re-crystallization temperature. Uses the metal deformation property: their ability to flow plastically in the solid-state without accompanying deterioration of properties. Advantages: Porosity in metal is largely eliminated. Impurities in the form of inclusions are broken up and distributed thought the metal. Coarse grains are refined; Physical properties improved. Energy required to change shape is less. Good Machinabilityand weldability; Ready to use products Disadvantages Rapid oxidation and scaling of the surface accompanying the poor surface finish. Hot working Depends upon the material properly and sometimes may be at room temperature (Lead, Zinc etc.) Rolling, Forging, Extruding and Drawing are some major hot working in metals. Recrystallization Temperatures Cold Working Working on metals at a temperature below the re- crystallization temperature, usually at room temp. Distorts the grain and does little towards reducing the size of material. Improves strength, machinability, dimensional accuracy and surface finish of metals. Lesser oxidation and scaling cold working allows thinner sheets to be worked accurately. Many processes and equipments are used for both hot and cold work, but forces required are different. Much more Pressure is needed than hot working and there is no recovery of the distortion (Residual Stress). Deformation is brought by distortion of lattice about slip planes. Cold Working Advantages and limitations: Many products are cold finished after hot working to make them commercially acceptable, close to tolerance and remove the scales and oxides. Strength and hardness increases, loss in ductility. Stresses are setup in metals that remains unless removed by subsequent heat treatment. Distortion and fragmentation of grain structure is created. Process is economical and rapidly produces parts in mass productions. Bending, Drawing, Spinning, Forming, Embossing, Seaming are major cold working operations. Hot Working: Metal Rolling Steels can be formed to useful products in two ways: 1. The ingot is rolled into intermediate shapes: Blooms, Billets and Slabs. 2. These are further rolled into plated, sheets, bars stock, structural shapes or foils. The ingots are uniformly heated in furnace (soaking Pit) to the temp of 1200C and taken out and rolled in rolling mills. Metal Rolling Most primary rolling is done in either a twohigh reversing mill or a three-high continuous rolling mill. In two high reversing mills the pieces passes through rolls, which are stopped and reversed in direction repeatedly in subsequent rollers. Grooves on the upper and lower rollers reduces the dimension. Limitations of rolling size (length) is eliminated in three-high continuous rolling mill. Rolling mills have sets of rollers arranged in line for rolling heated ingot into particular shape. Metal Rolling A - Twohigh mill; Reversing. B - Four high mills with backup rollers. C - Three - high mill for back and forth rolling. D - Cluster mill using four backing-up rolls. Metal Rolling 2.4.2. Forging Forging is a process in which the workpiece is shaped by compressive forces applied through various dies and tools. It is one of the oldest metalworking operations. Most forgings require a set of dies and a press or a forging hammer. Unlike rolling operations, which generally produce continuous plates, sheets, strip, or various structural cross-sections, forging operations produce discrete parts. Typical forged products are bolts and rivets, connecting rods, shafts for turbines, gears, hand tools, and structural components for machinery, aircraft, railroads and a variety of other transportation equipment. Open-die forging Closed-die forging Flashless forging Work piece deformed with open-die, closed-die and flashless forging Forging Classifications Forging process is classified as - Hammer or Smith Forging. Drop Forging Press forging Upset forging Roll Forging Smith Forging Forging Process advantages: Closing of voids in the metal Reduced machining time Improve the physical properties of the starting metal Process disadvantages: Possible scale inclusions in forging Tooling cost can be high Usually not used for short production runs Forging Methods Open-Die Drop Hammer - heated metal is placed between diesa force is delivered with a steam hammer. Accuracy is not good Complicated shapes are difficult to produce Forging Methods Open-Die Drop Hammer - Steam Hammer Forging Methods Upset forging Grip a barheat the endforge into desired shape Product examples Bolts Engine valves Forging Methods Impression Die Drop Hammer Forging - Hot pliable metal is forces into the shape of closed impression dies. This process is typically performed in a progressive method through a series of dies to control the flow. 2 Types of drop forge hammers Mechanical Gravity Forging Methods Impression Die Drop Hammer Forging Forging Methods Impression drop- forging dies and the product resulting from each impression. The flash is trimmed from the finished connecting rod in a separate trimming die. The sectional view shows the grain flow resulting from the forging process. (Courtesy of Forging Industry Association, Cleveland, OH.) Drop Forging Dies, to produce to desired shape are matched and separately attached to the moveable ram and fixed anvil. The forging is produced by impact or pressure, which compels the hot and pliable metal to take shape of the die. Repeated blows of ram causes drastic flow to the metal in the dies. Complicated, irregular and bigger shapes can be