OED 627: POLICY

ANALYSIS,
IMPLEMENTATION AND
EVALUATION

This course intends to
expose you to the intricacies
of policy making in
education. The aim is
toenable you acquire skills in
policy making and policy
analysis and be in a position
to participatefully in public
policy making and policy
analysis, at both school and
system levels, for
thedevelopment of
education. Specifically, the
course has the following
objectives:

Enhance your knowledge
and skills for policy making.
Enable you to develop
school policies compatibles
to national education policy.
Enable you to implement
education policies effectively.
Enhance your skills in
policy analysis and
evaluation.

CONTENT
1. Policy definition
(a) Policy as a statement
outlining an expected
behavior pertaining to certain
activities
or matters set out in relevant
legislation and approved at a
senior levels ofgovernance.

(b) Policy as a plan of action.
(c) Decision to guide actions.

(d) The meaning of Public
policy.

(e) National vision as a guide
to public policy.


Definition of policy:-
In most cases policy making
and decision making are used
synonymously
analysistsdifferentiated policy
from decision they argued that
policy is larger than decision
and that policy usually involves
a series of more specific
decisions.

Harrop (1992) suggest that
policy involves a buddle of
decisions and how they are put
into practice.

Policy is again defined as A
purposive course of action
which has to be followed by a
particular group/actors to
address a particular problem or
matter of concern (Anderson
1975:3).

The standard definition is that
policy is a purposive and
consistent way of doing
something.

Public Policy.
Public policy is a course of
action adopted and pursued by a
government.
Public policy is a purposive and
consistent course of action
produced as a response to a
perceived problem of a
constituency, formulated by a
specific political process, and
adopted, implemented, and
enforced by a public agency.

Policy is defined functionally to
mean: An explicit or implicit
single decision or group of
decisions which may set out
directives for guiding future
decisions, initiate or retard
action, or guide implementation
of previous decisions. Policy
making is the firststep in any
planning cycle and planners
must appreciate the dynamics of
policy formulation before they
can design implementation and
evaluation procedures
effectively. Policies, however,
differ in terms of their scope,
complexity, decision
environment, range of choices,
and decision criteria.

From these definitions, it is
clear that public: policies are
governmental decisions, and are
actually the result of activities
which the government
undertakes in pursuance of
certain goals and objectives. It
can also be said that public
policy formulation and
implementation involves a well-
planned pattern or course of
activity. It requires a thoroughly
close knit relation and
interaction between the
important governmental
agencies viz., the political
executive, legislature,
bureaucracy and judiciary.

The following points will make
the nature of public policy more
clearly in your minds:

1) Public Policies are goal
oriented. Public policies are
formulated and implemented
in order to attain the
objectives which the
government has in view for
the ultimate benefit of the
masses in general. These
policies clearly spell out the
programmes of government.

2) Public policy is the outcome
of the government's collective
actions.
3) Public policy is what the
government actually decides or
chooses to do. It is the
relationship of the government
units to the specific field of
political environmentin a given
administrative system. It can
take a variety of forms like law,
ordinances, court decisions,
executive orders, decisions etc.

4) Public policy is positive in
the sense that it depicts the
concern of the governmentand
involves its action to a
particular problem on which the
policy is made. It has the
sanction of law and authority
behind it.


Characteristics of public
policy making.

Public Policy Making is a
Very Complex Process:
Policy making involves many
components. Which are
interconnected by
communication and feedback
loops and which interact in
different ways.

It is a Dynamic Process:
Policy making is a process that
is a continuing activity taking
place within a structure
It is a dynamic process, which
changes with time.

Decision-Making:
Policy making is a species of
decision-making because it lets
us use decision-making models
for dealing with policy making.

Lays down Major
Guidelines:
Public policy, in most cases,
lays down general directives,
rather than detailed instructions,
on the main lines of action to be
followed.

Results in Action:
Decision-making can result in
action in changes in the
decision-making itself, or both
or neither. The policies of most
socially significant decision-
making, such as most public
policy making are intended to
result in action. Also policies
directed at the policy making
apparatus itself such as
efficiency drivesin government
are action oriented.

Directed at the Future:
Policy making is directed at the
future. This is one of its most
important characteristics since it
introduces the ever-present
elements of uncertainty and
doubtful prediction that
establish the basic tone of
nearly all policy making.

Mainly Formulated by
Governmental Organs:
In most cases, is primarily
directed at governmental
organs, and only intermediately
and secondarily at other factors.

Aims at Achieving what
is in the Public Interest:
There is good evidence that the
image of "public interest"
influences the public policy
making process and is therefore
at least, as conceived by the
various public policy making
units, a "real" phenomenon, and
an important operational tool
for the study of policy making.

Involvement of Various
Bodies and Agencies:
Industrial workers, voters,
intellectuals; Legislators,
bureaucrats, political parties,
political executives. Judiciary-
etc. are the various organs that
participate in public policy
making and can influence the
policy process to a great extent.

TYPES OF PUBLIC
POLICY.
1;Substantive:
These policies are concerned
with the general welfare and the
development of the society, the
programmes like provision of
education and employment
opportunities, economic
stabilization, law and order
enforcement, anti-pollution
legislation etc.

2;Regulatory:
Regulatory policies are
concerned with regulation of
trade, business, safety measures,
public utilities, etc. This type of
regulation is done by
independent organisations that
work on behalf of the
government.

3;Distributive:
Distributive policies are meant
for specific segments of society.
It can be in the area of grant of
goods, public welfare or health
services, etc. These mainly
include all public assistance and
welfare programmes. Some
more examples of distributive
policies are adult education
programme, food relief, social
insurance, vaccination camps,
ctc.

4;Redistributive:
Redistributive policies are
concerning with the
rearrangement of policies which
are concerned with bringing
about basic social and economic
changes. If there are economic
disparities and inequalities, then
redistributive policies are
needed.
--end--

Tanzania Vision as a guide to
public policy

A Tanzanian who is born today
will be fully grown up, will
have joined the working
population and will probably be
a young parent by the year
2025. Similarly, a Tanzanian
who has just joined the labour
force will be preparing to retire
by the year 2025. What kind of
society will have been created
by such Tanzanians in the year
2025? What is envisioned is
that the society these
Tanzanians will be living in by
then will be a substantially
developed one with a high
quality livelihood. Abject
poverty will be a thing of the
past. In other words, it is
envisioned that Tanzanians will
have graduated from a least
developed country to a middle
income country by the year
2025 with a high level of human
development.
- The economy will have been
transformed from a low
productivity agricultural
economy to a semi-
industrialized one led by
modernized and highly
productive agricultural
activities which are
effectively integrated and
buttressed by supportive
industrial and service
activities in the rural and
urban areas. A solid
foundation for a competitive
and dynamic economy with
high productivity will have
been laid.
Tanzania of 2025 should be a
nation imbued with five main
attributes;
. High quality livelihood.
Peace, stability and
unity.
Good governance,
A well-educated and
learning society; and
A competitive economy
capable of producing
sustainable growth.
shared benefits.
Policy Development
A is a principle or a
protocol to guide decisions and
achieve rational outcomes. A
policy is a statement of intent,
and is implemented as a
procedureor protocol. In
political science, the
is a tool used for the analyzing of
the development of a policy
item.
(b) Policy development cycle
(six nodes)
Strategic
phase/situational analysis
Defining the problem
Policy development starts with
problem definition. During this
stage, a problem is identified
and examined, and possible
solutions are explored through
research and analysis

Developing and
analyzing alternatives
During this stage, efforts are
used to raise the profile of the
problem and possible solutions
among the public and decision-
makers.
Typical strategies include:
community organizing
public education
media and communications
convening stakeholders
building coalitions

Presenting
recommendations to
decision makers.
Policymakers discuss options
and possible solutions and adopt
new or amend existing policy.

