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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Tribology and Journal Bearing

Tribology is the word derived from Greek word Tribos, means rubbing process.
Tribology mainly deals with technique of lubrication and mechanism of friction and
wear. The loss of input energy in any mechanism is mainly due to friction and lubrication
is the most efficient way to reduce friction. From this point of view the subject tribology
has immense importance. Through research and development in the field of tribology if
mechanical systems can be run more with higher efficiency then in turn it will save huge
money and can contribute significantly in the progress of the human society. For this
reason the subject tribology has been the subject of extensive research for many a
decades.

But tribology itself a very vast subject, which includes chemistry of lubricants, physics of
fluid flow, surface topology, contact mechanics, material science and mechanical
engineering. Therefore for a meaningful and effective development of this subject efforts
are needed from chemists, physicists, mathematicians and engineers. For this reasons
many governments are putting emphasis separately on development of tribological
societies.

In a mechanical system bearing has an important role to play. A bearing is a system of
machine elements whose function is to support an applied load by reducing friction
between the relatively moving surfaces. The load may be radial or axial or combination
of these. Bearings are classified according to the direction of applied load. If the bearing
supports radial loads, it is called radial or journal bearing. On other hand, a thrust bearing
supports a thrust or axial load. Some bearing can support both radial as well as axial load
and they are known as conical bearings.

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In the clearance space of a bearing a substance called lubricant is introduced. Any
substance which has some amount of viscosity is known as lubricant. The most common
lubricants are oils and greases. With the use of lubricant the energy lost by friction is
reduced. The lubricant also serves as a cooling agent by carrying away the heat generated
by fluid friction.

There are mainly two common types of bearing are used in practice. They are rolling
element and fluid film bearings. Rolling-element bearings have much wider use in
industries since rolling friction is lower than the sliding friction. Lubricant used in rolling
bearing is usually grease.

If two mating surfaces during operated conditions are completely separated by fluid film,
such a type of lubrication is called fluid film lubrication. Bearings operated under this
type of lubrication, is sometimes known as perfect lubrication. Fluid film bearings are
lubricated by hydrodynamic flow which is generated by relative surface motion and/or
external pressurization. A fluid film bearing operating on the principle of hydrodynamic
lubrication is called self-acting bearing, in which the load is supported due to wedging
effect of the fluid caused by the relative tangential motion between two surfaces. In an
externally pressurized (sometimes called hydrostatic) bearing, the load is supported due
to pressure in the fluid which is supplied from an external source. In addition to these two
types, there is another class of fluid film bearing known as squeeze-film bearings,
which support a load because of oscillating relative normal motion. In this last two
categories, viz., externally pressurized and squeeze-film, the pressure within the
clearance space can be generated without the wedging effect (or converging film).

Hydrodynamic journal bearings are considered to be a vital component of all rotating
machinery. It is used to support radial loads under high speed operating conditions.
Journal bearing may be divided into full journal bearing, where the contact angle of the
bushing with the journal is 360, and partial journal bearing, in which the contact angle is
either 180 or less. Full (360) journal bearings are widely used bearing in industrial
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machinery. These bearings are widely used bearings in industrial machinery. These
bearings can take up rotating load. The partial journal bearings have limited applications
and are used when the direction of radial loads does not change. Figure below shows the
full and partial journal bearings.

Fig 1.1(a): Full Journal Bearing.

Fig 1.1(b): Partial Journal Bearing.





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1.2 Basic laws of tribology
Journal bearing is a hydrodynamic load bearing. In the journal bearing, the lubricant in
between the journal and bearing rotates with the journal and supports the load. Due to the
physical configuration of journal bearing a wedge shaped fluid film is created as shown
in the figure below-

Fig 1.2: Fluid film development in a journal bearing.
Now this wedge shaped fluid film obeys the laws of-
Conservation of mass flow
Conservation of momentum in X, Y and Z directions
Conservation of energy
Besides these the lubricants physical property obeys the equation of states.
Now if the fluid obeys the Newtonian laws of viscosity then we have to modify the above
conservation laws as shown below.
1.2.1 Mass flow conservation
This law is stated as follows-
Rate of increase of mass in the fluid element = Net rate of flow of mass into
fluid element
The equation representing above law can be written in vector notation as-


The above equation is the unsteady three dimensional conservation of mass or continuity
equation at a point in a compressible fluid.
If we consider an incompressible fluid then the density () will be constant and the
equation reduces to-
()

)
---------------------------------------- (1.1)
5

=>()



