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SPE 113975

The Potential for Additional Carbon Dioxide Flooding Projects in the United
States
Hitesh Mohan, Marshall Carolus, and Khosrow Biglarbigi, SPE, INTEK Inc.
Copyright 2008, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2008 SPE/DOE Improved Oil Recovery Symposium held in Tulsa, Oklahoma, U.S.A., 1923April2008.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not been
reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its
officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to
reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of SPE copyright.


Abstract
In recent years, sustained increases in crude oil prices and continued decline in domestic conventional production have
renewed national interest in Carbon Dioxide Enhanced Oil Recovery (CO
2
EOR). Growing concern about climate change and
greenhouse gases has increased interest in carbon capture and sequestration. CO
2
EOR provides a value added opportunity to
increase crude oil production and sequester substantial volumes of industrial CO
2
.

An analysis was conducted to determine the incremental domestic production which could be realized if industrially
produced CO
2
is made available for EOR. The challenges are the volumes of CO
2
which can be made available, the
infrastructure requirements, and the prices at which the CO
2
can be made available. 1,673 potential CO
2
EOR candidate
reservoirs (with an estimated technical recovery of about 20 Billion barrels) were analyzed. These reservoirs were timed and
developed subject to the availability of CO
2
at a price economical to the EOR producer. To determine CO
2
availability, a
wide array of natural and industrial CO
2
sources was mapped along with candidate EOR reservoirs. Potential pipeline routes
were developed to determine the volume of CO
2
available from each industrial source, and to calculate the tariff required to
transport it to potential fields. Where volumes from concentrated sources like ethanol or hydrogen plants were insufficient for
a project, several such sources were linked through gathering lines and connected to potential fields through a trunk line. The
price of industrial CO
2
delivered to the producer includes the capture cost and regional pipeline tariff. This price was used to
determine the economics and development of EOR projects.

The analysis indicates that by increasing availability of CO
2
through wide-spread capture and sale of CO
2
from industrial
sources, and with oil prices between $45-$60/Bbl, approximately 1.2 Million barrels per day (MMBbl/d) of incremental oil
production can be realized while sequestering ~300 Million tons per day (Mtn/d) of CO
2
.

Introduction

Figure 1: U.S. Consumption and Demand Projections
A significant opportunity has been created by the
convergence of two trends: the continued decline in
U.S. crude oil production and the growing concerns
over climate change.
U.S. conventional crude oil production continues
to decline at the same time that demand for crude and
finished products continues to rise. According to the
Energy Information Administration (EIA) and shown
in figure 1, the U.S. demand will be above 27
MMBbl/D by 2030, while total production will be
under 10 MMBbl/D
1
. The remaining crude and
products have to be imported at substantial cost to the
United States.


0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
M
i
l
l
i
o
n

B
a
r
r
e
l
s

p
e
r

D
a
y
U.S. Production
(Includes Crude, NGLs,
and refinery gains)
58% Includes Finished
Products
2004
65% Includes
Finished
Products
20.74
9.65
27.65
8.63
18.00
12.11
U.S. Consumption
Source: U.S. DOE EIA "Annual Energy Outlook 2006".
Imports
2 SPE 113975


Figure 2: U.S. Annual Carbon Dioxide Emissions
There is growing consensus that the emission of
greenhouse gasses, including carbon dioxide, is
contributing to climate change. Over the past decades,
the United States has continued to be a major emitter of
CO
2
. The EIA reported that in 2006, the U.S. emitted
more than 100 Trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of CO
2
2
. This
volume, as seen in figure 2, is an increase of more than
20 percent over the 1990 emissions. This concern has
led scientists and politicians to make several proposals
including the creation of a cap and trade program for
emissions and sequestration of CO
2
.
The opportunity which has arisen is the widespread
implementation of CO
2
EOR. If industrial sources of
CO
2
are made available for EOR, the annual emissions
of this greenhouse gas can be reduced at the same time
that significant production and reserves growth can be
realized.
Four factors were identified which will have a significant impact on the widespread implementation of CO
2
EOR: 1) the
target resource, 2) the technology, 3) the availability of CO
2
, and 4) the economics. An assessment of each of these factors
was done in order to determine the potential production and benefits which could be realized. This paper describes both the
resource base and technology. It also provides a detailed overview of the methods used to determine the costs and available
volumes of both natural and industrial sources of CO
2
. Finally, it discusses the economics and describes the potential
production and other benefits which can be realized.