Service
delivery/implementation of
the policy
Evaluation
After a policy is implemented, it
is important to evaluate its
effectiveness. Policy research
and analysis are strategies to
evaluate whether the policy
meets its original intents and if
there are any unintended
outcomes. If the policy is not
successful on any level,
evaluation findings can be used
during a new phase of problem
definition. The policy life cycle
begins again and continues until
an effective policy is created
and successfully implemented.
Public policy changes do not
occur overnight; rather, they are
the result of activities in each
stage of the policy life cycle.
Each phase can take weeks or
years, depending on the depth
of the issue, the people
involved, and the intricacy of
the policy itself. This life cycle
is only a frameworknot all
policy is formed according to
this linear model. However, all
policy creation is incremental
and builds upon prior
developments and activities. A
number of different strategies
are often required to create one
policy change.

As compared to:
(c) Policy development steps
(twelve steps)
Definition of the problem
The first step in the public
policy process is to outline the
problem. This involves not only
recognizing that an issue exists,
but also studying the problem
and its causes in detail. This
stage involves determining how
aware the public is of the issue,
deciding who will participate in
fixing it, and considering what
means are available to
accomplish a solution. Answers
to such questions often help
policy makers gauge which
policy changes, if any, are
needed to address the identified
problem. The agenda which
problems are addressed can
be set by the public, special
interest groups, or government
officials, among others.
Gather necessary
information
After identifying and studying
the problem, a new public policy
may be formulated or
developed. This step is typically
marked by discussion and
debate between government
officials, interest groups, and
individual citizens to identify
potential obstacles, to suggest
alternative solutions, and to set
clear goals and list the steps that
need to be taken to achieve
them. This part of the process
can be difficult, and often
compromises will be required
before the policy can be written.
Once the policy is developed,
the proper authorities must
agreed to it; a weaker policy may
be more likely to pass, where a
stronger one that deals with the
problem more directly might not
have enough support to gain
approval.

Secure recommendation
from senior levels.
In policy development
process, the senior level are
the people who have
experiences, hence there is
a need for them to offer
various recommendations.

Discuss and debate at
stakeholders meetings.
Stakeholders are the part
and parcel of the policy.
Therefore, after policy have
been receiving
recommendation from the
senior levels, it is placed for
discussion with the
stakeholders so as to put
their recommendations as
well as various strategies so
as to implement such policy.

Draft policy
Is a stage where by the first
look of a policy is published
so as to review the inputs
from senior members as well
as from the stakeholders. Is
the stage that shows the
general look of a policy.After
the board has reached
consensus on policy content, the
boards policy writer goes to
work. This person must be able
to write clearly, directly, and
succinctly. Pomposity, verbosity,
educational jargon, and "legalese"
should be avoided unless
necessary to meet legal
requirements. Policy must be
broadly stated with room for
adjustment to fit special
circumstances.

Hold first reading.

Once in writing, the policy draft
is placed on the boards agenda
for a first reading, giving notice
to everyone interested that the
board has a specific policy under
consideration. At this time the
board has the opportunity for
preliminary discussion of the
proposed policy and, if it
chooses, may hold a public
hearing. This is recommended
for important or controversial
draft policies.

Make revisions
Revise the policy based on the
information gained form the
questions, comments and
suggestions obtained after the
first reading.

Hold second reading
The period between the first and
second reading allows time for
all concerned persons to ask
questions, make comments, and
offer suggestions for changes and
improvements. A second public
hearing may also be held.
Adopt the policy
Conquer with the inputs from
the stakeholders that makes
the general picture of the
policy
Distribute the policy to
the public.
Seeing the policies are
distributed as widely as possible
is one way to ensure
implementation.

Oversee policy
implementation
Policy oversight is a dynamic
process that includes an
evaluative component. Oversight
is intended to make sure that the
policy accomplishes its goal.
Policy oversight can provide
guidance on whether to continue
or modify the policy and to
determine future courses of
action.

Policy evaluation and
revision or modification
Policies should be reviewed on a
regular basis as a part of the
boards standard operating
principles. They can become out
of date, unclear, or even
contrary to the way in which the
school district is operating.
When any of this occurs the
policy needs modification or
elimination. The policy
amendment process is the same
as the policy adoption process.
The board sets policy and the
superintendent implements the
policy and manages the schools
within the guidelines set forth in
board policy. In the absence of
policy, the superintendent must
use his/her own judgment.

3. Policy analysis:
Determining the Strengths
of the policy
is "determining
which of various alternative
policies will most achieve a given
set of goals in light of the
relations between the policies
and the goals".
(a) Policy analysis tools
The political context
The preceding observation
emphasizes that an analysis of
the political environment is
necessary for an understanding
of the national decision-making
process, the comparative value
of education, and the role that
education must play in the
socio-political process. It is
worth distinguishing between
the priorities of the national
political elite relative to
development and those of the
educational elite relative to
education. It is not only that the
head of the ministry of
education may have different
plans from those of the political
elite which appointed him but in
many countries there is
considerable autonomy
provided to the educational
sector. It is not at all unusual for
the two sets of objectives to be
at odds with each other or at
least not to be tightly
intertwined.

The use of evidence,
arguments and persuasions.
The presence of various
evidence and various
arguments from stakeholders
Policy feasibility analysis
(Cost-benefit and cost-
effectiveness analysis)
How much money does the
policy consumed.


CURRENT EDUCATION
POLICY IN TANZANIA:

The education training policy
adopted in 1995 sets the policy
for education sector in
Tanzania, the policy since then
to date has been the road map
towards attainment of sufficient
and effective education and
training to all the citizenry of
Tanzania.

THE EDUCATION AND
TRAINING POLICY
MISSION:
The mission of the ministry of
education and Training with this
regard has been:-
- Realizing Universal Primary
Education (UPE)
- Eradicating illiteracy and
attainment of tertiary education
and training commensurate with
critical high quality human
resources required to effectively
respond to the development
challenges at all levels

THE EDUCATION AND
TRAINING POLICY VISION:

The education sector has a
vision for Tanzania to be a
Nation which produces quality
and quantity of educated
citizens sufficiently equipped
with the relevant knowledge
capable of solving the societys
problems in order to foster the
national social political, and
economic development.

THE EDUCATION AND
TRAINING POLICY
GENERAL GOAL:

The ministry of education and
training main goal has been to
ensure equitable access to
quality primary and secondary
education for boys and girls.
Universal literacy among men
and women and expansion of
higher, technical and vocational
education.

