SPE 113510

In Situ Phase Pressures and Fluid Saturation Dynamics Measured in

Waterfloods at Various Wettability Conditions
Brautaset, A., Ersland, G., Graue, A., Dept. of Physics and Technology, University of Bergen, Norway
Copyright 2008, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2008 SPE/DOE Improved Oil Recovery Symposium held in Tulsa, Oklahoma, U.S.A., 1923April2008.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not been
reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its
officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to
reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of SPE copyright.


Abstract
During waterfloods of a total of six outcrop chalk core plug samples prepared at various wettabilities, simultaneous local
pressures and in situ fluid saturation from Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) intensities were measured. Complementary use
of high spatial resolution fluid saturation imaging and phase pressure measurements allowed calculations of the relative
permeability to water and the dynamic capillary pressure curves for the imbibition process. One objective was to validate the
theory for relative permeability calculations based on data from the fluid phase pressures measured separately using semi-
permeable discs and local in situ fluid saturation measurements. A second objective was to identify fluid saturation changes
due to spontaneous imbibition and viscous displacement, respectively, to determine the local recovery mechanism and
allowing local recovery factors and in situ Amott-Harvey indices to be measured.
The analysis of the experimental data from three of the core samples shows that the presented theory only applies for the
saturation interval when the pressures are measured in the same phase. A new and improved experimental setup is therefore
introduced for the remaining three cores in order to measure each of the dynamic phase pressure gradients separately using
semi-permeable discs located at fixed pressure ports. The obtained data contributes to improved description and understanding
of multi-phase fluid flow in porous media, including in situ measurements of relative permeabilities, capillary pressure curves,
wettability distribution and local oil recovery mechanisms.



Introduction
The dominant recovery mechanism in most chalk reservoirs is spontaneous imbibition. This is due to narrow pore throats,
more or less water-wet conditions and low permeability (Baldwin, B. A., 2002, Viksund, B. G., 1996). In this study,
simultaneous fluid saturation distribution and separate fluid phase pressures are measured in situ in order to 1) increase
knowledge of dynamic phase behavior in an immiscible displacement, 2) identify the contributions from spontaneous and
viscous displacement and 3) to calculate in situ Amott-Harvey indices, capillary pressure and relative permeabilities.
Knowledge of the relative permeabilities in multiphase flow is of vital importance to the oil industry in order to describe
immiscible fluid mechanisms and to improve oil recovery during production. Several methods for calculating relative
permeabilities from experimental data have been introduced, but a satisfactory method is still not developed. Most methods
(Chardaire, C, 1989, Heaviside, J., 1983, Islam, M.R., 1986, Johnson, E.F., 1959, Kerig, P.D., 1986) utilize production data
and total differential pressure over a core sample as measures of average saturation and pressure gradients, but this is a coarse
approximation that neglects capillary pressure, wetting phase end effects and the rapid changes in the pressure around the
displacement front. By measuring saturations and phase pressure gradients in situ as functions of time and position, end effects
are avoided, and relative permeabilities are calculated by use of an explicit method.
The main objective with the experiments was to determine the dynamic properties of the local pressure gradient and relate
this to the fluid saturation distribution to improve the understanding of oil recovery at various wettability conditions. Part of
the objective was to identify the contribution from spontaneous and viscous displacement to the oil recovery at different
wettabilities in chalk and to calculate in situ Amott-Harvey wettability indices, relative permeabilities and capillary pressure
for the imbibition process.


2 SPE 113510
Experimental
A total of six 8.0 cm long Portland chalk (Ekdale, A.A., 1993) core samples were oven dried for two days at 80C, vacuum
evacuated and saturated with synthetic brine. Porosity was determined from weight measurements and absolute permeability to
water was measured using Hassler core holders. Five of the core samples were aged in crude oil at elevated temperature to
obtain wettability conditions ranging from 0.11 to 0.45 on the Amott-Harvey scale. The ageing technique has been developed
over the last years at the University of Bergen, and provides stable and reproducible wettability conditions (Graue, A., 2000,
Graue, A., 1994, Graue, A., 1998). The sixth core sample remained at strongly water-wet conditions, yielding an Amott-
Harvey Index of 1.00. All fluid properties are listed in Table 1, and core properties for all core samples, including porosity,
permeability and Amott-Harvey Indices, are found in Table 2.

