River Protection:

1 Alternative Approaches To Pollution Control

By Ir: Hj. Suhoimi Abdul-Tolib, Ir: Hjh. Junoidoh Ariftin ondlr: Hj. Bohordin Bohorom,
Foculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MAR4
Eventhough Malaysia is blessed with abundant supply of water resources, spatial and temporal variation
of rainfall distribution and increasing incidences of river pollution have caused several crises i n water
supply services.
The regulatory approach, which is based on Uniform Emission Standards concept is discussed i n
relation to the opposite concept of River Quality Objectives. It has been acknowledged that due t o a
number of constraints, the measures adopted by the Government have to some extent failed to
safeguard the well-being of our natural water resources. The paper also proposes that economic
instruments should be used t o complement the existing regulatory instruments, so that more innovative
and cost-effective pollution control measures will emerge that would be suited to specific industries.
W
ater is life; every human
being, now and in the
future, should have access
to safe water for drinking, adequate
sanitation, and enough food and
energy at a reasonable cost Providing
adequate water to meet these basic
needs must be done in an adequate
manner that works in harmony with
nature (WCW 2000).
There is no denying that water is
a very important natural resource.
Irrigation, domestic and industrial
needs consume water while other
developments such as hydroelectric
power generation, recreation and
transportation rely on the availability
and quality of water. Flood mitigation
and agricultural drainage require an
efficient system to dispose water in
order to prevent loss of lives and
damages to properties (Keizrul and
Juhairi, 1996). The wide variety of
demand for water to meet various
objectives has provided multi-
dimensional challenges to the
engineering communities in the past
and in the future.
The Durian Tunggal incident in
1991 and the more recent Klang
Valley water crisis i n 1998 have
driven home a very clear message to
Malaysians. We have now leamed
the painful lesson that water supply
can be disrupted if a severe and
prolonged drought sets in or water
sources are severely polluted beyond
the handling capacity of the trealment
plants. Besides this, poor monitoring
and maintenance of the distribution
system may lead to a large amount
of losses and wastes in the distribution
system, thus making supply
insufficient to meet demand.
Th e Go v e r n me n t h a s
acknowledged the importance of
protecting our water resources. The
seriousness on ensuring that natural
water resources were systematically
developed was reinforced during the
Sixth Malaysia Plan (1991-95) where
water resources was given a separate
chapter that integrated water supply,
drainage, sewerage and all users of
water resources moh, 1992).
Status of Water Resources
in Malaysia
Eventhough Malaysia has been
blessed with abundant supply ofwater
resources, the authorities, industries
and the society should not take for
granted that there will always be
sufficient supply to meet the demand.
The annual rainfall over the
Malaysian land mass amounts to 990
billion m3, of which 566 billion m3
appear as surface runoff and about
64 billion m3 recharge groundwater.
The balance, about 360 billion m3,
returns to the atmosphere through
evaporation and transpiration (JICA,
29-92).
There are more than 150 river
systems in Malaysia, that as a whole
contribute to an estimated 97% of raw
water supply source. The large
quantity of water apparently available
as cited above, unfortunately does
not guarantee adequate supply to all
users because of the non-uniform
temporal and spatial distributions of
rainfall.
Sewage water pollution
discharge capacity of the natural
channel flthnin, 1996). If this trend
persists, then the cost to supply water
to meet the increasing demands will
increase as new intake and treatment
facilities will have to be located
further upstream, requiring higher
investments in supply mains and
reticulation systems. Costs of
treatment will escalate, as more
advanced and complex treatment
procedures will then be required. If
proper attention is not given to
redress the present situation, then
Malaysians will, in the near future,
be forced to pay a high price for this
neglect.
River Pollution
The Malaysian Environmental
Quality Act - 1974 defines pollution
as &RB, 1995):
"Any d i i or indirect alteration
of the physical, thermal, chemical,
biological or radioactive properties of
a c c O u ~ for about
any part of the environment, by
discharging, emitting, or depositing
79% of the ~0llIltiOn
wastes SO as to affect anv beneficial ~ ~ - ~ - - ~~ ~~~ ~~ ~ ~
" ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - ~ ~ ~ -
S O U ~ . while industrial
use adversely, to cause a condition
- - , .. ... '
and agricuttural
which is hazardous or potentially
h d o u s to public health, safety and
~0llUfi0n acc~unf for welfare, or to animals, birds, wildlife.
8% and 13%
respectively.