Mission Statement vs Vision
Statement
About:
A Mission
statement
talks about
HOW you
will get to
where you
want to be.
Defines the
A Vision
statement
outlines
WHERE
you want to
be.
Communic
ates both
purpose
and
primary
objectives
related to
your
customer
needs and
team
values.
the
purpose
and values
of your
business.
Answer:
It answers
the
It answers
the
question,
What do
we do?
What
makes us
different?
question,
Where do
we aim to
be?
Time:
A mission
statement
talks about
the present
leading to
A vision
statement
talks about
your future.
its future.
Function
:
It lists the
broad goals
for which
the
organizatio
n is
formed. Its
prime
function is
internal, to
define the
It lists
where you
see yourself
some years
from now.
It inspires
you to give
your best.
It shapes
your
understand
key
measure or
measures
of the
organizatio
n's success
and its
prime
audience is
the
leadership
team and
ing of why
you are
working
here.
stockholder
s.
Change:
Your
mission
statement
may
change, but
it should
still tie back
to your
core values,
customer
Your vision
should
remain
intact, even
if the
market
changes
dramaticall
y, because
it speaks to
needs and
vision.
what you
represent,
not just
what you
do.
Develop
ing a
statemen
t:
What do
we do
today? For
whom do
we do it?
What is the
benefit? In
Where do
we want to
be going
forward?
When do
we want to
reach that
other
words,
Why we do
what we
do? What,
For Whom
and Why?
stage? How
do we want
to do it?
Features
of an
effective
statemen
Purpose
and values
of the
organizatio
n: Who are
Clarity and
lack of
ambiguity:
Describing
a bright
t: the
organizatio
n's primary
"clients"
(stakeholde
rs)? What
are the
responsibili
ties of the
organizatio
n towards
the clients?
future
(hope);
Memorable
and
engaging
expression;
realistic
aspirations,
achievable;
alignment
with
organizatio
nal values
and
culture.

SET GOALS IN THE
CURRENT EDUCATION
POLICY:

To increase gross and net
enrolment of Boys and Girls
including children with
disabilities in primary schools
from 90.3% in 2004 to 99% in
year 2010.

Increased proportion of
orphans and other valnarable
children enrolled, attending and
completing primary education
from 2% in year 2000 to 30% in
2010.

Increased percentage of girls
and boys with disabilities and
OVCs who qualify for
secondary education being
enrolled and complete
secondary education by 2010

At least 50% of boys and girls
aged 14-17 years are enrolled in
ordinary level secondary
schools by 2010.

At least 60% of girls and boys
pass standard VII examinations
by 2010.

At least 25% of boys and girls
are enrolled in advanced level
secondary education by 2010.

Increased enrolment in higher
and technical education in
Universities and Technical
colleges to 30,000 full time
students, 10,000 part time and
15,000 distance learners by
2008.

Improve knowledge on
entrepreneurship skills amongst
youth.

Effective HIV/AIDS
education skills programs
offered in all primary schools,
secondary and teachers
colleges.

At least 80% of adults,
especially women in rural areas
are literate, trough adult and
non-formal education.

Reduce the number of
illiterate adults from 3.8 million
people in (2004/2005) to 1.5
million people in (2007/2008).

Increase numbers of
students/youth who are service
oriented.


SHORTFALLS IN THE
CURRENT EDUCATION
POLICY IN TANZANIA:

- The current education policy
could be viewed as dominated
by political influences. The
policy vision, mission and goals
are well stated and geared to
solve the problem of
insufficient and in ineffective
educational services in the
country. But the objective had
never been realized since the
last 13 years of the inception of
the policy in 1995.
-. In general the education
policy of 1995 is surrounded by
the problem of poor planning
and administration.
-. The targets which were set
were too unrealistic and
surrounded by political motives.

-.Not only the problem of poor
planning and administration
affect the secondary school
education, but the same
-.Inefficient and in effective
plans has affected and lowered
the quality of education in all
levels of education system in
Tanzania. The Universal
Primary Education (UPE)
program has led to enrollment
of excessively huge numbers of
childrens to start primary
school education. The
enrollment had never matched
with the necessary
infrastructures. eg teachers, text
books, classrooms, desks, toilets
etc. The learning environment
in almost 90% of primary
schools in the country,
especially in the rural settings is
pathetic experiencing acute
shortage of teachers,
classrooms, desks, toilets, text
books etc. The same situation
applies even in colleges as well
as universities.
-.As stated before poor planning
and administration can be sited
as the major cause of ineffective
and inefficient education policy
in Tanzania.
-.The other major cause is high
level of corruption and miss-
appropriation of public funds,
being practiced by civil servants
in the education sector as well
as by civil servants in the
central government. The
resources/funds allocated to the
education sector is by far very
little compared to the actual
resources/funds needed to
implement the existing
education policy.
Any good policy must have
the following qualities:
(a) A good and effective policy
must be outcomes oriented.
(b) Resources based.
(c) A good policy must be easy
to implement..
(d) A good policy must be
pluralistic in nature - i.e
accommodate majority interest
and acceptance.
(e) Must take into Account both
internal and external challenges
in terms of social, political
and economic challenges.
(f) A good policy must be easy
to monitor and evaluate and
have clear outcomes and
impacts.
(g) A good policy must have a
sound or feasible sustainable
plan.

- The existing educational
policy in Tanzania lacks to a
larger extend the above
mentioned qualities, needed to
constitute a good and feasible
policy.
- In general it can be
concluded that the Tanzania
educational policy is much
more geared to quantitative
rather than qualitative, the so
called Bora Elimu, but not
Elimu Bora. For example
the policy tries to address the
problem of illiteracy, by
advocating and politically
campaigning, to enroll all
children who age wise
qualify
to start primary education to
be registered. This led to over
flooding of the primary
schools with children without
teachers to teach them
without text books without
toilets, without water and
many other necessary inputs.
- The ultimate outcome of this
policy had been to produce a
vast majority of primary
school leavers who do not
qualify for secondary level
and they had to leave school
and go back to the village,
quite pre-mature to undertake
self employment for them to
be able to earn a living. In
some cases some even leaves
primary school not yet able to
read and write.
- The above shortcomings of
the existing education policy
in Tanzania portrays that the
policy lacks the necessary
qualities of a good policy as
mentioned before in this
policy brief. This justifies the
need for a new policy which
will realistically solve the
problem of ignorance and
illiteracy in Tanzania and
provide relevant and effective
education and knowledge
capable to overcome both
internal and external social,
political and economic
challenges.

PROPOSED NEW
EDUCATIONAL AND
TRAINING POLICY IN
TANZANIA:

General aim of New
education and training policy
in Tanzania:

-To provide a well balanced
and researched quality
educational and training to
the majority of
Tanzanian citizens, enabling
them to effectively overcome
the challenges of
underdevelopment and
ultimately making Tanzania a
nation a owned and enjoyed
by
prosperous citizens.
-
Specific objectives of new
education and training policy
in Tanzania:
1. The enrollment of children
to begin primary education
i.estd I VII, should be done
with caution, taking into
account the necessary
available resource at every
budgetary plans
to avoid the so called Bora
Elimu, but ensuring Elimu
Bora, which have both
short-
term and long-term positive
impacts in bringing about
development.

2. The secondary education
should be planned to match
with the outputs from
primary level, at
any particular point in time.
If the enrollment in primary
level is increased, at the end
of the
day there must be enough and
well established secondary
schools, with adequate
teachers,
buildings, laboratories,
libraries and other essential
resources need to constitute a
good
learning environment capable
of absorbing increased
number of primary school
finalists and
ultimately leading to both
quantity and quality products
of secondary leavers, in both
ordinary secondary education
and advance secondary
education levels.

3. The matching/Balancing
principle should also apply in
the establishment of training
colleges, vocational training
centers, and higher learning
institutions. Because of the
importance of colleges,
training centers and higher
learning institutions in
producing qualified
professionals in varying
fields; the government should
see the importance of
committing a
higher percentage of national
resources in establishing
institutions, this will lead to
increased
number of highly qualified
and professional nationals
capable of revolutionizing the
national economic, from low
level to high level economies

4. Intentional investment and
motivation in science
subjects, in all levels of the
education and
training system.. Specific
incentive modules should be
designed to encourage a
substantial
number of student developing
more interest in science
subjects.

