can pass through the gut easily
- What happens during chemical digestion?
- Chemical digestion uses enzymes to break down large insoluble molecules
into smaller in soluble molecules, which can then diffuse through the wall of
the small intestine and into the blood plasma.
- What enzyme is used in the mouth and what does it break down?
- Enzyme: Carbohydrase, Breaks down: Carbohydrates (like starch into sugars)
- What enzyme is used in the stomach and what does it break down?
- Enzyme: Protease, Breaks down: Proteins into amino acids
- What enzymes are used in the small intestine and what do they break
down?
- Enzymes: Carbohydrase, Protease, Lipase. Breaks down: Carbohydrates into
sugars, Proteins into amino acids, Fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
- What produces bile?
- The liver and gall bladder
- What does bile do?
- Bile is produced to emulsify fat droplets, which are hard to digest. The bile
breaks down large droplets into smaller droplets to increase the surface area,
which enables lipase enzymes to work faster. Bile aids digestion.
- What are the 2 stages in which starch is broken down?
- Carbohydrase is used to break down starch into Maltose. Carbohydrase is
used to break down maltose into glucose. Starch being a large polymer,
maltose being a double sugar and glucose being a single sugar.
- How does Hydrochloric acid in the stomach aid digestion?
- It creates the correct pH that helps the enzyme protease to work effectively.
- What is the small intestine responsible for?
- Absorption essentially, once the large food molecules are broken down, they
must be absorbed into the bloodstream through the small intestine, and the
food molecules pass from the small intestine into the blood through the
process of diffusion. Food enters the blood in the small intestine and leaves in
the body tissues.
- How is the inside of the small intestine well adapted for the efficient
absorption of food?
- It is long and has a thin lining
- It has a large surface area provided by villi and microvilli
- It has a permeable surface and rich blood supply
- What is egestion?
- Getting rid of solid waste through the anus
- What is excretion?
- Getting rid of waste products made by body process. E.g. carbon dioxide,
urea and swear
- How is carbon dioxide produced?
- Carbon dioxide is produced by respiration and removed by the lungs when
you breathe. It is toxic at high levels so it must be removed
- How is urea produced?
- Urea is produced from excess amino acids broken down in the liver, its
removed by the kidneys
- How is the volume of urine produced, affected?
- Its affected by heat and exercise (drink and sweat)
- If you drink a lot of water, youll produce dilute urine
- If you dont drink enough water, or water is lost as swear during exercise then
youll produce a small amount of concentrated urine
- What happens when there are high levels of carbon dioxide in the
blood?
- The brain detects the high levels of CO2 in the blood, the breathing rate is
increased in order to remove the excess carbon dioxide.
- What do the kidneys do?
- Control the amount of water in the blood is controlled by the kidneys. The
kidneys clean the blood; they excrete urea, water and salts. The kidneys filter
blood at high pressure to separate the small molecules form the blood. They
then reabsorb the useful substances like sugar and water. The kidneys
remove all of the urea from the blood (urea is produced when protein foods
are broken down into amino acids)
- Why is it important that the blood in the kidneys is filtered under high
pressure?
- In order to separate the small molecules from the blood
- What is ADH hormone? (Anti-diuretic hormone)
- Its the hormone which controls the amount of water reabsorbed by the
kidneys and concentration of urine.
- Where is ADH produced?
- In the pituitary gland
- How does ADH affect renal tubules?
- It directly affects the permeability of renal tubules
- How does ADH affect kidney tubules?
- It increases the permeability of the kidney tubules so more water is
reabsorbed back into the blood. (This is an example of negative feedback)
- Why do high levels of carbon dioxide in the blood cause an increase in
heart and breathing rates?
- It is because carbon dioxide reacts with water in the blood plasma, forming
carbonic acid, if it is not removed then the acid would upset the pH level of the
blood, therefore a higher rate of breathing not only takes in more oxygen, it
also gets rid of more carbon dioxide waste.
- What happens when water content of the body is low?
- ADH is released, this makes the tubules more permeable and more water is
reabsorbed.
- What can a dialysis machine be used for?
- It can be used to treat patients with kidney failure to remove urea and
maintain levels of sodium, water and glucose in the blood.
- How does a dialysis machine work?
- Blood is taken from a vein and run into a dialysis machine; it comes into close
contact with a partially permeable membrane, which separates the blood from
the dialysis fluid. The waste diffuses from the blood into the dialysis fluid. The
sodium and glucose are replaced in the blood.
- What is the function of the uterus?
- Its where the embryo develops
- What is the function of the oviduct?
- It carries the egg to the uterus
- What is the function of the ovary?
- It produces eggs, oestrogen and progesterone
- What is the function of the scrotum?
- It keeps testes outside body so its cooler and essentially better for sperm
production
- What is the function of sperm ducts?
- To carry sperm
- What is the function of testes?
- To produce sperm and testosterone
- What are the 4 stages of the menstrual cycle?