1.2.2 Conservation of momentum
The statement for this law can be stated as-
Rate of increase of momentum in the fluid particle in any particular direction =
Sum of forces on the fluid particle in that direction.
Now if we impose this law on the flow in X- direction, the mathematical expression
becomes-



Where,

is the total derivative of U with respect to timet

is the shear stress in X- plane of differential cubic fluid element having

dimensions
x

y

z

is that of Y- plane in X- direction

is that of Z- plane in X- direction

Similarly for Y and Z directions we can write the momentum conservation equation as
following-



And

---------------------------------------- (1.2)

---------------------------------------- (1.3a)

---------------------------------------- (1.3b)

---------------------------------------- (1.3c)
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1.2.3 Conservation of energy
We can state the conservation of energy as follows-
Rate of increase of energy of a fluid particle = Net rate of heat added to the
fluid particle + Net rate of work done on the fluid particle
The mathematical expression for the above law is-






Now we know that

), we get





Where,

In special case of an incompressible fluid we have, i = cT and (

) , then we get-






Now we know-
() and

)
Considering the above relations we get-

) [
(

] ( )

--------------(1.4a)

) ( )

------------------------(1.4b)

( )

------------------------(1.5)
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So the above energy equation becomes-






Besides above mentioned conservation equations, the two equations of states have to be
considered. These are-


For perfect gas these are


Now we are going to combine the above five relations i.e. mass conservation equation,
three momentum conservation equations (which are familiar as Navier-Stokes equation)
and one energy conservation equation along with the Newtons viscosity equations.
If we consider the fluid to be a Newtonian fluid then we have to consider the following
equations of viscosity-











----(1.7)
( )

( )

and ----(1.8)
----(1.9)

and ----(1.10)

) ( )

[
(

-----------------(1.6)

)
----------------------(1.11)
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Now if we combine the above viscosity relations with momentum conservation equations
or Navier-Stokes relations we get








and if we combine viscous equations with energy conservation equation, we get



Where is called dissipation function and can be expanded as
{[(

] (

} (

Here we can see clearly form the above equation of dissipation function is a non-
negative function.

1.3 Importance of surface texturing on Bearing Surface
A Journal Bearings performance is measured by few parameters; these are load carrying
capacity (W), frictional torque (Fr) and the coefficient of friction (f). It has been
investigated and proved by many scientist like Floberg[1], Etison[3], Cuppilard[4] etc
that surface texturing as a means for enhancing tribological performance of a Journal
bearing. So many researches are being conducted since early sixties of twentieth century
to investigate influence of different texture pattern on journal bearing performance. Few
of which have been mentioned in references [1] to [10].
As mentioned above that a bearing performance is measured by the parameters W, Fr and
f, these quantities can be calculated from the following equations.

( )

----------------------(1.12b)

( )

----------------------(1.12c)

( )

-------------------(1.13)

( )

----------------------(1.12a)
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()

()

()

Here,
i) L is the length of the bearing.
ii) R is the radius of the bearing.
iii) p is pressure at any point on the bearing surface.
iv) is the angular position of any point measuring from maximum thickness.
v) is the shear stress at any point on the journal surface.

1.4 CFD and its relevance

1.4.1 What is CFD
CFD is an acronym for Computational Fluid Dynamics, or the technique of using a
computer to predict how fluids flow. Numerical methods for the solution of ODEs or
PDEs have been conceptually conceived since the time of Newton. However, with the
absence of computers at that time there was no way for the application of these
techniques. With todays computers, on the other hand, numerical techniques to solve
differential equations are readily available.
CFD works by solving the equations of fluid flow over a region of interest, with specified
conditions on the boundary of that region. The partial differential equations which
describe the processes of momentum and mass transfer are known as the Navier-Stokes
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equations. The most common method which is used to solve these equations is known as
the finite volume method. A finite volume method (FVM) discretization is based upon an
integral form of the PDE to be solved (e.g. conservation of mass, momentum, or energy).
The PDE is written in a form which can be solved for a given finite volume (or cell). The
computational domain is discretized into finite volumes and then for every volume the
governing equations are solved.