On top of these variations,
increasing incidences of pollution
have resulted in fewer sources being
s u i t a b l e f or wa t e r s uppl y
developments. The quality of our
riven has deteriorated during the last
several years. Rivers suffer as more
water is drawn to meet increasing
demand, but more damage results
from water that is put back into them
by communities, adding sewage and
other wastes and effluents.
The problem of water pollution is
now becoming more serious with
reports indicating a downward trend
of about 1% per annum in river water
quality. Sewage water pollution
accounts for about 79% of the
pollution source, while industrial and
agricultural pollution account for 8%
and 13% respectively. Sedimentation
and siltation of rivers from land
development C l e m will continue to
degrade water quality and affect the
fish or aquatic life, or to plants or to
cause a contravention of any
condition, limitation or restriction to
which a licence under this Act is
subject."
In essence, the definition focuses
on safeguarding the beneficial usg
of rivers for the living environment.
In order to monitor pollution, two
important factors must be clearly
identified and quantified. These are:
(a) the beneficial uses of the rivers
and their associated water
qualities.
(b) the assimilative capacity of the
water body, which defines the
maximum pollution load that can
be introduced into the rivers.
Pollution to rivers or any
controlled waters can be classified
into three distinct categories (NRA,
1994) i.e. isolated pollution incidents,
I
diffused pollution and point source
discharges. Isolated pollution
incidents may arise from accidental
spillage, illegal dumping of pollution
or failure of treatment processes or include contaminated runoffs from throughdearlydefined locations,such
plants leading t o very poor effluent agricultural land containing pesticides as outlet pipes.
quality being discharged t o natural and fertilisers, percolation of material
water courses. Diffused pol l uti on i s f rom contaminated l and or l andfi l l River Pollution ControlMeasums
caused by pollutants entering water sites, and contaminated rainfalls. Point
A survey of literature on this topic
courses through locations whi ch are sources discharges are caused b y
yi el ds basi cal l y t wo fundamental
not clearly defined, and these may pol l utants enteri ng water courses
philosophies regarding surface water
Table 1: Comparison of the two philosophies in water pollution control
Adapted fmrn Ellis (19891 and Kinnersley (1994)
Works towards Uniform Emission xanuarus ~~osj .
safeguard the water quality so as to To limit ail polluting discharges uniformly.
nsure that future beneficial uses are not
Does not consider di ution available or the existing quality
of the stream nor its future beneficial uses.
Does not take into consideration seasonal effects.
oids the necessity to treat discharges May lead to the elimination of unacceptable substances
unreasonable levels where assimilation through the use of best practical technology.
apacity is high (Krenkeland Novotny, 1980).
pproach is more rational , readily Requires less extensive monitoring network.
perable and reasonably achievabip
asily monitored when industries Easy to implement with minimum financial and technical
ischarge into sewer systems.
Incur unnecessary expense in areas where no appreciable
Difficult to divide natural assimilation lay inhibit progress in regions due to high costs of
capacity of the receiving water equally
Requires extensive network to monitor Does not allow optimisation of resources associated with
te river system.
Depends on minimum parameter values
used to defined river classes or beneficial uses.
pollution control (Ellis, 1989; Mtller,
1987; Kinnmley, 1994). These two
philosophies can be described as river
oriented on one hand and efluent
oriented on the other.
River oriented approach relies on
the natural ability of the river to self-
purify. Self-purification is a slow
process which removes or otherwise
renders polluting substanm harmless.
Self-purification mechanisms of
natural rivers include physical,
chemical and biological processes.
Detailed discussion on this topic can
be found in Peavy et aL (1985). The
concept of self-purification of riven
basically enables the receiving water
to accommodate and naturally break
down the polluting substances. If the
polluting substances can be limited to
levels that are within the self-
purification ability of the rivers,
expensive beatment of effluents may
be unnecessary, and yet, the quality
of the water in the riven will not
deteriorate in the long term.
The effluent oriented approach
tends to concentrate on technical
aspects of limiting polluting
substances from reaching water
courses. Technologies related to
selection and preparation of raw
material, production processes, waste
minimisation, recycling and waste and
wastewater treatment are the focus of
this approach.
The attributes and characteristics
of the two philosophies are compared
and summarised in Tabk I. In essence,
both the river oriented and effluent
oriented systems rely on regulations
that are enforced by a regulatory
agency.