forged. Pneumatic hammer and gravity drop or board hammer are main drop forging hammers; working at 300 blows in a minute. Pneumatic hammers are faster and more powerful than gravity drop hammers. Piston lift gravity drop hammer Drop Forging Press forging Slow squeezing action in deforming the plastic metal in presses as contrasted to the rapid impact blows of hammer. These presses are the vertical type and may be either mechanically or hydraulically operates. For small jobs closed impression dies are used and only one stroke of ram is normally required to perform the forging operation. In forging press a greater proportion of the total energy input is transmitted to the metal than in a drop hammer press; and provides closer tolerance. Forging presses are often used for sizing operations on parts made by other processes. Upset forging It employs gripping a bar of uniform section in dies and applying pressure on the heated end, causing it to be formed to shape. The length of stock to be upset cannot be more than three times the diameter. Sometimes combination of punch and die is needed to finish the product. Progressive Piercing - Upset forging Roll Forging These machines are primarily adapted to reducing and tapering operations on short length of bar stock. The rolls on the machine are not completely circular to permit the job to enter between rolls. The circular portion of rolls are grooved as per required shape of job. Extrusion It is similar to act of squeezing toothpaste from a tube. Forcing out of metal from the confined chamber through specially formed dies. Metals that cannot be hot worked can be extruded to uniform cross-sectional shape by aid of pressure. Some metals as lead, tin and aluminum may be extruded cold, where as other require the application of heat. Extrusion can be done in two ways: Direct Extrusion Indirect Extrusion Extrusion EXTRUTED Components EXTRUTED Components A bar of metal is forced through a die orifice by a compressive force that is applied to a ram The extruded piece that emerges has the desired shape and a reduced cross-sectional area. Extrusion products include rods and tubing, but shapes of irregular cross-sections may be produced form the more readily extrudablemetals, like Al. Extrusion is increasingly utilized in the working of metals difficult to form, like stainless steels, Ni-based alloys, and other high- temperature materials Extrusion Aluminiumalloys Plastics lead, tin, copper, titanium, molybdenum, vanadium, steel can be extruded. Materials Extruded. Extrusion often minimizesthe need for secondary machining, Dimensional accuracy or surface finish Cross-Sections to be Extruded Figure 15.10 Poor and good examples of cross-sections to be extruded. Note the importance of eliminating sharp corners and of keeping section thicknesses uniform Extrusion Processes Hot extrusion Keeping the processing temperature to above the re-crystalline temperature. Reducing the ram force, increasing the ram speed, and reduction of grain flow characteristics. Controlling the cooling is a problem. Glass may be used as a lubricant. Cold extrusion Often used to produce discrete parts. Increase strength due to strain hardening, close tolerances, improved surface finish, absence of oxide layer and high production rates. Direct Extrusion Friction increases the extrusion force. Hollow section is formed using a mandrel. To produce tubing by extrusion, a mandrel must be fastened to the end of the extrusion ram The mandrel extends to the entrance of the extrusion die, and the clearance between the mandrel and the die wall determines the wall thickness of the extruded tube One method of extruding a tube is to use a hollow billet for the starting material Extrusion of Tubing Indirect Extrusion Metal is forced to flow through the die in an opposite direction to the rams motion. Lower extrusion force as the work billet metal is not moving relative to the container wall. Lateral Extrusion Figure 15.14 Schematic illustration of the impact-extrusion process. The extruded parts are stripped by the use of a stripper plate, because they tend to stick to the punch. Impact Extrusion Other Types of Extrusion Types of extrusion: (a) indirect; (b) hydrostatic Hydrostatic Extrusion Hydrostatic Extrusion Advantages Reduced friction None at the chamber wall Lower at the die face Can be done at room or elevated temperatures Ram force less than direct extrusion Very good for brittle materials Disadvantages Requires more sophisticated tooling (costs more) Must prepare billet face to get a good seal at the start of the process Extrusion Temperature Effects Extrusion at elevated temperatures For metals and alloys that dont have sufficient ductility Problems Cooling Oxide films developed Not good surface finish Dummy block Form skull of oxide Extrusion Defects a) Centre-burst: internal crack due to excessive tensile stress at the centre possibly because of high die angle, low extrusion ratio. b) Piping: sink hole at the end of billet under direct extrusion. c) Surface cracking: High part temperature due to low extrusion speed and high strain rates. Pipe and tube Manufacturing Butt Welding Electric Butt Welding Piercing Tube Extrusion / Drawing Tube Drawing Cold Working of Metals Cold Rolling Tube finishing Wire drawing Metal Spinning Shear Spinning Stretch forming Cold forming Coining and Embossing Riveting, Staking and Stapling Seaming Shot Peeing Cold Rolling Tube Finishing Tubing, which requires dimensional accuracy, smooth surface, and improved