1.4.2 Utility of CFD
Using CFD we can do the analysis of fluid flow, heat transfer and associated phenomena
such as chemical reactions by means of computer based technique. The technique is very
powerful and spans a wide range of industrial and non-industrial application areas. Some
examples are:
Aerodynamics of aircraft and vehicles: lift and drag.
Hydrodynamic of ships.
Power plant: combustion in IC engines and turbines.
Turbo-machinery: flow inside rotating passages, diffusers etc.
Electrical and electronic engineering: cooling of equipments including micro
circuitry.
Chemical process engineering: mixing and separation, polymer molding.
External and internal environment of buildings: wind loading and heating/
ventilation.
Environmental engineering: distribution of pollutants and effluents.
Hydrology and oceanography: flows of rivers, estuaries and oceans.
Metrology: weather prediction.
Biomedical engineering: Blood flows through arteries and veins.
From 1960s onwards the aerospace industry has integrated CFD technology into the
design, R&D and manufacturing of aircraft and jet engines. More recently the methods
have been applied to design of internal combustion engine, combustion chamber of gas
turbines and furnaces. Furthermore, motor vehicle manufacturers now routinely predict
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drag force, under-bonnet air flows and in-car environment using CFD. Increasingly CFD
is becoming a vital component in the design of industrial products and process.
The ultimate aim of developments in the CFD field is to provide a capability comparable
to other CAE (Computer Aided Engineering) tools such as stress analysis codes. The
main reason why CFD has lagged behind is the tremendous complexity of the underlying
behavior, which precludes a description of fluid flows that is same time economical and
sufficiently complete. The availability of affordable high performance computing
hardware and the introduction of user-friendly interfaces have led to a recent upsurge of
interest and CFD is poised to make an entry into the wider industrial community in the
1990s.
Though the investment costs of a CFD capability are not small, but the total expense is
not normally as great as that of a high quality experimental facility. Moreover there are
several unique advantages of CFD over experiment-based approaches to fluid systems
design:
Substantial reduction of lead times and costs of new designs.
Ability to study systems where controlled experiments are difficult or impossible
to perform (e.g. very large systems).
Ability to study systems under hazardous conditions at and beyond their normal
performance limits (e.g. safety studies and accident scenarios).
Practically unlimited level of detail of results.
The variable cost of an experiment, in terms of facility hire and/or man-hour costs, is
proportional to the number of data points and the number of configurations tested. In
contrast CFD codes can produce extremely large volumes of results at virtually no added
expense and it is very cheap to perform parametric studies, for instance to optimize
equipment performance.

1.4.3 How does a CFD code work?
CFD codes are structured around the numerical algorithms that can tackle fluid flow
problems. In order to provide easy access to their solving power all commercial CFD
packages include sophisticated user interfaces to input problem parameters and to
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examine the results. Hence all codes contain three main elements: (i) a pre-processor (ii)
a solver and (iii) a post-processor. We briefly examine the function of each of these
elements within the context of a CFD code.

Preprocessor
Pre - processing consists of the input of a flow problem to a CFD program by meanof an
operator-friendly interface and the subsequent transformation of this input into a form
suitable for use by the solver. The user activities at the preprocessing stage involve:
Definition of the geometry of the region of interest: the computational domain.
Grid generation the sub-division of the domain into a number of smaller, non-
overlapping sub-domains: a grid (or mesh) of cells (or control volumes or
elements).
Selection of the physical and chemical phenomena that need to be modeled.
Definition of fluid properties.
Specification of appropriate boundary conditions at cells which coincide with or
touch the domain boundary.
The solution to a flow problem (velocity, pressure, temperature etc.) is defined at nodes
inside each cell the accuracy of a CFD solution is governed by the number of cells in the
grid. In general, the larger the numbers of cells better the solution accuracy. Both the
accuracy of a solution and its cost in terms of necessary computer hardware and
calculation time are dependent on the fineness of the grid. Optimal meshes are often non-
uniform: finer in areas where large variations occur from point to point and coarser in
regions with relatively little change. Efforts are under way to develop CFD codes with a
(self-) adaptive meshing capability. Ultimately such programs will automatically refine
the grid in areas of rapid variations. A substantial amount of basic development work still
needs to be done before these techniques are robust enough to be incorporated into
commercial CFD codes. At present it is still up to the skills of the CFD user to design a
grid that is a suitable compromise between desired accuracy and solution cost.
Over 50% of the time spent in industry on a CFD project is devoted to the definition of
the domain geometry and grid generation. In order to maximize productivity of CFD
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personnel all the major codes now include their own CAD-style interface and/or facilities
to import data from proprietary surface modelers and mesh generators such as
Pro/Engineer, CATIA, UG NX, Solid Edge, Hypermesh etc. Up-to-date pre-processors
also give the user access to libraries of material properties for common fluids and a
facility to invoke special physical and chemical process models (e.g. turbulence models,
radiative heat transfer, combustion models) alongside the main fluid flow equations.