5. Professionals who qualify
in scientific fields - e.g
Doctors, Engineers,
Researchers should
be honored special
employment packages, in
relation to those who qualify
in non-scientific
fields. This will result in
cubing the problem of brain
drain as well as boosting the
level of
scientific economic
development.

6. As much as possible the
government should
encourage and motivate
liberalization in
providing educational
services in the country. This
will top-up the government
efforts and
resources in the provision of
education to the people

7. The government all the
time should target in
providing education to the
low-income majority
of Tanzanian nationals. This
will include free education
for primary and secondary
education and provide 100%
loans to those who qualify for
higher learning education.

(a) Policy development
models
The systems theory
General systems theory
emphasizes the way in which
organized systems (human and
non-human) respond in an
adaptive way to cope with
significant changes in their
external environments so as to
maintain their basic structures
intact. Systems theory models
of decision-making in human
groups and organizations
emphasize their interaction with
"outside" actors and
organizations and concentrate
on identifying the particular
elements in the environment of
the group or organization that
significantly affect the
outcomes of its decision-
making. To understand what an
organization did, try to find out
what threat or opportunity it
was responding to and how its
pre-existing response
mechanisms worked to do this.
In systems theory the term
'environment' is defined as the
set of all objects a change
inwhose attributes effects the
system as well as those objects
whose attributes are changed by
thebehavior of the system.(Hall
&Fagen, 1956.) According to
Ackoff, the environment of
everysocial system contains
three levels of purpose: "the
purpose of the system, of its
parts, and of the
system of which it is a part, the
suprasystem."(Ackoff, 1981, p.
23).


The utility of systems theory in
terms of public policy
formulation and analysis cannot
be minimised because it helps
us to know the process.
Simultaneously, it cautions us
to probe into certain relevant
points to know how inputs
affect the content of public
policy and the nature of
political system; public policy
affects the environment and
subsequently demands for
action; forces or factors in the
environment act to generate
demands upon the political
system.



The rational
comprehensive model

The rational planning model is
the process of realizing a
problem, establishing and
evaluating planning criteria,
creating alternatives,
implementing alternatives, and
monitoring progress of the
alternatives. It is used in
designing neighborhoods, cities,
and regions.
The weakness of rational
comprehensive models has
resulted into the formation of
incremental policy formulation
model. Incremental planning is
the most widely noted
alternative model
to comprehensive rational
planning (Mitchell 2002). It is
based on bounded
instrumental rationality (Larsen
2003). This planning model
describes the real everyday life
in a planning office rather than
the comprehensive rational
model (Mitchell 2002).
Proponents of this model
proposing that, there is not a
right solution as time, money,
information and mental
capabilities of the planners are
not sufficient (Kinyashi 2006;
Mitchell 2002), therefore only a
few options are identified and
evaluated which differ only
marginally from each other as
well as from the existing
situation. This model saw the
importance of various
stakeholders to be involving in
the whole process of policy
formulation. According to this
model, the planner is considered
to be bounded rational (Larsen
2003; Mitchell 2002) who
simplifies the complex world to
an easier model, who often does
not know the right problem and
thus is not always able to
determine a clear definition of
goals and measures and thus
tries to find a satisfactory
solution rather than the best one
(Mitchell 2002). Therefore, in
this model, the planner is
considered less as the expert.
His task is particularly to
determine the type of problem
to be solved and to mediate
between different views and
interests to reach a consensus
(Mitchell 2002; Hostovsky
2007).
Under this model, the policy
formulation process is carried
out more decently than in the
rational planning process. Both
the population and more
agencies are involved in
planning. Important features of
the planning process includes
the idea that, there is no clear
determination of goals and
objectives; rather they are
determined by a mixture of
intuition, experiences, rules of
thumb and a series of
consultancies (Larsen 2003).
Also, only a few options are
considered and evaluated and
analyzing and evaluation are
distributed among more
agencies and organisations
within society also, in order to
make a good policy the problem
is redefined at regular intervals
and the process is an ongoing
chain of incremental decisions
(evolutionary approach)
Sudama. (1977) This model
have been facing with various
criticisms like no radical
changes are possible in
incremental planning, also
solutions cannot be optimized
more over the focus is on what
can be implemented (Slusser
2007).
The Six-Step Rational
Decision-Making Model
1.Define the problem.
2.Identify decision criteria
Once a decision maker has
defined the problem, he or she
needs toidentify the decision
criteria that will be important in
solving theproblem. In this step,
the decision maker is determining
whatsrelevant in making the
decision. This step brings the
decision makers interests,
values, and personalpreferences
into the process.

Identifying criteria is important
because what one person thinks
isrelevant, another may
not.Also keep in mind that any
factors not identified in this
step areconsidered as irrelevant
to the decision maker

3. Weight the criteria.
The decision-maker weights the
previously identified criteria in
orderto give them correct
priority in the decision.
4. Generate alternatives
The decision maker generates
possible alternatives that could
succeed in resolving the problem.
No attempt is made in this step to
appraise these alternatives, only
to list them.

5. Rate each alternative on
each criterion.
The decision maker must
critically analyze and evaluate
each one. The strengths and
weakness of each alternative
become evident asthey
compared with the criteria and
weights established in second
and third steps.

6. Compute the optimal
decision.

Evaluating each alternative
against the weighted criteria and
selecting the alternative with the
highest total score.


Assumptions of Model.

1. Problem clarity. (The
decision maker is assumed to
have complete information
regarding the decision
situation.)

2. Known options (Identify all
the relevant criteria and can list
all the viable alternatives. The
decision maker is aware of all
the possible consequences of
each alternative.)

3. Clear preference (The criteria
and alternatives can be ranked
and weight to reflect their
importance)

4. Constant preferences (The
specific decision criteria are
constant and that weights
assigned to them are stable over
time)
5.No time or cost constraints
6.Maximum payoff

The model of rational decision-
making has also proven to be
very useful to several decision
making processes in industries
outside the public sphere.
Nonetheless, many criticism of
the model arise due to claim of
the model being:
- Impractical and lying on
unrealistic assumptions. For
instance, it is a difficult
model to apply in the public
sector because social
problems can be very
complex, ill-defined and
interdependent.
- The problem lies in the
thinking procedure implied
by the model which is linear
and can face difficulties in
extra ordinary problems or
social problems which have
no sequences of happenings.
- The problems faced when
using the rational model arise
in practice because social and
environmental values can be
difficult to quantify and forge
consensus around. requires
a great deal of time
- requires great deal of
information
- assumes rational,
measurable criteria are
available and agreed upon
- assumes accurate, stable
and complete knowledge
of all the alternatives,
preferences, goals and
consequences
- assumes a rational,
reasonable, non political
world

However, as Thomas states the
rational model provides a good
perspective since in modern
society rationality plays a
central role and everything that
is rational tends to be prized.
Thus, it does not seem strange
that we ought to be trying for
rational decision-making

The incremental model

In public policy,
incrementalism refers to the
method of change by which
many small policy changes
are enacted over time in
order to create a larger
broad based policy change.
Policy making from this view
point, is conceived realistically
as marginal and uncoordinated
adjustment in a situation of
conflicting demands and
interests and in the fear of
unforeseen consequences that
an likely to flow out of actual
division. Policy makers in the
actual world of administration
have to start with already
existing programmers and
budgetary allocations.