- 1) The uterus lining breaks down (the period)
- 2) The uterus wall is repaired and gradually thickens
- 3) An egg is released from one of the ovaries (ovulation)
- 4) The uterus lining stays thick in preparation for a fertilised egg. If there is no
fertilised egg detected, the cycle starts again.
- What is FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone)?
- FSH is a hormone that stimulates the egg to ripen in the ovary.
- What happens in the ovary after FSH is produced?
- The ovary releases oestrogen which is a hormone that stimulates the uterus
lining to thicken, this then stimulates the release of LH (luteinising hormone)
- What is LH?
- LH is a hormone that controls ovulation about halfway through the menstrual
cycle.
- What happens after ovulation?
- Progesterone is produced by the ovary to preserve the uterus lining.
- Where are FSH and LH released from?
- The pituitary gland in the brain
- Describe the negative feedback during the menstrual cycle:
- The FSH stimulates the ovaries to secrete oestrogen. The oestrogen has a
negative feedback effect, reducing FSH release.
- How do hormonal contraceptives work?
- They mimic pregnancy and inhibiting FSH release
- What can infertility be caused by?
- Blocked fallopian tubes or sperm ducts
- Eggs not developing or being released
- Insufficient fertile sperm produced
- What can help with infertility?
- Fertility drugs, FSH can be injected in women who dont produce enough FSH
naturally. The FSH stimulates eggs to ripen and be released.
- Artificial insemination, when the mans sperm count is low or the womans
oviducts are blocked, sperm is placed directly in the uterus and oviducts.
- In vitro fertilisation (IVF)- sperm and eggs are mixed together outside the
body, the embryos that grow are transplanted into the uterus.
- Egg donation- if the woman cant produce fertile eggs, they can be donated by
another woman.
- Ovary transplant- Gives a woman a supply of eggs if her own ovaries dont
function
- Surrogacy- An embryo produced by IVF can be implanted into a surrogate
mother who carries the baby.
- What are some problems with fertility treatment?
- Surrogacy can lead to emotional attachment, so it may be hard to give the
baby to the biological parents
- IVF is expensive and doesnt have a high success rate. Twins or triplets are
more likely to be produced as more than one embryo is implanted.
- There are issues with what to do with leftover embryos which are no longer
needed. People disagree with disposing them, some donate them to research
(which again raises ethical and moral questions), and some people decide to
donate them to other couples.
- What is the amniocentesis test?
- Its a test which analyses cells from the foetus found in the amniotic fluid.
- How does the amniocentesis test work?
- A hypodermic needle is used to take a sample which is checked for
chromosome abnormalities (like downs syndrome)
- What is the risk of amniocentesis test?
- A risk of miscarriage (1 in 200)
- Why do people feel that amniocentesis tests are wrong?
- If an abnormality is found, parents have to decide whether to continue the
pregnancy, people think that foetal screening offers the unacceptable option
of ending an unborn babys life. It is unethical.
- What are the essentials for a donated organ to be?
- Healthy, the right size and age, and a good tissue match otherwise the organ
will be rejected.
- What are the ethical issues involved in organ donation?
- Some people worry about signing up for organ donation because of the effect
they will have on their relatives and on their own body
- Some people may not want to give nor receive organs due to religious or
personal beliefs.
- What are the problems with organ donation?
- Organ recipients take immunosuppressive drugs for the rest of their lives to
prevent rejection. Taking immunosuppressive drugs reduces their ability to
fight other infections which makes them more at risk or catching other
diseases.
- What are the organ donation issues in the UK?
- The UK has an Opt-In donor system. In the UK, there is no payment for organ
donation, it has been suggested that payment would increase availability. But
this could encourage poor people to become donors in order to earn money
- What must mechanical implants be in order to work efficiently?
- Small and compact to fit inside the body
- Made of materials that will not wear or cause allergic reactions
- Describe the rate of growth through infancy to adulthood:
- The rate of growth is at a maximum when a baby is born, growth then slows
down gradually during childhood. At puberty, theres another growth spurt,
growth then stops in adulthood.
- What is your eventual height and mass determined by?
- Inherited information in your genes
- Your diet, the amount of exercise you do
- The amount of growth hormone you produce
- How healthy you are, any conditions you may have had
- Why is diet important for growth?
- A healthy diet contains protein for muscle growth, and calcium and vitamin D
for bone growth.
- Where is the human growth hormone produced?
- In the pituitary gland in the brain, it stimulates the growth especially of long
bones
- Why has life expectancy increased?
- Healthier diets and lifestyle
- Modern treatments and cures for diseases
- Better housing conditions
- Fewer industrial diseases (like asbestosis)
- What are some problems with longer life expectancy?
- Elderly people can suffer from degenerative diseases like arthritis and cancer
- Elderly people might find it difficult to live independently in their own homes
- Many pensioners live on a low income so its difficult for them to maintain a
healthy lifestyle
- How do these problems reflect on society?
- Hospitals and care homes must cater for the short-term health needs of the
elderly
- People of working age have to work longer and pay higher taxes to pay the
pensions of the elderly population.