physical properties, is finished by either Cold Drawing or Tube Reducer. Hot rolled tube is chemically treated to wash all scales and is drawn in draw bench. Wire Drawing Wire is made by cold-drawing of hot-rolled rod through one or more dies. Wire drawn through each die is cleaned in acid bath to remove scale, rust and is coated. Both Single-draft or Continuous processes may be used. Single-draft Process Metal Spinning Drawing and Sheet Metal Forming Spinning a cold-forming operation in which a rotating disk of sheet metal is shaped over a male form or mandrel Form attached to the Headstock spindle Final shape Steps in spinning Original blank of sheet metal Follower held in tailstock Metal Spinning It is the operation of shaping thin metal by pressing it against a form while it is rotating. The process is limited to symmetrical products. Work is done in speed lathe provided with some means of holding work against form. Forms are usually turned from hard wood and attached to the face of lathe. Almost all the parts are formed with aid of blunt hand tool that presses the metal against form. Lubricants as soap wax, oil are used. Used for kitchen wares, Funnels etc Shear Spinning Used for spinning thick metal plates. Power driven rollers are used in place of conventional hand spinning. The roll formers force the plate to conform to the mandrel with reduction of wall thickness up to 80% by the combination of rolling and spinning. In conventional spinning the wall thickness remains about the same through the operation, metal plates are merely bend into new contour. Stretch Forming Forming of large sheets of thin metal involving symmetrical shapes or double-curve bends. A single die mounted on a ram is placed between two slides that grip metal. The die moves vertically and slide moves horizontally causing the metal to be stretched above elastic limit conforming the shape of die. Cold forming Cold working by a compressive force or impact that causes the metal to flow in some predetermined shape according to the design of dies. Sizing is the simplest form of cold forging, which is process of slightly compressing of steel to obtain close tolerance. Cold heading of bolts, rivets is process to produce heads by cold forming. Intra-forming is a process in which metal is squeezed at a high pressure onto a die or mandrel to produce an internal configuration Coining and Embossing Coining is performed in dies that confine metal and restrict its flow in lateral direction. Due to need of high pressure, restricted to soft alloys. Embossing is more of drawing or stretching operation and doesn't require high pressure. Punch diameter is reduced so it touches only a part of the blank that is being embossed. Used for making name plates, identification tags etc., where embossed design is raised from the parent metal. There is very little squeezing. Riveting, Staking and Stapling These processes are used to fasten parts together. Reverting operation uses a solid rivet through holes made in parts and presses to shape by punch. Staking is a similar operation in which metal of one part is upset to cause it to fit tightly against other. STAKING process of permanently joining parts together when one part protrudes through a hole in the other; a shaped punch is driven into the end of the protruding piece where a deformation is formed causing a radial expansion, mechanically locking the two pieces together Seaming Used in the manufacture of drum, cans and products made of light gage metals. Different types of seam are used. Shot Peening This method of cold working has been developed to improve the fatigue resistance of the metal by setting up compressive stresses in its surface. This is done by blasting a rain of small shot at high velocity against the surface to be peened. As shots (grit) strikes, small indentations are produced causing a slight plastic flow of the surface metal. This causes the setting compressive stress on outer and tension on inner layer of surface. Surface is slightly hardened and strengthened by cold working. Surface roughness and finish can be varied according to the size of shots. Sheet metal forming processes Punching Piercing Blanking Notching Perforating Slitting Lancing Parting Shaving Trimming Fine Blanking Corner bending Die Bending Deep Drawing Redrawing Reverse drawing Cutting Bending Drawing Stretch forming Spinning Shearing Schematic illustration of the shearing process with a punch and die. Characteristics of Shearing Punching, Blanking - Shearing Operations FIGURE (a) Punching (piercing) and blanking. (b) Examples of various shearing operations on sheet metal. Blanking Shear Angles For Punches and Dies The use of shear angles on punches and dies. Progressive Dies Schematic illustration of the making of a washer in a progressive die. (b) Forming of the top piece of an aerosol spray can in a progressive die. Note that the part is attached to the strip until the last operation is completed. Sheari ng - the mechanical cutting of materials without the information of chips or the use of burning or melting for straight cutting blades: shearing for curved blades: blanking, piercing, notching, trimming Aluminum Brass Bronze Mild steel Stainless steel Sheari ng Blanking during which a metal workpiece is removed from the primary metal strip or sheet when it is punched. punch-out: workpiece remaining strip: scrap Sheari ng Pier cing punch-out: scrap remaining strip: workpiece Sheari ng Sl i t t i n g - shearing process used to cut rolls of