SATELLITE RESEARCH

One might think that an inward force would move a satellite right into the center of the circle; but that's
only the case if the satellite were in a rest position. Being that the satellite is already in motion in a
tangential direction, the inward force merely turn from its straight-line tangential direction. Instead of
turning and falling into the earth, it turns and curves around the earth (thanks to the fact that the earth
is round.)The satellite does not collide into the earth because a combination of a tangential velocity and
a curved earth prevents this collision. We may believe that the direction an object moves is always in
the same direction of the force, but it is only a misconception. Lots of objects move in a direction
different from a force. For instance as your car heads east and and slam on your brakes, the force on the
car is westward; only the acceleration would be westward. And for satellites, the direction of motion is
tangential and the force is inward; only the acceleration is inward and this cause the circular motion
around the central body.
A satellite is often thought of as being a projectile which is orbiting the Earth. But how can a
projectile orbit the Earth? Doesn't a projectile accelerate towards the Earth under the influence of
gravity? And as such, wouldn't any projectile ultimately fall towards the Earth and collide with
the Earth, thus ceasing its orbit?
These are all good questions and represent stumbling blocks for many students of physics. We
will discuss each question here. First, an orbiting satellite is a projectile in the sense that the only
force acting upon an orbiting satellite is the force of gravity. Most Earth-orbiting satellites are
orbiting at a distance high above the Earth such that their motion is unaffected by forces of air
resistance. Indeed, a satellite is a projectile.
Second, a satellite is acted upon by the force of gravity and this force does accelerate it towards
the Earth. In the absence of gravity a satellite would move in a straight line path tangent to the
Earth. In the absence of any forces whatsoever, an object in motion (such as a satellite) would
continue in motion with the same speed and in the same direction. This is the law of inertia. The
force of gravity acts upon a high speed satellite to deviate its trajectory from a straight-line
inertial path. Indeed, a satellite is accelerating towards the Earth due to the force of gravity.
Finally, a satellite does fall towards the Earth; only it never falls into the Earth. To understand
this concept, we have to remind ourselves of the fact that the Earth is round; that is the Earth
curves. In fact, scientists know that on average, the Earth curves approximately 5 meters
downward for every 8000 meters along its horizon. If you were to look out horizontally along the
horizon of the Earth for 8000 meters, you would observe that the Earth curves downwards below
this straight-line path a distance of 5 meters. In order for a satellite to successfully orbit the
Earth, it must travel a horizontal distance of 8000 meters before falling a vertical distance of 5
meters. A horizontally launched projectile falls a vertical distance of 5 meters in its first second
of motion. To avoid hitting the Earth, an orbiting projectile must be launched with a horizontal
speed of 8000 m/s. When launched at this speed, the projectile will fall towards the Earth with a
trajectory which matches the curvature of the Earth. As
such, the projectile will fall around the Earth, always accelerating towards it under the influence
of gravity, yet never colliding into it since the Earth is constantly curving at the same rate. Such a
projectile is an orbiting satellite.
To further understanding the concept of a projectile orbiting around the Earth, consider the
following thought experiment. Suppose that a very powerful cannon was mounted on top of a
very tall mountain. Suppose that the mountain was so tall that any object set in motion from the
mountaintop would be unaffected by air drag. Suppose that several cannonballs were fired from
the cannon at various speeds - say speeds of 8000 m/s, less than 8000 m/s, and more than 8000
m/s. A cannonball launched with speeds less than 8000 m/s would eventually fall to the Earth. A
cannonball launched with a speed of 8000 m/s would orbit the Earth in a circular path. Finally, a
cannonball launched with a speed greater than 8000 m/s would orbit the Earth in an elliptical
path. The animations below depict these ideas.
Launch Speed less than 8000 m/s
Projectile falls to Earth


Launch Speed less than 8000 m/s
Projectile falls to Earth


Launch Speed equal to 8000 m/s
Projectile orbits Earth - Circular Path
Launch Speed greater than 8000 m/s
Projectile orbits Earth - Elliptical Path

Two final notes should be made about satellite motion. First, the 8000 m/s figure used in the
above discussion applies to satellites launched from heights just above Earth's surface. Since
gravitational influences decrease with the height above the Earth, the orbital speed required for a
circular orbit is less than 8000 m/s at significantly greater heights above Earth's surface.
Second, there is an upper limit on the orbital speed of a satellite. If launched with too great of a
speed, a projectile will escape Earth's gravitational influences and continue in motion without
actually orbiting the Earth. Such a projectile will continue in motion until influenced by the
gravitational influences of other celestial bodies.
For most satellites, the energy to get them into their orbit came from the rocket atop which they
were launched. Once up there they lose very little energy (there is some atmospheric drag in low
Earth orbit at around 400 km altitude, but none at geostationary altitudes). Some satellites do
contain maneuvering thrusters to boost or shift their orbits. Orbits higher than low Earth orbit are
generally reached using an upper stage rocket. The lower stages get the satellite and its attached
upper stage into a parking orbit at low altitude and then the upper stage rocket fires to boost the
satellite to say a geostationary orbit (a transfer orbit at first, followed later by a second firing to
circularise the orbit) or to an interplanetary transfer orbit.