Policy makers in the actual
world of administration have to
start with already existing
programmers and budgetary
allocations. To let them try to
do is to add to or modify what
already exists. The popularity of
the incremental model is due to
the fact that it generally fits well
with what actually goes on in
government and, therefore,
conforms to real life
administrative situations.

The advantages of
incrementalism over other
formal systems is that no
time is wasted planning for
outcomes which may not
occur.
Disadvantages are that time
may be wasted dealing with
the immediate problems and
no overall strategy is
developed.

The elite model
Public policy is the product of
elites, reflecting their values
and serving their- ends,
Essentially. What this model
postulates is that the society is
divided into the few who have
power and the many who do not
have it. Policy, in this social set-
up, is not determined by the
people or the masses. It is the
ruling elite which decides
public policy and which is then
carried out by the bureaucracy.
Elite theory is a body of thought
aimed at explaining the nature
and role of those groups in the
society in which decision-
making power is highly
concentrated.
Elite theory has been
summarized by Thomas Dye
and Harmon Zeigler in their
book,
'The Irony of Democracy', as
follows:
i) Society is divided into the
few who have power and
the many who do not. Only
a small number of persons
allocate values for society;
the masses do not decide
policy.
ii) The few who govern are not
typical of the masses who
are governed. Elites are
drawn disproportionately
from the upper socio-
economic strata of society.
iii) The movement of non-
elites to elite positions must be
slow and continuous to maintain
stability and avoid revolution.
Only non-elites who have
accepted the basic elite
consensus can be admitted to
governing circles.

iii) Elites share a consensus on
the basic values of the social
system and the preservation
of the system.
iv) Public policy does not
reflect demands of the
masses but rather the
prevailing values of the
elite. Changes in public
policy will be incremental
rather than revolutionary.
v) Active elites are subject to
relatively little direct
influence from apathetic
masses. Elites influence
masses more than masses
influence elites.

The phenomenological
model

- In simplest terms,
phenomenology is the
interpretive study of human
experience. The aim is to
examine and clarify human
situations, events, meanings,
and experiences as they
spontaneously occur in the
course of daily
life.Phenomenology is the
study of structures of
consciousness as experienced
from the first-person point of
view.
- The central structure of an
experience is its intentionality,
its being directed toward
something, as it is an
experience of or about some
object. An experience is
directed toward an object by
virtue of its content or
meaning (which represents
the object) together with
appropriate enabling
conditions.

- The first thing to point
out in considering
decision making from the
phenomenological
perspective is that most
of the studies of this
phenomenon (process)
fail to define clearly
whether decision making
is a behavioural
category (third-person
perspective) or an
experiential one (first-
person perspective).
- In considering decision
making, researchers tend
to view this process as
something out there,
independent of the
observer and of the way
the subject experiences
it.
- According to the
research carried out by
Russel Hurlburt,
decision making often
appears in the form of
unsymbolized
thinking. This means
thinking without
experiencing the
thoughts as being
represented by words.

The contingency model.
A contingency is a model
devised for an outcome other
than in the usual (expected)
plan. It is often used for risk
management when an
exceptional risk that, though
unlikely, would have
catastrophic consequences.
Contingency plans are often
devised by governments or
businesses. For example,
suppose many employees of a
company are traveling together
on an aircraft which crashes,
killing all aboard. The company
could be severely strained or
even ruined by such a loss.
Accordingly, many companies
have procedures to follow in the
event of such a disaster. The
plan may also include standing
policies to mitigate a disaster's
potential impact, such as
requiring employees to travel
separately or limiting the
number of employees on any
one aircraft.
Today there are still
contingency plans in place to
deal with terrorist attacks or
other catastrophes. The need for
contingency planning emerges
from a thorough analysis of the
risks that your organization
faces. It's also useful in thinking
about new and ongoing
projects: what happens when
'Plan A' doesn't go as expected?
Sometimes Plan A simply
means 'business as usual.' Other
times, with more sophisticated
risk management plans, Plan A
is your first response to deal
with an identified risk and when
Plan A doesn't work, you use
your contingency plan.

Guidelines when it's time to
prepare your contingency
plan:
Your main goal is to
maintain business
operations Look closely at
what you need to do to
deliver a minimum level of
service and functionality.
Define time periods What
must be done during the first
hour of the plan being
implemented? The first day?
The first week? If you look at
the plan in this way, you're
less likely to leave out
important details.
Identify the trigger What,
specifically, will cause you to
implement the contingency
plan? Decide which actions
you'll take, and when.
Determine who is in charge
at each stage and what type
of reporting process they
must follow.
Keep the plan simple You
don't know who will read and
implement the plan when it's
needed, so use clear, plain
language.
Consider related resource
restrictions Will your
organization be able to
function the same way if you
have to implement Plan B, or
will Plan B necessarily
reduce capabilities?
Identify everyone's needs
Have people throughout the
company identify what they
must have, at a minimum, to
continue operations.
Define 'success' What will
you need to do to return to
'business as usual'?
Include contingency plans
in standard operating
procedures Make sure you
provide initial training on the
plan, and keep everyone up-
to-date on changes.
Manage your risks Look
for opportunities to reduce
risk, wherever possible. This
may help you reduce, or even
eliminate, the need for full
contingency plans in certain
areas.
Identify operational
inefficiencies Provide a
standard to document your
planning process, and find
opportunities for performance
improvement.
Contingency Planning
Challenges
You should be aware of two
common obstacles as you begin
your contingency planning
process:
People are often poorly
motivated to develop a strong
Plan B, because they have so
much of an emotional
investment in the Plan A that
they want to deliver. Stress
that Plan B needs to be
properly thought-through.
Theres often a low
probability of a crisis
occurring, so people often
dont see contingency
planning as an urgent activity.
Unfortunately, this can mean
that it gets stuck at the bottom
of their To Do Lists as a task
that never gets done.
Maintaining the contiguous
Plan.
After you prepare the
contingency plan, you need to
do several things to keep it
practical and relevant don't
just create a document and file
it away. As your business
changes, you'll need to review
and update these plans
accordingly.
Here are some key steps in the
contingency plan maintenance
process:
Communicate the plan to
everyone in the organization.
Inform people of their roles
and responsibilities related to
the plan.
Provide necessary training
for people to fulfill these
roles and responsibilities.
Conduct disaster drills where
practical.
Assess the results of training
and drills, and make any
necessary changes.
Review the plan on a regular
basis, especially if there are
relevant technological,
operational, and personnel
changes.
Distribute revised plans
throughout the company, and
make sure that the old plan is
discarded.
Keep copies of the plan off-
site, and in a place where
they can be accessed quickly
when needed.
Audit the plan periodically:
Reassess the risks to the
business.
Analyze efforts to control
risk by comparing actual
performance with the
performance levels
described in the
contingency plan.
Recommend and make
changes, if necessary.




In the garbage-can theory
(Cohen, March, and Olsen
1972) an organization "is a
collection of choices looking for
problems, issues and feelings
looking for decision situations in
which they might be aired,
solutions looking for issues to
which they might be the answer,
and decision makers looking for
work". Problems, solutions,
participants, and choice
opportunities flow in and out of
a garbage can, and which
problems get attached to
solutions is largely due to
chance.