Target Resource
There are 1,673 reservoirs in the Onshore Lower 48 United States which are candidates for CO
2
miscible flooding. These
reservoirs were identified using the following criteria:

API Gravity greater than 22 Degrees
The reservoir pressure greater than the minimum miscibility pressure
Depth greater than 2,500 feet
Oil viscosity less than 10 cp
Current oil saturation is greater than 20% of the pore volume
Either sandstone or carbonate rock

The locations of these reservoirs are mapped in figure 3. The technical production was determined for each reservoir using a
simulator developed from the CO2PM
3
predictive model. The total technical production for these reservoirs over forty years,
assuming 1.0 hydrocarbon pore volume, is 18.6 Billion barrels.

Figure 3: U.S. Candidate CO
2
EOR Fields

1,673 Candidate Reservoirs
Technical Recovery
18.6 Billion Barrels over 40 Years
1,673 Candidate Reservoirs
Technical Recovery
18.6 Billion Barrels over 40 Years

60
70
80
90
100
110
1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005
Year
T
r
i
l
l
i
o
n

C
u
b
i
c

F
e
e
t

C
O
2
SPE 113975 3

Technology
CO
2
EOR technologies have been demonstrated to be profitable in commercial scale applications for nearly 30 years. As of
2006, there were eighty CO
2
EOR projects in the United States. These projects had a combined production of 234,000
barrels per day. Ten of these projects were started between 2004 and 2006. This, as seen in figure 4, shows the increase in
both the number of active projects and the production being realized
4
. Of the projects active in 2006, 58 are located within
the Permian Basin. This is partly because of the prevalence of candidate reservoirs in that region, but also due to the steady
availability of natural CO
2
for EOR.

Figure 4: Existing Domestic CO
2
Miscible Flooding Projects and Production

234 MBbl/Day in 2006
0
50
100
150
200
250
1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006
Year
P
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
o
n

(
M
B
b
l
/
D
a
y
)
EOR Production (MBbl/Day)
80 Projects in 2006
0
20
40
60
80
100
1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006
Year
N
o
.

o
f

P
r
o
j
e
c
t
s
No. of EOR Projects
234 MBbl/Day in 2006
0
50
100
150
200
250
1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006
Year
P
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
o
n

(
M
B
b
l
/
D
a
y
)
EOR Production (MBbl/Day)
80 Projects in 2006
0
20
40
60
80
100
1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006
Year
N
o
.

o
f

P
r
o
j
e
c
t
s
No. of EOR Projects


Availability of CO
2

Two types of CO
2
can be produced in the United States: natural and industrial. The availability and wellhead cost of each of
these source types was examined.

Natural Sources of CO
2

The United States produces approximately 3 Billion cubic feet (Bcf) of CO
2
per day from natural sources in the Permian
Basin, Colorado, and Mississippi, as well as an ammonia plant in Oklahoma. Figure 5 provides the location of the natural
sources and major CO
2
pipelines
5
.
Seventy eight percent of the available CO
2
is sent to the Permian Basin. The rest is available in the Gulf Coast of
Louisiana, Colorado, and Wyoming. The CO
2
produced at the Great Plains Coal Gasification Plant in North Dakota is
currently being sold to the Weyburn project in Canada and is not being considered for this analysis. The source, pipeline,
destination, and daily rate for the major CO
2
pipelines are provided in table 1
6
.
The wellhead cost of natural CO
2
was determined using a cost equation developed by INTEK
7
which incorporates both
the oil price and the location of the reservoir. This captures the changes in CO
2
prices due to increased demand during high
oil prices and the additional cost required to transport CO
2
in areas not readily reached by existing pipelines.