Table 1. Fluid properties.
Fluid
Density
[g/cm
3
]
Viscosity
[cP] at 20C
Viscosity
[cP] at 80C
Composition
Brine 1.05 1.09
5 wt% NaCl
3.8 wt% CaCl
2

0.1 wt% NaN
3

D
2
O brine 1.12 1.09
5 wt% NaCl
3.8 wt% CaCl
2

n-Decane 0.73 0.92
Crude oil 0.849 14.3 2.7

Table 2. Core properties for Portland chalk core samples.
Core Name
Length
[cm]
Diameter
[cm]
Porosity
[%]
Permeability
[mD]
Amott Index
M3 8.02 5.09 48.2 3.27 0.39
M8 8.01 5.08 47.3 3.56 0.45
E4 8.01 5.07 45.6 2.98 0.17
ISR 3 8.00 5.09 47.2 4.92 0.11
ISR 4 8.00 5.09 47.5 5.04 0.15
ISR 5 8.00 5.08 47.4 4.87 1.00

The six core samples were prepared for the MRI experiments by substituting brine with deuterium oxide in order to
separate the water phase from the oil phase in the MRI, and thus the measured MRI intensities could be related to oil
saturation. The cores were epoxy-coated at S
wi
with end pieces made of Poly OxyMethylene (POM), mounted on each side of
the cores. In three of the cores, two 3/16 diameter holes were drilled through the epoxy, and a 1/8 diameter, five mm deep
hole was drilled at the bottom of each of the 3/16 holes. Plastic tubes were inserted into the 1/8 diameter holes, and the 3/16
holes were filled with silicone to seal the space between the tube and the core. A top layer of epoxy was added to prevent
leakage. In the three remaining cores, four 1.2 cm diameter holes were drilled through the epoxy at selected positions along the
length of the cores, and 1.1 cm diameter semi-permeable discs with selected wetting preference were placed in the holes. 1/8
Swagelok plastic elbow fittings were glued to the discs, and the space between the elbow fittings and the epoxy was filled with
silicone and topped with a final layer of epoxy to prevent leakage. Figure 1 shows an epoxy-coated core with end pieces and
four phase-pressure ports.






Figure 1: An epoxy-coated core with end-pieces and four phase-pressure ports.
Water-wet pressure ports
Oil-wet pressure ports
SPE 113510 3
During the Magnetic Resonance Imaging experiments, the six Portland chalk core samples were waterflooded at S
wi
while
logging pressures and saturation as functions of time and position. The four pressure ports were aligned in a horizontal plane.
The experiments were terminated when the pressure in both/all ports reached a constant level or at water breakthrough.



Results and Discussion
The results from waterflooding the six chalk core plugs, including produced oil volumes, endpoint fluid saturations and
recovery factors, are listed in Table 3. Some of the recovery factors listed and labeled with * are not final oil recovery data,
due to termination before breakthrough of D
2
O. The main target of these experiments was not to maximize oil production, but
rather to study the response in the pressure ports as the waterfront passed by. Thus, due to time limitations, some of the
experiments were terminated when constant pressure and fluid saturations at the ports were reached. Preferentially, the
experiments at constant pressure injection should be run using a water column as this would give the most stable and
continuous water injection. However, due to time limitations, some cores were run using constant pressure pump injection.
The MRI intensity data were calibrated to the fluid saturations by normalizing the average sagital or 3D intensities to the
production data.

Table 3: Core data for Portland chalk core samples from MRI experiments.
Injection Method S
wi

Injection
Time
Produced
Oil
S
w, or
R
f

Core
Amott
Index
Constant Pressure psi % h cm
3
% %
M3* 0.39 Water Column 1.1 31.3 43.6 11.0 45.3 20.3
M8 0.45 Pump 5 20.3 42.8 38.0 69.7 62.0
E4 0.17 Pump 5 31.4 88.0 13.2 49.7 26.6
ISR 3 0.11 Pump 10 26.4 28.1 27.0 61.6 47.8
ISR 4 0.15 Pump 5 28.5 140.5 22.0 57.0 39.8
ISR 5 1.00 Pump 10 31.6 21.1 25.4 64.7 48.4
* Experiment stopped before breakthrough due to time limitations.