March, 1994, pp 198 - 296. The
""garbage cans"" in the garbage
can model are choice
opportunities such as meetings,
committees, and any decision
forum. Choice opportunities
collect three elements: decision
makers, problems, and
solutions. From this basis, the
characteristics of the three
elements and process of
decision making is described.
Two major decision strategies in
a garbage can organization are
the strategies of oversight and
flight. The strategy of oversight
involves making quick choices.
You make a choice whenever
important problems are attached
to some other choice and before
they can drift to the choice
you're making. Having made the
choice you solve nothing, since
the problems are still attached to
other choices. Likewise, the
decision style of flight involves
delaying a choice until the
problems wander away and
attach themselves to other
choices. Once the problems
have left, then you make the
choice. Again the choice solves
no problems, since none are
attached to it.

Decision obtained from the
Garbage model are as follows:
By resolution. Some choices
resolve problems after some
period of working on them. The
length of time may vary,
depending on the number of
problems. This is the familiar
case that is implicit in most
discussions of choice within
organizations.
By oversight. If a choice is
activated when problems are
attached to other choices and if
there is energy available to
make the new choice quickly, it
will be made without any
attention to existing problems
and with a minimum of time
and energy.
By flight. In some cases choices
are associated with problems
(unsuccessfully) for some time
until a choice more attractive to
the problems comes along. The
problems leave the choice, and
thus it is now possible to make
the decision. The decision
resolves no problems; they
having now attached themselves
to a new choice.
PROBLEMS OF THIS
MODEL.

The Garbage Can theory, or
model, attempts to explain some
organizational decision-making
anomalies-in particular,
decision making by "organized
anarchies" where preferences
are not clear, technology is not
clear, or participation is fluid.
Problems, solutions, and
decision makers move from one
choice to another depending on
the mix of recognized problems,
the choices available, the mix of
solutions available for
problems, and outside
influences on the decision
makers. In short, problems are
uncoupled from choices giving
an image of "rummaging
around" inside a garbage can.
Problems are addressed based
on a solution choice, but
choices are made based on
shifting combinations of
problems, solutions, and
decision makers. In this sense,
decision-making appears
"pathological" instead of
rational.
The Garbage Can theory allows
problems to be addressed and
choices to be made, but does
not necessarily following a
rational process. Poorly
understood and addressed
problems can drift into and out
of the garbage can process,
depending on the situation and
factors.

The mixed scanning
model
The mixed scanning model tries
to involve the strengths of
the rational planning model and
the incremental planning
model and to eliminate the
weaknesses.It is based on
bounded instrumental
rationality it has various
assumptions like many
incremental decisions may lead
to fundamental changes, also
the cumulative effect of those
incremental decisions is
influenced by fundamental
decisions (Mitchell 2002).
In model, the role of the planner
is considered to be a
bounded rational being,
reducing the complexity of the
world to an easier model but to
a lesser extent than the
incremental planner, it also
overseeing the whole situation
he or she has to consider few
solutions in greater detail Under
this model the civil society is
active in planning. Its needs and
wants have to be established
during a consensus-building
process
(strategic/functional participatio
n) (Kinyashi 2006). Under this
model, policy formulation is
carried out more decentrally
than in the rational planning
process.
Under this model, both the
population and more agencies
are involved in planning.
Important features of the
planning process includes
objectives are set under
consultations with the civil
society, incremental decisions
are made under consultation
with the population while at the
same time alsofew fundamental
decisions are made which mark
a huge departure from the
existing situation thus, planning
is considered as mixture of
scientific technique, intuition
and experience.
After you learned about the way
to plan, you can study the units
for which planning is done
(planning units).(Kinyashi
2006; Mitchell 2002).


4. Public Policy and its
effect to education
development in Tanzania
(a) Ujamaa and self-reliance.
- Ujamaa, the Swahili for
'familyhood'. was the social and
economic policy developed by
Julius Kambarage Nyerere,
president of Tanzania from
1964 to 1985. Centered on
collective agriculture, under a
process called villagization,
ujamaa also called for
nationalization of banks and
industry, and an increased level
of self-reliance at both an
individual and a national
level.Mwalimu Nyerere
referred to Ujamaa as 'the basis
of African Socialism'.
- Pros of Ujamaa
Created high literacy rate
Halved infant mortality
through access to medical
facilities and education
Untied Tanzanians across
ethnic lines
Left Tanzania untouched by
the 'tribal' and political
tensions which affected the
rest of Africa
Cons of Ujamaa
Transportation networks
declined drastically through
neglect
Industry and banking was
crippled
Left the country dependent
on international aid

(b) Decentralization policy
the 1970s experience.
- Decentralization is
commonly viewed as the
transfer of legal and political
authority fromthe central
government and its agencies
to the field organizations and
institutions.

(c) Decentralization policy
the 1990s experience.
- Tanzania had embarked on a
structural adjustment program
in 1986 with the aim of
reducing the role of the public
sector in the economy.
- During the early 1990s, a Civil
Service Reform Program was
launched, consisting of six
components, including a
Local Government Reform
component.
- This component was aimed at
decentralising government
functions, responsibilities and
resources to LGAs and
strengthening the capacity of
local authorities.
- Reform of the local
government system was
initiated in 1996 through a
National Conference seeking
to move Towards a Shared
Vision for Local Government
in Tanzania.
- This vision was subsequently
summarized in the Local
Government Reform Agenda,
and, in October 1998, was
endorsed by the Government
in its Policy Paper on Local
Government Reform.


1. The policy framework
- ThePolicy Paper on Local
Government Reform spells
out very clearly Governments
vision of a reformed local
government system, and this,
and other key reform
documents, is available on
web-site, www.po-ralg.go.tz

Broadly defined,
decentralization constitutes
deconcentration, delegation,
devolution and privatization.
- De-concentration is the
shifting of the management
workload from centrally
located officials to offices
outside the national capital or
headquarters. In this case,
final authority is retained in
the centre.
- Delegation on the other
hand, refers to the transfer of
power and responsibility of
specifically defined functions
to organizations that are
outside regular bureaucratic
structures and are indirectly
controlled by the central
government. Ultimate
responsibility therefore,
remains with the government
authority.
- Decentralization by
Devolution(D by D) is the
process where the central
government consciously
creates or strengthens the
structures of the sub-national
units of government, thereby,
lessening the direct control of
the central government. Local
units of government make
autonomous and independent
decisions that are separate
from the central government.
- Privatization is not an
independent method of
decentralization but implies
divestiture
whiledecentralization entails
some form of government
involvement; however thinly.


- Maintenance of law and order
at the local level;

- To foster democratic, popular
and participating
government; and
- To promote rapid social and
economic development.

- Improve the delivery of
services to the public, and the
main strategy for doing so is
decentralization by
devolution, which entails the
transfer of powers, functional
responsibilities and resources
from central government to
local government authorities.

o Largely autonomous
institutions, free to make
policy and operational
decisions consistent with the
laws of the land and
government policies;
o Strong and effective
institutions underpinned by
possession of resources
(both human and financial)
and authority to perform
their roles and functions;
o Institutions with leaders
who are elected in a fully
democratic process;
o Institutions which will
facilitate participation of the
people in planning and
executing their development
plans and foster partnerships
with civic groups;
o Institutions with roles and
functions that will
correspond to the demands
for their services; and
o Institutions which operate
in a transparent and
accountable manner.
Decentralization for the
Education Sector
Two ministries manage and
co-ordinate the Primary
Education Sector in
Tanzania, namely the
Ministry of Education and
Culture and PO-RALG. The
actual provision of services is
the responsibility of the local
government authorities.