Solver
There are distinct streams of numerical solution techniques: finite difference finite and
spectral methods. In outline the numerical methods that form the basis of the solver
perform the following steps:
Approximation of the unknown flow variables by means of simple functions.
Discretisation by substitution of the approximations into the governing flow
equations and subsequent mathematical manipulations.
Solution the algebraic equations.
The main differences between the three separate streams are associated with the way in
which the flow variables are approximated and with the discretisation processes.
Finite difference methods: Finite difference methods describe the unknowns of the flow
problem by means of point samples at the node points of a grid of co-ordinate lines.
Truncated Taylor series expansions are often used to generate finite difference
approximations of derivatives of in terms of point samples of at each grid point and
its immediate neighbors. Those derivatives appearing in the governing equations are
replaced by finite differences yielding an algebraic equation for the values of at each
grid point. Smith (1985) gives a comprehensive account of all aspects of the finite
difference method.
Finite element methods: Finite element methods use simple piecewise functions (e.g
linear or quadratic) valid un elements to describe the local variations of unknown flow
variables . The governing equation is precisely satisfied by the exact solution . If the
piecewise approximating functions for are substituted into the equation it will not hold
exactly and a residual is defined to measure the errors. Next the residual (and hence the
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errors) are minimized in some sense by multiplying them by a set of weighing functions
and integrating. As a result we obtain a set of algebraic equations for the unknown
coefficients of the approximating functions. The theory of finite element has been
developed initially for structural stress analysis. A standard work for fluids applications is
Zienkiewicz and Taylor (1991).
Spectral Methods: Spectral methods approximate the unknowns by means truncated
Fourier series or series of Chebyshcv polynomials. Unlike the finite difference or finite
clement approach the approximations are not local but valid throughout the entire
computational domain. Again we replace the unknowns in the governing equation by the
truncated series. The constraint that leads to the algebraic equations for the coefficients of
the Fourier or Chebyshev series is provided by a weighted residual concept similar to the
finite element method or by making the approximate function coincide with the exact
solution at a number of grid points.
The finite volume method: The finite volume method was originally developed as a
special finite difference formulation. This book shall be solely concerned with this most
well - established and thoroughly validated general purpose CFD technique. It is central
to four of the five main commercially available CFD codes: PHOENICS, FLUENT,
FLOW3D and STAR-CD. The numerical algorithm consists of the following steps:
Formal integration of the governing equations of fluid flow over all the (finite)
control volume of the solution domain.
Discretisation involves the substitution of a variety of finite-difference-type
approximation for the terms in the integrated equation representing flow processes
such as convection, diffusion and sources. This converts the integral equations
into a system of algebraic equations.
Solution of the algebraic equations by an iterative method.
The first step the control volume integration, distinguishes the finite volume method
other CFD techniques. The resulting statements express the (exact) conservation of
relevant properties for each finite size cell. This clear relationship between the numerical
algorithm and the underlying physical conservation principle forms one the main
attractions of the finite volume method and makes its concepts much simpler to
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understand by engineers than finite element and spectral methods. The conservation of a
general flow variable , for example a velocity component or enthalpy, within a finite
control volume can be expressed as a balance between the various processes tending to
increase or decrease it. In words we have:
[



]
[



] [



] [




]
CFD codes contain discretisation techniques suitable for the treatment of the key
transport phenomena, convection (transport due to fluid flow) and diffusion(transport due
to variation of from point to point) as well as for the source terms (associated with the
creation or destruction of ) and the rate of change with respect to time . The underlying
physical phenomena are complex and non-linear so an iterative solution approach is
required. The most popular solution procedures are the TDMA line-by- line solver of the
algebraic equations and the SIMPLE algorithm to ensure correct linkage between
pressure and velocity. Commercial codes may also give the user selection of further,
more recent, techniques such as Stones algorithm and conjugate gradient methods.

Post processor
As in preprocessing a huge of development work has recently taken place in the post-
processing field. Owing to the increased popularity of engineering workstations, many
of which have outstanding graphics capabilities, the leading CFD packages are now
equipped with versatile data visualization tools. These include:
Domain geometry and grid display
Vector plots
Line and shaded contour plots
2D and 3D surface plots
Particle tracking
View manipulation (translation, rotation, scaling etc.)
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Color postscript output
More recently these facilities may also include animation for dynamic result display and
in addition to graphics all codes produce trusty alphanumeric output and have data export
facilities for further manipulation external to the code. As in many other branches of
CAE the graphics output capabilities of CFD codes have revolutionized the
communication of ideas to the non-specialist.