Core Plug M3 Moderately Water-Wet Conditions.
Absolute pressure and oil saturation in Port 1 during the constant pressure waterflood of core plug M3 are plotted as functions
of time in Figure 2. By approximating 6
th
degree polynomials to the experimental data an excellent fit was obtained. The
constant level of the initial oil saturation at S
o
= 69 % is adjusted based on the experimental setup and was excluded from the
reproduced curves since the polynomial is not valid in that range. All the fitted curves are reproduced in Figure 3 using the 6
th

degree polynomials. In Port 1, a constant pressure was recorded until the oil saturation starts decreasing at t = 2 hours, while
the constant pressure level in Port 2 was recorded for another 24 minutes. The core was moderately water-wet, and the distinct
pressure drop in both ports from t = 1.5 hours is believed to occur due to spontaneous imbibition. The pressure increased and
stabilized after approximately 10 hours in Port 1 and after 18 hours in Port 2. This is believed to represent the viscous
displacement following the spontaneous displacement of oil. By studying the saturation drop due to the spontaneous
imbibition (~ 11 %) compared to the saturation drop due to the viscous displacement (~ 13 %), an in situ Amott displacement-
by-water index may be calculated:

Port 1:
46 . 0
% 13 % 11
% 11
I
1 w
=
+
=
(1)
The delay in the viscous pressure response in Port 2 compared to Port 1 reflects the distance between the Ports (x = 3.62
cm). The viscous displacement front takes about 10 hours to travel from Port 1 to Port 2, i.e. at a velocity of 0.36 cm/h.

4 SPE 113510

Figure 2: Oil saturation (red) and absolute pressure (black) in Port 1 for core plug M3 (I=0.39). The blue lines indicate best fitted
curves to the data reproduced in Figure 3, and the red line at S
o
= 57 % indicates the endpoint saturation from spontaneous
imbibition.



Figure 3: Reproduced oil saturation (black and red) and absolute pressure (green and blue) curves for core plug M3 in Port 1 and Port
2, respectively.



SPE 113510 5
Core Plug M8 Moderately Water-Wet Conditions.
Absolute pressure and oil saturation in Port 1 during constant pressure waterflood of core plug M8 are plotted as functions of
time in Figure 4. When the constant pressure level after the spontaneous imbibition response was reached, the viscous
displacement started at t = 4 hours for Port 1 and at t = 8.5 hours for Port 2. Thus, with a distance of x = 3.81 cm between the
ports, the front moved with a velocity of 0.85 cm/h according to the pressure response. At approximately t = 18 hours, the
pressure reached a constant level, and no more oil was produced. The constant differential pressure between the ports at the
end of the waterflood was due to the produced continuous water phase.
By studying the saturation drop due to the spontaneous imbibition (~ 25 %) compared to the saturation drop due to the
viscous displacement (~ 25 %), an in situ Amott displacement-by-water index may be calculated:

Port 1:
50 . 0
% 25 % 25
% 25
I
1 w
=
+
=
(2)



Figure 4: Oil saturation and absolute pressure in Port 1 for core plug M8 (I=0.45). The red line at S
o
= 55 % indicates the endpoint
saturation from spontaneous imbibition.

Core Plug E4 Nearly Neutral-Wet Conditions.
Absolute pressure and oil saturation in Port 1 during constant pressure waterflood of core plug E4 are plotted as functions of
time in Figure 5. The core, reflecting an Amott-Harvey index of I = 0.17, shows only minimal signs of spontaneous imbibition
in the pressure curves. The response from the viscous displacement hits Port 1 at t = 22 hours and Port 2 at t = 40 hours, and a
distance between the ports of x = 3.77 cm yields an average water front velocity of 0.21 cm/h. By studying the saturation
drop due to the spontaneous imbibition (~ 2 %) compared to the saturation drop due to the viscous displacement (~ 17 %), an
in situ Amott displacement-by-water index may be calculated:

Port 1:
11 . 0
% 17 % 2
% 2
I
1 w
=
+
=
(3)


6 SPE 113510

Figure 5: Oil saturation and absolute pressure in Port 1 for core plug E4 (I=0.17). The red line at S
o
= 67 % indicates the endpoint
saturation from spontaneous imbibition.

The total recovery factor and the contributions from spontaneous and viscous displacement can be identified as shown in
Equation (1), Equation (2) and Equation (3) for core plugs M3, M8 and E4, respectively. The data is based on pressure and
saturation measurements in Port 1 only; due to higher uncertainties in the pressure measurements in Port 2, some figures and
results are omitted from this paper. Table 4 shows the recovery factors (total, spontaneous and viscous) and Amott-Harvey
indices (original and in situ) for the three core plugs M3, M8 and E4. From the table, the in situ wettability indices match with
the indices obtained from the original wettability measurements.