1.1 Policy and strategies
- The Government has chosen
five priority areas to address
poverty. These areas are
health, education, roads,
water and agriculture. The
overall strategy for
implementation is the
National Strategy for Growth
and Reduction of Poverty
(NSGRP), also known by its
Kiswahili acronym of
MKUKUTA (see above).
Primary education, being one
of the priority areas, has been
given particular attention
inaddressing poverty. Some of
the strategies used to address
the sector include:-
- Expand the primary
education system to develop
quality pre-primary
programmes that link with
existing early childhood
provision- health, nutrition,
parenting education etc.
- Promote community based
day-care /pre-school
- Develop an inter-sectoral
policy framework to guide
early childhood development
and promote pre-school
learning
- Ensure all (boys and girls)
children, including those with
disabilities, orphans and other
most vulnerable children(eg.
Child labourers, street
children) are able to
effectively access and
complete high quality, child
friendly and gender sensitive
primary education
- Operationalise strategies for
mainstreaming vulnerability in
their primary and secondary
education programme
- Prioritise development,
funding and implementation
of country strategies that
support promotion of
education for orphans and
most vulnerable children
- Maintain current policy of
free primary education to
encourage broad access to
education for all children
- Develop guidelines and
appropriate strategies for
inclusive education that
welcomes and accommodates
all children (including the
vulnerable) in the
neighborhood of each
primary and secondary
education
- Expand active, life-skills based
and gender sensitive teacher
training for primary and
secondary schools; to cope
with increased enrolment
- Improve capacity and
equitable participation at all
levels of education to plan,
implement and monitor
quality of provision of
education at school level,
including transparent use of
funds
- Ensure that adequate teachers
are trained and those in the
field are upgraded or attend
special education
programmes tailor-made to
provide quality education to
children with disabilities;
ensure that pupils are
screened to identify their
disabilities and health
problems; ensure that there
are adequate facilities to
prepare modes for hearing
aids, audio-books, print
Braille books, distribution of
equipment and materials to
schools
- Undertake reforms in primary
and secondary and teachers
education curricula, teacher
training, teaching materials,
assessment and examinations
and school inspection to
promote critical, creative and
skill based learning and to
incorporate gender,
HIV/AIDS, disability and
environment issues
- Expand and strengthen
capacity of school inspectors
to adequately monitor the
quality of education; ensure
that inclusive education and
active learning is effectively
practised in schools
- Ensure equitable deployment
of competent and motivated
teachers and provide them
with adequate support
(housing and other
necessities), and in particular
to teachers in remote rural
areas
- Ensure that capitation and
development grants for
primary schools are fully
funded, disbursed to school
level on time and transparent
to all.


(c) Structural adjustment
policy.

- The IMF structural
adjustment program in
Tanzania began in 1986, with
additional agreements signed
in 1987, 1991 and 1996.
Under this policy, the cost
sharing was introduced in
various social services.
- The Basic Education Master
Plan (BEMP) was adopted in
February 1997. The BEMP
provided the framework for
the subsequent design of
programs to improve school
facilities, textbooks, school
management, and the quality
of teaching. Studies on issues
related to the quality of,
access to, and institutional
arrangements for, secondary
education were completed in
1997/98. The results of these
studies will be used to prepare
a Secondary Education
Master Plan (SEMP) for
adoption in 1998/99.

(d) Public service reform
programme.

- Public Service Reform
Programme (PSRP) is a
programme spearheaded by
Presidents Office-Public
Servive management. The
implementation of this
programmed had started in
the year 2000.
- The main focus of PSRP is to
improve Ministries,
Departments and gencies
(MDAs) service delivery and
regulatory functions through
a more efficient Public
Service.
-

- PMO-RALG-RALG is
among the ministries that
receive funds to improve its
services through PSRP funds
for the purpose of improving
service delivery.


- The main goal of PSRP is to
help MDAs deliver improved
services (in terms of quality,
timeliness and efficiency),
implement relevant, priority
policies, and establish a
predictable and well

regulated environment for
private sector growth and
social development


(e) Local government
reform programme.

The Local Government Reform
Programme is the vehicle
through which the Government
promotes and drives the
decentralization process. Its
over-arching goal is to contribute
to the national drive towards the
reduction of the proportion of
Tanzanians living in poverty. Its
stated purpose is Political,
administrative and fiscal
responsibilities devolved from
central to local government,
underpinned by good
governance, so enabling Local
Government Authorities to
provide more equitable, quality
services to Tanzanians,
especially the poor.

(f) Private sector reform
policy
- The government recognises
that it has the role to facilitate
the private sector and other
economic agents to actively
and effectively invest in
productive and commercial
activities in order to
accelerate economic growth
and development.

- In recognition of this
important role towards
creating an enabling
environment for private
sector development, the
Government has been
implementing wide ranging
institutional and policy
reforms. It has liberalised its
economy; amended and
enacted a number of
investment related laws and
policies, undertaken financial
reforms, liberalised its
trading regime; put in place
an attractive investment
package; and undertook a
number of initiatives to
promote and develop the
private sector. Tanzania now
has one of the most liberal
investment regimes in Africa.

- In supporting the
complementary and
supplementary role of the
private sector in accelerating
socio-economic development,
the Government has
developed modalities for
institutionalising the then ad-
hoc consultative process with
the private sector in evolving
appropriate and effective
macro and sectoral policies.
(e.g. through participation in
the Government Tax Task
force and the Public
Expenditure Review working
groups).
- Similarly, the private sector
itself has evolved
institutional mechanisms of
interactions and consultations
with the Government through
umbrella organisation such as
the Tanzania Chamber of
Commerce Industry and
Agriculture (TCCIA),
Confederation of Tanzania
Industries (CTI), the
Tanzania Private Sector
Foundation (TPSF) and the
National Business Council
(TNBC) which was launched
in April 2001. TNBC will
provide the main forum for
public/private sector
consultations on strategic
issues of economic growth
and economic development.
5. Education Policies in
Tanzania their impact on
education and
nationaldevelopment.
(b) Education for self-
reliance.
The education for self-
reliance was introduced to
guide the planning and
practice of education.
- the philosophy of ESR was
a sequel of the Arusha
Declaration and it
underscored the weakness
of the education system
then.
- This philosophy
emphasized the need for
curriculum reform in order to
integrate theory with the
acquisition of practical life
skills.
- it also urged linkage of
education plans and
practices with national socio-
economic development and
the world of work.
- Between 1967 and 1978,
the government took several
steps and enacted several
laws in order to legalize
actions as a result of the
Arusha declaration and ESR.
- These laws and steps
included the educational
Acts of 1969 and 1978; the
Decentralization programme
of 1972; the National
Examinational Council Act
No. 21 of 1973; UPE and the
Musoma Resolution in 1974;
the Institute of Adult
Education Act No. 12 of
1975 and the Institute of
Adult Education Act. No. 12
of 1975 and the Institute of
Education Act. No. 13 of
1975.

(c) The Musoma resolution.
- In november, 1974, the
National Executive Committee
of the Tanganyika Afncan
National Union (TANU) met in
Musoma to review Tanzania's
progress in its policies of
Socialism and Self.Reliance.
- Some profound deficiencies
were spotted in the
Implementation of the policy of
Education for Self-Reliance,
especially at post-secondary
level. It was resolved at that
time:
that, from then on, formal
education would basically end
at the secondary School level.
Secondary school graduates
would serve one year in the
NationalService. Following
National Service, these
graduates would work several
yearsbefore they would be
admitted to any post-secondary
institution. Post-secondary
institutions were, therefore,
declared open for adult workers
andpeasants who satisfied the
minimum entry qualifications
(Msekwa, 1975).