Table 2: Bodies Responsible for River Basin Monitoring in Malaysia
River Pollution Control
In Malaysia
The Government of Malaysia has
established the legal and institutional
arrangements in order to promote
envi r onment al l y sound and
sustainable development. Currently,
Malaysia has more than 30 directly
related water laws for water resources
development and management Some
of the laws were legislated as state laws
while others as federal laws. Several
statutory bodies were set up at local
level to coordinate projects related to
water resources development. Thus,
water resources development and
management is a federal-state-local
matter.
B U L E T I N I N G E N I E U R 48
Table 3: Overview on the application of regulatory and economic instruments in pollution control
(adapted from Bernstein (1993))
a Give the reaulator maximum authoritv to control where and how
iesources wiil be spent to achieve environmental objectives.
8 Provide the regulator a reasonabledegree of predictabilii on the level
of pollution reduction
a Promote cost-effective means for achieving acceptable levels of
pollution.
a Stimulate development of pollution control technology and expertise
in the private sector
8 Provide the Government with a source of revenue to suppon pollution
control programmer
a Provide flexibility in pollution control technologies
8 Eliminate the Government's requirement for large amounts of detailed
information needed to determine feasible and appropriate level of
control for each plant or product.
inefficient for the regulatory agency, as they require detailed technical Effects of economic ~nstruments on environmental quality are not as
knowledge on a wide variety of industries in order to be able to prescribe predictable compared to the use of regulatory instruments.
the acceptable limits of emisvon or effluent. Some polluten may choose to pollute and pay the fines if thecharges are
set at appropriate levels.
Pollution Charges
Ambi ent Environmental Quality Standard - ~stabl~shes fhe highest EfRwntand EmissionCharger- FeesieviedbytheGovemmemauthority
allowable concentration of roeclfled ~ l l ~ t a n t s in the ambient air or water based on auantitvlaualitv of wllutants dixharaed into the environment. I -
Effl uentof Emission Standard-~stablshesthe maximum level on the User Charges 1 ~l r ec i payments for the co& of public treatment of
total quantity or concentration of a pollutlon discharge from a pollution pollutlon, such as for treatment of sewage.
source. The standard mav include maximum llmlts durauon for discharqe, Product Charges- kes added to the prlce of products or product inputs
max.mt,m average of dally ,a .es an0 mon:toring requirements.
-
I
tla: cause poil;t~on, eitner in the manufact~rinb or co?s~n$ion phases.
Technoloav-based Standards - A s~ecific technolaav is swc:l eo to Administrative Chames - Fees aid to a~t nor ~r es for sewices such as I
-, .
control the-kluent levels.
Performance Standards -The maximum level of emission i s defined by
the performance of a process or product. This is usually applied to the
automobile industry.
Product Standards - Establish the maximum level of poliutantc that can
be discharged In terms of per unit product output.
Process Standards - Limit the emission of pollutants associated with
specific manufacturing processes.
-
chemical registration or the implementation and enforcement of
environmental regulations.
Tax Differentiation - Used to promote the consumption of products
that are environmentally safe. This instrument provides a positive charge
on a polluting product and a negative charge on a cleaner alternative.
Market Creation
Marketabl e Permits -The authorities determine a taraet level of
environmental quality which is translated into allowable poi hi on loads.
The allowable loads are then sold as pennrts.
Liability Insurance - A system where nsks for damaged penalties are
transferred from individual companies or public agencies to insurance
companies. An incentwe is created by the possibility of lower premiums
when industrial processes are more secure.
Subsidies
Grants and Low Interest Loans - Finance technolosical research,
pollution abatement equipment or subsidise personnel training.
Taxincentives -Tax credit or accelerated de~reclatlon for investments in
equipment to control pollution.
Deposit-Refund System
Consumerspaya wrcharge(deposit) when purchasing a potentially polluting
product. The deposit is returned when the users return the product to
approved disposal centres.
Enforcement incentives
Non-compliamFees-imposed when pallutersexceedpermisrtble limits
Performance Bonds - Payment made to regulatory agenc~es before a
potentlaliy polluting aaivlty IS undeltaken. The payment is returned when
the performance of the activity IS acceptable
~a bi l i t y ~ul ~nme ~- ~mv ~de s Incentives toaaual or potential polluters
to protectthe environment by making them liable for damagetheycaused.