Table 4. Recovery factors corresponding to the endpoint values for total, spontaneous and viscous
recovery and Amott-Harvey indices.
M3 M8 E4

R
f, total
(% of OOIP) 34.8 61.3 27.5
R
f, spontaneous
(% of R
f, total
) 50.0 50.0 10.5
R
f, viscous
(% of R
f, total
) 50.0 50.0 89.5

I
in situ
0.50 0.50 0.11
I
Amott
0.39 0.45 0.17

Figure 6 through Figure 11 show oil saturations and phase pressures for core plugs ISR 3, ISR 4 and ISR 5, respectively,
organized by pressure ports. The pressure data demonstrate immediate response in the oil phase and a delayed response in the
water phase in both pressure ports in all cores. These results are expected features characterized by waterfloods at S
wi
,
indicating that the pressure measured in the ports are unaffected by the non-wetting phase in each port. The figures show an
increase in the water pressure as the oil saturation decreases locally with a distinct delay between Port 1 and Port 2, indicating
that the pressure gradient follows the front movement through the core. The pressure data show no non-explainable
irregularities, demonstrating that the concept of phase pressure measurements is an accurate method, allowing high-quality in
situ capillary pressure and relative permeability calculations. However, the immediate response in the oil phase pressures
curves causes irregularities in the relative permeability calculations due to the sensitivity of the time gradient of the oil
pressure involved in the calculations.










SPE 113510 7

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700
Time (min)
O
i
l

S
a
t
u
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
%
)
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
p
s
i
)
Saturation Oil Saturation Water Pressure Oil Pressure Water


Figure 6: Oil saturation (black and red) and absolute phase
pressures (blue and green) as functions of time in Port 1
during waterflooding of core plug ISR 3 (I = 0.11).




0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
Time (min)
O
i
l

S
a
t
u
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
%
)
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
p
s
i
)
Saturation Oil Saturation Water Pressure Oil Pressure Water


Figure 7: Oil saturation (black and red) and absolute phase
pressures (blue and green) as functions of time in Port 1
during waterflooding of core plug ISR 4 (I = 0.15).




0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Time (min)
O
i
l
S
a
t
u
r
a
t
io
n

(
%
)
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
p
s
i
)
Saturation Oil Saturation Water Pressure Oil Pressure Water


Figure 8: Oil saturation (black and red) and absolute phase
pressures (blue and green) as functions of time in Port 1
during waterflooding of core plug ISR 5 (I = 1.00).




0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700
Time (min)
O
i
l

S
a
t
u
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
%
)
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
p
s
i
)
Saturation Oil Saturation Water Pressure Oil Pressure Water


Figure 9: Oil saturation (black and red) and absolute phase
pressures (blue and green) as functions of time in Port 2
during waterflooding of core plug ISR 3 (I = 0.11).




0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
Time (min)
O
i
l

S
a
t
u
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
%
)
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
p
s
i
)
Saturation Oil Saturation Water Pressure Oil Pressure Water


Figure 10: Oil saturation (black and red) and absolute phase
pressures (blue and green) as functions of time in Port 2
during waterflooding of core plug ISR 4 (I = 0.15).



0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Time (min)
O
i
l S
a
t
u
r
a
t
i
o
n
(
%
)
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
(
p
s
i)
Saturation Oil Saturation Water Pressure Oil Pressure Water


Figure 11: Oil saturation (black and red) and absolute phase
pressures (blue and green) as functions of time in Port 2
during waterflooding of core plug ISR 5 (I = 1.00).

8 SPE 113510
The saturation data are based on the local MRI intensities around the pressure ports, allowing measurements close to the
location of the pressure measurements and reducing the time delay experienced in conventional measurement methods, in
which saturation is calculated as an average of small length segments of the cores. The disadvantage of selecting local
saturation data is the risk of higher uncertainty due to local heterogeneities and generally less saturation data, and the
saturation as a function of time may fluctuate more. All saturation data presented have been smoothed and adjusted to fit 6
th

degree polynomials in order to calculate the derivative of the curves. The oil pressures in Figure 10 and Figure 11 responds
immediately to the applied differential pressure, and decrease from 6 psi to 3.5 psi in Figure 10 and from 2.4 psi to 0.6 psi in
Figure 11 as the front passes the ports due to spontaneous imbibition of water into the core. The sudden increase in pressure at
150 minutes is due to the water front reaching the end of the core, building up pressure in the oil phase as a result of the
capillary end effect.
Capillary pressure is calculated directly from the in situ pressure data, collected from the first pressure port: The same
saturation S
w
is measured at two different times in the oil-wet and the water-wet pressure port, and the capillary pressure is
calculated according to Equation (4). Capillary pressure curves for the three core plugs ISR 3, ISR 4 and ISR 5 are shown in
Figure 12.