sheet metal into several rolls of narrower width used to cut a wide coil of metal into a number of narrower coils as the main coil is moved through the slitter. Shearing Lancing- forms either a line cut (slit) at the end of the sheet Perforating- piercing a large number of closely spaced holes Sheari ng Notching -same as piercing - edge of the strip or black forms part of the punch-out perimeter Nibbling- produces a series of overlapping slits/notches Sheari ng Sh av i n g - finishing operation in which a small amount of metal is sheared away from the edge of an already blanked part - can be used to produce a smoother edge Sheari ng - punch and die operation used to separate a stamping or other product from a strip or stock Cu t of f Punching Cutting tool is a round/rectangular punch, that goes through a hole, or die of same shape F t X edge-length of punch X shear strength Punch die sheet crack (failure in shear) clearance die piece cut away, or slug t F t X edge-length of punch X shear strength Punch die sheet crack (failure in shear) clearance die piece cut away, or slug t Punching Main uses: cutting holes in sheets; cutting sheet to required shape typical punched part nesting of parts Body of a final component with sheet metal component with multiple bending operations component with punching, bending, drawing operations Bending Classifications of Bending Processes Roll Forming Roll Seaming Straightening Draw and Compression Flanging Angle Bending Angle Bending Bending Press Bending Press Bending Roll Bending bending where plates, sheets and rolled shapes can be bent to a desired curvature Roll bending toll can bend plate up to 50 mm thick Bending Tube Bending Tube Bending Tube Bending - workpiece is clamped against a bending form and the entire assemble rotates to draw the workpiece across a stationary tool Bending Roll For ming - involves the progressive bending of metal strip as it passes through a series of forming rolls Any material that can be bent can be roll- formed Bending Seam i n g - Bending operation that can be used to join the ends of sheet metal to form containers such as cans, pails and drums Bending Str aightening also known as flattening opposite of bending Bending Methods of Reducing or Eliminating Springback Common Die-Bending Operations Bending Operations In a Press Brake Various Bending Operations Examples of various bending operations. Bead Forming FIGURE 7.25 (a) Bead forming with a single die. (b) Bead forming with two dies in a press brake. Flanging Operations Methods of Making Honeycomb Materials Roll-Forming Process Stretch-Forming Process Schematic illustration of a stretch- forming process. Aluminum skins for aircraft can be made by this process. Spinning Processes Schematic illustration of spinning processes: (a) conventional spinning and (b) shear spinning. Note that in shear spinning, the diameter of the spun part, unlike in conventional spinning, is the same as that of the blank. The quantity f is the feed (in mm/rev or in./rev). Shapes in Spinning Processes Typical shapes produced by the conventional- spinning process. Circular marks on the external surfaces of components usually indicate that the parts have been made by spinning. Examples include aluminum kitchen utensils and light reflectors. Internal And External Tube Spinning Examples of external and internal tube spinning and the variables involved. Drawing and Sheet Metal Forming COLD DRAWING for sheet metal, it refers to the forming of parts where plastic form occurs over a curved axis for wire, rod, or tubing, it refers to the process of reducing the cross section of the material by pulling it through a die A. Rod, Bar and Tube Drawing Rod or bar drawing Die Rod If the product cannot be bent or coiled conveniently, straight-pull draw benches are employed on finite-length stock Drawing and Sheet Metal Forming Tube Drawing can be used to produce high quality tubing where the product requires the smooth surfaces, thin walls, accurate dimension and added strength. Mandrel Die Tube Die Die Floating plug Drawi ng and Sheet Metal Forming Wire Drawing involves smaller diameter material Direction of travel Starting stock in coil form Lubrication box Die Draw block Carbide die Steel casing Back relief Land Approach angle Entrance angle Back radius Sheet-Metal Forming Processes Redrawing Operations Reducing the diameter of drawn cups by redrawing operations: (a) conventional redrawing and (b) reverse redrawing. Small-diameter deep containers undergo many drawing and redrawing operations. Drawing Operations Examples of drawing operations: (a) pure drawing and (b) pure stretching. The bead prevents the sheet metal from flowing freely into the die cavity. (c) Possibility of wrinkling in the unsupported region of a sheet in drawing. Deep-drawing Process This procedure is the first step in the basic process by which aluminum beverage cans are produced today. The stripper ring facilitates the removal of the formed cup from the punch. (b) Variables in deep drawing of a cylindrical cup. Only the punch force in this illustration is a dependent variable; all others are independent variables, including the blankholder force. Metal-Forming Process for Food and Beverage Containers Deep Drawing die die die die die punch punch punch punch blank part blank holder (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Examples of deep drawn parts die die die die die punch punch punch punch blank part blank holder (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) die