Figure 5: Current CO
2
Sources and Pipelines Table 1: Major CO
2
Pipelines







Daily Rate
MMCF/D
Wyoming
Colorado
Jackson Dome
Denbury-
Jackson
Mississippi 220
Cortez Texas 1,300
McElmo Creek Utah 60
Sheep Mountain
Dome
Sheep
Mountain
Texas 480
Bravo Dome Bravo Texas 482
Val Verde
Gas Plants
Val Verde Texas 70
Oklahoma
Fertilizer Plant
Total Daily Rate 2,997
LaBarge LaBarge 350
Source Pipeline States Supplied
35
McElmo Dome
Local Pipeline Oklahoma
Daily Rate
MMCF/D
Wyoming
Colorado
Jackson Dome
Denbury-
Jackson
Mississippi 220
Cortez Texas 1,300
McElmo Creek Utah 60
Sheep Mountain
Dome
Sheep
Mountain
Texas 480
Bravo Dome Bravo Texas 482
Val Verde
Gas Plants
Val Verde Texas 70
Oklahoma
Fertilizer Plant
Total Daily Rate 2,997
LaBarge LaBarge 350
Source Pipeline States Supplied
35
McElmo Dome
Local Pipeline Oklahoma
4 SPE 113975

Table 2: Permian Basin Natural CO
2
Prices
Table 2 shows the costs of natural CO
2
in the Permian Basin at different oil
prices. As this CO
2
is produced from natural sources, the capture costs are
minimal. The costs listed in the table primarily reflect transportation.

Industrial Sources of CO
2

The second category of CO
2
is industrial sources. Currently there are a few
plants, including a Texas gas plant and an Oklahoma fertilizer plant, which
provide CO
2
for EOR. These existing sources are listed in the natural source
category. For this study, other existing industrial sources were examined to
determine the additional volume of CO
2
which could be provided to EOR
projects in the United States.
The primary source of emission data for this analysis was the National
Carbon Sequestration Database and Geographic Information System (NATCARB). NATCARB is a unified database, funded
by the National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) and maintained by the Kansas Geological Survey, which contains
several regional databases of carbon sources and sinks
8
. Data is provided for utilities, ethanol, gas processing, concrete, steel,
refineries, ammonia, and other industrial sources.
The NATCARB database provides source data for 56.5 Tcf of industrial carbon dioxide emissions. Sources considered
include: the fossil fuel plants, refineries, cement plants, hydrogen plants, ammonia plants, and ethanol plants. These sources
were initially screened according to their proximity to candidate EOR fields. The fossil fuel power plants were further
screened according to the emission volume. Figure 6 maps the industrial sources considered in the study
9
.

Figure 6: Industrial Sources of CO
2



Refineries
Ammonia Plants
Cement Plants
Hydrogen Plants
Ethanol Plants > 50 Bcf/Yr
Ethanol Plants > 1 Bcf/Yr
Fossil Fuel Power Plants
Refineries
Ammonia Plants
Cement Plants
Hydrogen Plants
Ethanol Plants > 50 Bcf/Yr
Ethanol Plants > 1 Bcf/Yr
Fossil Fuel Power Plants


Fossil fuel plants and refineries represent almost 90% of the total CO
2
emitted. However, CO
2
emissions from ethanol plants
are expected to grow steadily in the near future. The location and emission data of ethanol plants, presented in figure 7, was
supplemented using data from the Renewable Fuels Association
10
. As seen in table 3, up to 25 Tcf of industrial CO
2
can be
made available each year through capture from these industrial sources
11
.
Oil Price ($/Bbl) CO
2
Price ($/Mcf)
$30.00 $0.89
$35.00 $0.96
$40.00 $1.02
$45.00 $1.09
$50.00 $1.15
$55.00 $1.22
$60.00 $1.28
$65.00 $1.35
$70.00 $1.41
SPE 113975 5


Figure 7: Ethanol Plant Locations

Ethanol Plants > 50 Bcf/Yr
Ethanol Plants > 1 Bcf/Yr
Ethanol Plants > 50 Bcf/Yr
Ethanol Plants > 1 Bcf/Yr
65 Ethanol Plants
108 BCF CO
2
Emitted Each Year