- Theapplicants had either to
pass the University of Dar es
Salaam Mature age Entrance
Examination and "produce a
strong recommendation by
theiremployers and TANU/
ASP (Tanganyika African
National Union/AfroShiraz
Party) branches, regarding
their suitability (in terms of
character andgeneral work
performance and
commitment for further
training at university level".
- It can be said that the
Musoma Resolution heralded
a revolution in post-
secondary education in
Tanzania.

(d) Education and Training
policy.
Education and training is the
process of initiating and
preparing man through
training in his environment to
play active roles in society.
The current education policy
which was adopted in 1995,
takes into account various
reviews, reports and
recommendations regarding
our education system, both
internal and external, and is
a guide to the future
development and provision
of education and training in
this country. The policy
intended to do the followings:
1. Decentralize
education and training
by empowering regions,
districts, communities
and educational
institutions to manage
and administer
education and training
2. To improve the quality
of education and training
through strengthening
in-service training
programmes; the supply
of teaching and learning
materials; rehabilitation
of school/ college
physical facilities;
teacher trainers
programmes; research
in education and
training, and streamling
the curriculum,
examination and
certification.
3. Expand the provision
of education and training
through liberazation of
the provision of
education and training,
and the promotion and
strengthening of formal
and non-formal
programmes for the
training of technologist
4. Promote the access
and equality through
making access to basic
education available to all
citizens as a basic right.
5. Broadening the base
for the financing of
education and training
through cost sharing
measures involving
individuals,
communities, NGOs,
parents and end-users,
and through the
inclusion of education as
an area of invest in the
investment Promotion
Act.

(e) Technical Education
Policy.
- Need for Policy on
Technical Education and
Training Technical education
and training activities have
been given reasonable
emphasis in our education
system since long before
independence. - However,
lack of clear national
technical education and
training policy has resulted to
uncoordinated changes and
falling standards in technical
education and training in the
country.

Therefore there is an urgent
need for a policy on technical
education and training due to
the followings:

a) The need for Tanzania to
have sufficient trained
technical manpower of all
categories (manpower
requirement strategy);
b) The need to impart
technical skills to our youths
and adults to enable them to
go into sustainable self-
employment (social demand
strategy);
c) Inculcate a science and
technology culture in the
Tanzania society (education
strategy); and
d) The need to improve
manpower balance among
the technical cadre of
engineers/technologists,
technicians and craftsmen
from the present national
ratio of 1:2:14 leading to the
internationally accepted ratio
of1:5:25.

(g) National science and
technology policy.
The National Science and
Technology Policy in
Tanzania was formulated in
1985 and revised in 1995.
- In the early 1980s, when
the Science and Technology
Policy was being formulated
the nation was and
continued to undergo
economic reforms.
- The Main Purpose of
Science and Technology
policy is needed in order to
consciously orient the use of
science and technology
towards economic, social
and political objectives of the
society.
- Promote science and
technology as a tools for
economic development, the
improvement of human.
Physical and social well-being
and for the protection of
national sovereignty.
- Promote scientific and
technological self-reliance in
support of economic activities
through the upgrading of R&D
capabilities.
- Promoting and encouraging the
public and private productive
sectors in developing science
and technology.
- Promote active participation of
women in science and
technology.
- Establish and/or strengthen
national science and technology
institutions.
(g) Higher education
policy. (1999)
- Due to the fact that, there
have been rapid changing
and advances in the world of
science and technology, the
following were identified in
Tanzania
-Increased social demand for
education
-Need for specialized skills
- Need for new emerging
areas for science and
technology
-need for globalization and
international competitiveness
-Need for Social democracy
and good governance

Therefore the Higher
Accreditation Council in
Tanzania was established so
as to monitor the quality of
Higher education in
Tanzania. Nowadays it is
called the Tanzania
Commision for Universities.

- Higher education refers to
the scope of knowledge and
skills imparted within the
tertiary level of education.
- A University is an institution
of higher learning, consisting
of an assemblage of colleges
united under one corporate
organization and
government, affording
instruction in the arts and
sciences and the learned
professions conferring
degrees.

Financing of Higher
Education in Tanzania

- Financing of public higher
education in Tanzania in
the context of cost sharing
policy is (ideally) supposed
to be a shared
responsibility between
different stakeholders and
beneficiaries of higher
education products.
- The Government is not
only financing public
higher education
institutions through
subventions to cover
recurrent and capital
development budgets; but
is also financing tuition-
dependent private higher
education institutions and
students enrolled in
privately sponsored
programs in public
universities through the
HESLB and the Tanzania
Education Authority
leading to inequities in
higher education financing.
- Despite of the existence of
a plethora of beneficiaries
of higher education
products, their contribution
to higher education
remains insignificant
mainly limited to welfare
costs.


Therefore, one can sum-up by
saying that;
Public policy is influenced by a
variety of factors:


resources available in terms of
human and financial capacity,
including technical and
managerial capacity.
- Government
failure/limitation no nation
or political system is
completely successful in
accomplishing what it
wishes.
REASONS FOR POLICY
FAILURE
- Insufficient and unreliable
data
- Dearth of skilled manpower
- Unexpected economic
disturbances
- Institutional weaknesses
- Resistance to change and
innovation
- Unhealthy inter-ministerial
rivalry
- Political and bureaucratic
corruption
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA
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Student: NDAMA Allan - PG201400338
Programme: "Master of Education in Administration, Planning and Policy Studies"
Study Level: I
Regional Center: Kilimanjaro
S/No Acad/Year Fee Item
Payable
Amount
Amount Paid Balance
1 2013/2014 Tuition Fee by Distance Mode 1,350,000.00 1,350,000.00 0.00
2 2013/2014 Examination Fee 60,000.00 60,000.00 0.00
3 2013/2014 OUTSO FEE 10,000.00 10,000.00 0.00
4 2013/2014 Student ID Card Fee 10,000.00 10,000.00 0.00
5 2013/2014 Postgraduate Registration Fee 50,000.00 50,000.00 0.00
Totals 1,480,000.00 1,480,000.00 0.00
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1
2013/2
014
1337669
358
Examination Fee
2013-
01-05
2563
10
2013-
12-11
30,000.
00
Kiliman
jaro
erick.gabrie
l
2
2013/2
014
1337669
358
OUTSO FEE
2013-
12-05
2562
26
2013-
12-11
10,000.
00
Kiliman
jaro
felista.ndu
mbaro
3
2013/2
014
1337669
358
Postgraduate
Registration Fee
2013-
12-05
2563
10
2013-
12-11
50,000.
00
Kiliman
jaro
erick.gabrie
l
4
2013/2
014
1337669
358
Student ID Card Fee
2013-
12-05
2563
10
2013-
12-11
10,000.
00
Kiliman
jaro
erick.gabrie
l
5
2013/2
014
1337669
358
Tuition Fee by
Distance Mode
2013-
12-05
2563
10
2013-
12-11
450,00
0.00
Kiliman
jaro
erick.gabrie
l
6
2013/2
014
1337669
358
Tuition Fee by
Distance Mode
2014-
05-05
2303
23
2014-
05-05
900,00
0.00
Kiliman
jaro
monica.ma
diwa
7
2013/2
014
1337669
358
Examination Fee
2014-
05-05
2303
24
2014-
05-05
30,000.
00
Kiliman
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monica.ma
diwa

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