die die die die punch punch punch punch blank part blank holder (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Examples of deep drawn parts Tooling: similar to punching operation, Mechanics: similar to bending operation Common applications: cooking pots, containers, The parts are formed at a rapid rate large amount of energy is applied for a very short interval of time also called High Velocity Forming processes Explosive TNT - Trinitrotoluene Die Materials- Al alloy, steel, wood, RCC, Plastics and Composites Explosive Forming Process Explosive forming, is distinguished from conventional forming in that the Punch is replaced by an explosive charge Techniques of Explosive Forming: Stand off technique Contact technique The detonation builds up extremely high pressures (upto30,000MPa) on the surface of the work piece resulting in metal deformation Under water Explosive Forming Process .(i) explosive charge is set in position (ii) pressure pulse andgas bubble are formed as the detonation of charge occurs, (iii) work piece is deformed, and (iv) gas bubbles vent at the surface of water. The use of water as the energy transfer medium ensures a uniform transmission of energy and shock waves of the explosive blast. Explosive Forming Process Applications. Explosive forming Contact technique of Explosive Forming. The process is generally used for bulging of tubes. Explosive forming is mainly used in Aerospace industries Automotive related components. Difficult to Form Components production prototype forming and Forming large size components for which conventional tooling costs are Very high. Steel plates 25 mm thickness , 4 m diameter Can bulge steel tubes as thick as 25 mm. Advantages of Explosive Forming Die costs are low, Easy maintenance of tolerances, Possibility of forming most metals, No spring-back effect. Low production cost The limitation needs skilled personnel and permission required from Govt. Electrohydraulic-Forming process. Electro hydraulic forming also known as electro spark forming Electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy for the forming of metallic parts. A bank of capacitors is first charged to a high voltage and thendischarged across a gap between two electrodes, causing explosions on to the work piece, which is filled with some suitable medium, generally water. These explosions produce shock waves that travel radiallyin all directions at high velocity until they meet some obstruction. If the discharge energy is sufficiently high, the work piece is deformed. The deformation can be controlled by applying external restraints in the form of die or by varying the amount of energy released. Electrohydraulic-Forming process. Advantages EHF can form hollow shapes with much ease and at less cost compared to other forming techniques. EHF is more adaptable to automatic production compared to other high energy rate forming techniques. EHF can produce small to intermediate sized parts that don't have excessive energy requirements. Accuracy of parts produced Accuracy of electro hydraulically formed parts depends on the control of both the magnitude and location of energy discharges and on the dimensional accuracy of the dies used. it is possible to precisely control the energy within specified limits, therefore the primary factor is the dimensional accuracy of the die. External dimensions on tubular parts are possible to achieve within 0.05 mm with the current state of technology. In electromagnetic forming, the initial gap between the work piece and the die surface, called the fly distance , must be sufficient to permit the material to deform plastically. From energy considerations, the ideal pressure pulse should be of just enough magnitude that accelerates the part material to some maximum velocity and then let the part come to zero velocity by the time it covers the full fly distance. All forming coils fail, expendable coils fail sooner than durable coils, and because extremely high voltages and currents are involved, high safety precautions should be followed. Magnetic-Pulse-Forming Process This work piece is placed in or near a coil. A high charging voltage is supplied for a short time to a bank of capacitors connected in parallel. When the charging is complete, A high voltage switch triggers the stored electrical energy through the coil. A high intensity magnetic field is established which induces eddy currents into the work piece, resulting in the establishment of another magnetic field. The forces produced by the two magnetic fields oppose each other with the consequence that there is a repelling force between the coil andthe tubular work piece that causes permanent deformation of the work piece. Electromagnetic Forming Mainly used for swaging type operations The part is formed without physical contact with any object Part need to be electrically conductive The process is also called Electro Magnetic Forming Applications of Electromagnetic forming process Fabrication of hollow, non circular, or asymmetrical shapes from tubular stock. The compression applications involve swaging to produce compression, tensile, and torque joints or sealed pressure joints, Swaging to apply compression bands or shrink rings for fastening components together. Flat coils have been used on flat sheets to produce stretch (internal) and shrink (external) flanges on ring and disc shaped work pieces. Electromagnetic forming has also been used to perform shearing, piercing, and rivetting. Applications Applications