PRODUCTSTANDARDS
PRODUCTCHARGES
ADMlNlSlRAllVE CHARGES
Wastes Generated
PRODUCT 1
, BY Consumotion
A I
118 PRODUCTSTANDARD> I I TECHNOLOGY-BASED STANDARDS 1 I
I PROCESS STANDARDS PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
PRODUCT STAND PERMIT AND LICENCES PERMKAND LICENCES
LAND &WATER USE CONTROLS LAND & WATER USE CONTROLS
MARKETABLE PERMITS USERCHARGES
LIABILININSURANCE LIABILITY INSURANCE
SUBSIDIES
I I
SUBSIDIES
NON-COMPLIANCE FEES NON-COMPUANCE FEES
PERFORMANCE BONDS PERFORMANCE BONDS
Figurn 1: The use of combined regulatory and economic instruments in pollution control (adapted from Bernstein, 1989)
The main legislation that is related
to the prevention, abatement and
control of pollution and enhancement
of the environment in Malaysia, is the
Environmental Quality Act (EQAI -
1974. The Act restria the discharge
of wastes into the environment that
exceeds "acceptable conditions",
through what is known as Parameter
Limits system. For discharges into
rivers, the system operates on a single
or two tier blanket limits which does
not incorporate the ambient standard
of livas &gal Research Board, 1995).
Jn essence, it subscnies to the Uniform
Emission Standards (UESI approach.
This may lead to over or under
specification of W a g e consents that
may either be unnecessarily harsh for
industries or detrimental to the rivers.
Department of Environment, DOE
(1986) had also adrnowledged that the
present system is inadequate, as it does
not take into consideration the self-
purification ability of individual
stretches of rivers. Effective river
pollution control in Malaysia is
hindered by the following factors:
(a) Lack of baseline data to enable
water quality objectives and
stan- to be formulated DOE-
UM, 1986). This factor is being
rectified when DOE embarked on
a privatisation package for the
monitoring of water and air
quality throughout the country.
Another study on the status of
water resources in Malaysia
needs to be done, as the only
study on this was conducted in
1982.
(b) The absence of a single body
responsible for the integrated
planning, development and
management of liver basins. Data
associated with river basins
are present l y moni t ored
independently by several
departments as shown in Table 2.
Several calls have been made for
the Government to establish a
single body - National Water
Council - to manage river basins
in Malaysia in an integrated
manner.
(c) Inadequate regulations under the
EQA-1974 to protect ambient
water quality. Continuing
degradation of water quality in
several water courses has been
reported despite the fact that the
industries are generally i n
compliance with the Effluent
Discharge Standard (DOE,
I994a). Many industries, e.g.
textile, is not controlled by
effluent standards.
(d) Inadequate funding towards
pmviding personnel and facilities
for monitoring and enforcement.
Whilst there are 94 River Basin
Quality Control Regions in the
country, only 16 have been
studied and classified (DOE,
1994~).
Alternative Measures For River
Pollution Control
As previously mentioned, the
pollution conbol measures adopted in
Malaysia are based on regulatory
instruments. Regulatory instruments
rely on standards, parameter limits,
permissible levels or discharge
consents. This approach put the
burden of pollution control on the
Government and stiffled the potential
of pollution abatement technologies
that may emerge from the industries.
River pollution control can also
be achieved through a number of
economic instruments. Though
regulatoly instruments - command
and control approach - has been the
predominant strategy in most
countries, the economic instruments
are now becoming more popular in
indushialised countries (Emstein,
1993). Economic instruments include
the use of pollution charges, market
creation, subsidies, deposit refund
system and enforcement incentives.
Detailed comparison of the two
instruments is provided in Table 3.
Economic instruments may
stimulate the development of
pollution control technology in
private sectors, promote cost-effective
means of achieving acceptable levels
of pollution and reduce the financial
burden of providing support for
pollution control programmes to
Governments (OECD, 1989).
However, the implementation of
economic instruments cannot
eliminate the need for regulatory
instruments such as standards,
envi r onment al moni t or i ng,
enforcement and other forms of
Government participation. In fact, a
successful implementation of
economic instruments relies on the
existence of appropriate standards,
moni t or i ng net wor ks and
enforcement policies.
Figure 1 iuustrates the various
locations for imposing regulatory and
economic instruments within the life
cyde of the pollutants. It is clear that
the combined use of regulatory and
economic instruments provides a
more integrated approach to pollution
control. By taking into consideration
the life cycle of the product,
manufacturers tend t o be more
innovative and cost-effective in
selecting the raw material and
appropriate processes to minimise the
costs of production and damage to
the environment. Not only that, the
consumers who use the product will
have to pay directly for the disposal
of t he pollutants when product
charges are incorporated in the
system. This is a much fairer system
in the sense that 'the polluter pays'
principle is applied directly to the
actual users rather than the society
as a whole.
B U L E T I N I N G E N I E U R 51