Table 3: Available Volumes of Industrial CO
2
by Source

Industrial Source Annual CO
2
Available (BCF)
Fossil Fuel Plants 21,763
Refineries 2,082
Cement Plants 403
Hydrogen Plants 343
Ammonia Plants 126
Ethanol Plants 108
All Sources 24,825


Determining Wellhead Costs for Industrial CO
2

The wellhead cost for industrial sources of CO
2
contain two main components: capture and transportation. The transportation
costs are assumed to be the pipeline tariffs and calculated using the following procedure: 1) The maps of industrial sources
and candidate fields were overlaid and used to define several geographic regions which are illustrated in figure 9. 2) The
average distances between the sources and fields were calculated for each type of industrial CO
2
. 3) A pipeline tariff model
was developed by INTEK Inc,
12
and used to calculate the minimum tariff required for each source. Figure 8, which
illustrates this procedure, shows the distances between four refineries and a large number of candidate fields in the
Midcontinent region. In this illustration, the tariff would be for the average distance of 158 miles.

Figure 8: Mapping the Industrial Sources to the Candidate Fields

2
0
7
180
130
1
1
4 Average Pipeline Length = 158 mi
2
0
7
180
130
1
1
4
2
0
7
180
130
1
1
4 Average Pipeline Length = 158 mi

6 SPE 113975
This procedure was applied to each geographic region and source of CO
2
. The range of distances for each region, and the
corresponding pipeline tariffs are provided in table 4
13
. The Southwest region, which corresponds to the Permian Basin, is
assumed to use the existing CO
2
pipelines.

Table 4: Ranges of Pipeline Distances and Tariffs
The primary source of capture cost data was the
recent Global Energy Technology Strategy
Program report
14
. Additional cost data was
provided by recent Inter-Governmental Panel
on Climate Change
15
and other reports and
publicly available data
16
. As seen in table 5
17
,
the capture costs are technology-specific and
vary drastically depending on the plant type.



Table 5: Technology Specific Capture Cost Ranges

Total Volumes of CO
2
Available
Up to 26 Tcf of natural and industrial CO
2

could be made available on the market.
Fossil fuel plants and refineries represent
almost 90% of the total CO
2
available. As a
result, the East Coast region has an
available CO
2
volume, shown in figure 9, of
almost 14 Tcf annually. The Gulf Coast
contains a large portion of the nations
refineries, and thus produces approximately 5.5 Tcf annually. The 1Tcf per year of CO
2
available on the Southwest region
comes predominantly from natural sources and Permian basin refineries. Other significant sources of CO
2
are the Rocky
Mountains with over 3 Tcf, and the Northern Great Plains with 1.2 Tcf.
Total costs shown in figure 9 can be as low as $0.92 per Mcf for ammonia and hydrogen plants, and rise to as much as
$3.22 per Mcf for fossil fuel plants. Costs for ethanol plants can be as low as $0.99 per Mcf, and CO
2
emissions from ethanol
plants are expected to grow steadily in the near future. While wellhead costs for all plant types fall within a wide range,
technological improvements continue to yield significantly lower capture costs for newly built plants.

Figure 9: Regional CO
2
Availability and Prices

3,082 Bcf/Y
($3.2-$3.2 Mcf)
961 Bcf/Y
($0.9-$3.2 Mcf)
1,178 Bcf/Y
($1.0-$3.2 Mcf)
13,739 Bcf/Y
($0.9-$3.2 Mcf)
5,557 Bcf/Y
($0.9-$3.2 Mcf)
223 Bcf/Y
($1.0-$3.2 Mcf)
1,034 Bcf/Y
($1.0-$1.0 Mcf)
Total Volume of CO
2
Available
Wellhead Prices (Capture + Transportation)
3,082 Bcf/Y
($3.2-$3.2 Mcf)
961 Bcf/Y
($0.9-$3.2 Mcf)
1,178 Bcf/Y
($1.0-$3.2 Mcf)
13,739 Bcf/Y
($0.9-$3.2 Mcf)
5,557 Bcf/Y
($0.9-$3.2 Mcf)
223 Bcf/Y
($1.0-$3.2 Mcf)
1,034 Bcf/Y
($1.0-$1.0 Mcf)
Total Volume of CO
2
Available
Wellhead Prices (Capture + Transportation)