( )
S
w
S
o w c
p p S p =
(4)

The figure shows consistency with respect to wettability and the expected results, but due to the strong sensitivity from the
time at which the pressure data is selected, some irregularities are detected.


-6.0
-5.0
-4.0
-3.0
-2.0
-1.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Water Saturation (%)
C
a
p
i
l
l
a
r
y

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
p
s
i
)
ISR 3 ISR 4 ISR 5

Figure 12: Capillary pressure from in situ data for core plugs ISR 3, ISR 4 and ISR 5.

By using an explicit method (Koltveit, K., 1990), relative permeabilities was calculated for core plug ISR 5 from the in situ
data and plotted in Figure 13. The calculations are based on phase pressure measurements at the same saturations S
w
in the two
pressure ports P
1
and P
2
with distance x at time t t
1
= in pressure port 1 and t t t
2
+ = in pressure port 2. Using the
equation of continuity, the relative permeabilities can be expressed as:







SPE 113510 9
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
t
t P
x
t
x
t , P P t , P P
t , P S t , 0 S
t
x
A
t , 0 q
K
k
1 w
1
1
1
1 1
S
w 2 2
S
w
1 1 w 1 w
0
0 w
w
rw

=
(5)


( ) ( ) ( )
( )
t
t P
x
t
x
P
t , P S t , 0 S
t
x
K
k
1 c
1
1 w
1 1 o 1 o
0
0
o
ro

=
(6)


0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Water Saturation (%)
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

P
e
r
m
e
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

(
f
r
a
c
)
Oil
Water


Figure 13: Relative permeabilities from in situ data for core plug ISR 5.

Allthough the acquired data are of good quality, the relative permeabilities are strongly sensitivitive to the derivative of the
pressure and the time t it takes for one saturation to travel between the two pressure ports. This may have contributed the
unexpected oil relative permeability curve obtained.



Conclusions
Simultaneous pressure and saturation measurements in six Portland chalk cores at different wettabilities have been obtained
during waterfloods utilizing high spatial resolution Magnetic Resonance Imaging.
In three of the core plugs, local fluid pressure where measured in two pressure ports embedded into the cores at fixed
positions along the axis of injection. From the local pressure and saturation data, in situ Amott Indices were calculated, and
contributions from spontaneous imbibition and viscous displacement were identified. In the three remaining core plugs, local
pressure were measured for each fluid phase in four pressure ports embedded into the cores using semi-permeable discs with
selected wetting preferences. Relative permeability and capillary pressure curves for the imbibition were calculated from the in
situ data. Impacts of the wettability on the form of the pressure and saturation curves and the recovery factors due to
spontaneous imbibition and viscous displacement have been determined.

10 SPE 113510
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Jim Stevens at the ConocoPhilips Research Center in Bartlesville, OK, USA, for his contributions
during the experiments. One author is indebted to the Norwegian Reaserch Council for financial support.



Nomenclature
A = Cross-sectional area
D
2
O = Deuterium oxide
= Porosity
I = Amott-Harvey Index
I
w1
= Amott-Harvey Index to water at Port 1
K = Absolute permeability
k
ro
= Relative permeability to oil
k
rw
= Relative permeability to water

o
= Viscosity oil

w
= Viscosity water
OOIP = Original oil in place
p
c
= Capillary pressure
p
o
S
= Oil pressure at given saturation
p
w
S
= Water pressure at given saturation
q
w
= Water injection rate
R
f
= Recovery factor
S
o
= Oil saturation
S
w
= Water saturation
t = Time
x, x
1
= Distance between pressure ports
x
0
= Distance from inlet to pressure port 1



SI Metric Conversion Factors
cP 1.0 E-03 = Pas
mD 9.869 233 E-04 = m
2

psi 6.894 757 E+00 = kPa



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th
Annual
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rd
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th
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th
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