Technology and market constraints prevent the total volumes of CO
2
from becoming immediately available. The
development of the CO
2
market is divided into 3 periods: 1) technology R&D, 2) infrastructure construction, and 3) market
acceptance. The capture technology is under development during the R&D phase, and no CO
2
is available at that time.
During the infrastructure development, the required capture equipment, pipelines, and compressors are being constructed, and
no CO
2
is available. During the market acceptance phase, the capture technology is being widely implemented and volumes
of CO
2
first become available. The maximum CO
2
available is achieved when the maximum percentage of the industry
Region Distance Tariff
East Coast 65 to 127 $0.39 to $0.49
Gulf Coast 56 to 78 $0.39 to $0.51
Midcontinent 31 to 124 $0.38 to $0.52
Southwest Local Pipelines $0.39 to $0.51
Rocky Mountain 55 to 87 $0.39 to $0.51
West Coast 59 to 72 $0.39 to $0.51
Northern Great Plains 56 to 81 $0.39 to $0.51
low high low high average
Fossil Fuel Power Plants 38 63 2.11 3.50 2.81
Refineries 35 55 1.95 3.06 2.50
Cement Plant 35 55 1.95 3.06 2.50
Hydrogen Plants 6 12 0.33 0.67 0.50
Ammonia Plants 6 12 0.33 0.67 0.50
Ethenol Plants 6 12 0.33 0.67 0.50
New IGCC Plants 25 40 1.39 2.22 1.81
Technology
$/Ton CO
2
$/mcf CO
2
SPE 113975 7
which will adopt the technology has been reached. This provides an upper limit on the volume of CO
2
which will be
available. Due to these assumptions, the industrial CO
2
from more concentrated sources, such as the ammonia, hydrogen,
and ethanol plants, will become fully available after 14 years. The total volumes of CO
2
from refineries and fossil fuel plants
will become available after 21 years. Figure 10 provides the annual availability of CO
2
from ammonia plants. Similar
availability curves were developed for each source of industrial, as well as natural CO
2
.


Figure 10: Annual CO
2
Availability from Ammonia
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
2008 2012 2016 2020 2024 2028
A
n
n
u
a
l

C
O
2

A
v
a
i
l
a
b
l
e

(
B
C
F
)
R&D Phase
3 Years
Infrastructure
Development
4 Years
Market
Acceptance
7 Years
Maximum CO
2
Available
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
2008 2012 2016 2020 2024 2028
A
n
n
u
a
l

C
O
2

A
v
a
i
l
a
b
l
e

(
B
C
F
)
R&D Phase
3 Years
Infrastructure
Development
4 Years
Market
Acceptance
7 Years
Maximum CO
2
Available


Economics
The economics of each project was evaluated using a detailed cashflow model for all natural and industrial sources of CO
2
at
oil prices between $45 and $60 per barrel. The projects which were economically viable were then checked for availability
of sufficient CO
2
at a regional level. The least expensive sources of CO
2
were considered first. Those projects, which could
be supplied by a single source of CO
2
for the life of the project, were then aggregated to the regional and national levels in
order to determine the benefits of wide-spread CO
2
EOR.

Benefits of Additional CO
2
Flooding Projects

Figure 11: U.S. Onshore Lower 48 Crude Oil and CO
2
Sequestration
From Additional CO
2
Flooding Projects
Figure 11 shows the national oil production and
CO
2
sequestration from additional CO
2
projects.
By 2030, an additional 1.2 million barrels of
daily incremental production could be realized
while nearly 5 Bcf of CO
2
would be sequestered
on a daily basis. The CO
2
sequestered is the
difference between the volume of CO
2
injected
and the volume of CO
2
produced. The two
hump shape of the CO
2
curve is due to
additional CO
2
from refineries and power plants
becoming available after 2021 for additional
projects. Figure 12 provides a regional
breakdown of the production and CO
2

sequestration. As seen in the graph, the majority
of the production will come from the Southwest.
However, additional production can be realized
from all other regions, with the Midcontinent,
Northern Great Plains, and West Coast providing
nearly 250,000 barrels of daily production.
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
2008 2012 2016 2020 2024 2028
Year
D
a
i
l
y

O
i
l

P
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
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n

(
M
B
b
l
)
0
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
D
a
i
l
y

C
O
2

I
n
j
e
c
t
i
o
n

(
M
M
C
F
)
8 SPE 113975


Figure 12: Regional Distribution of Crude Oil Production and Sequestration
Regional Incremental Oil Production from CO
2
EOR
-
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030
D
a
i
l
y

O
i
l

P
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
o
n

(
M
B
b
l
/
D
a
y
)
West Coast
Northern Great Plains
Rocky Mountain
Southwest
Midcontinent
Gulf Coast
East Coast
Regional CO2 Sequestration
-
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030
D
a
i
l
y

C
O
2

I
n
j
e
c
t
i
o
n

(
M
M
C
F
/
D
a
y
)
West Coast
Northern Great Plains
Rocky Mountain
Southwest
Midcontinent
Gulf Coast
East Coast
Regional Incremental Oil Production from CO
2
EOR
-
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030
D
a
i
l
y

O
i
l

P
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
o
n

(
M
B
b
l
/
D
a
y
)
West Coast
Northern Great Plains
Rocky Mountain
Southwest
Midcontinent
Gulf Coast
East Coast
Regional CO2 Sequestration
-
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030
D
a
i
l
y

C
O
2

I
n
j
e
c
t
i
o
n

(
M
M
C
F
/
D
a
y
)
West Coast
Northern Great Plains
Rocky Mountain
Southwest
Midcontinent
Gulf Coast
East Coast


Conclusions
Currently 80 CO
2
miscible flooding projects are active in the United States with a total daily production of 234,000 barrels of
oil. The total production potential for CO
2
EOR in the U.S. is approximately 19 Billion Barrels. Many of these projects are
now, because of the recent high oil prices, economically viable and limited by the availability of CO
2
. The widespread usage
of industrial CO
2
for EOR could increase the available volume from 3 Bcf per day from natural sources to nearly 70 Bcf per
day of natural and industrial sources. This CO
2
would be available not only in the Permian Basin, but in all parts of the
United States. By providing a steady source of CO
2
, at prices between $1 and $3 per Mcf, more than 200 CO
2
EOR projects,
with incremental production reaching 1.2 million barrels a day could be realized. At the same time, these projects would
provide the opportunity to sequester nearly 5 Bcf of CO
2
each day. Over 25 years, this could result in the production of more
than 5.5 billion barrels of oil and the sequestration of nearly 30 Tcf of CO
2
.

Limitations
The analysis presented here has important limitations which should be considered. These limitations include:
The availability of CO
2
from industrial sources will be impacted by industry participation. To the extent that
industry captures CO
2
and makes it available for EOR, the regional volumes of CO
2
and potential production will be
impacted.
The analysis assumes that the capture technologies will be successful and available for implementation within 3 to 6
years. To the extent that successful development of capture technology, or the development of necessary
infrastructure is delayed, or CO
2
prices are outside of forecast ranges, the projected production and sequestration
will be impeded.
The analysis does not consider the competition of CO
2
EOR with other EOR technologies. To the extent that other
recovery technologies are applied to the reservoirs, the production will be impacted.
The analysis assumes a hydrocarbon pore volume of 1.0. To the extent that the total injection of CO
2
is above or
below that value, the technical recovery and production will be impacted.

None of the above limitations, however, invalidate the results of this analysis if they are viewed for what they are intended
for, which is an estimate of the upside potential of CO
2
EOR.

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the staff of INTEK Inc. for their efforts in preparing the manuscript and the analysis. The staff
includes Jeffrey Stone (Research Assistant) and Jeremy Larrieu (Senior Analyst).

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