Exercise 1

THE CLIMATE FACTORS

Introduction
The long term effects of the suns radiation on the rotating earths varied surface and
atmosphere is collectively referred to as the climate. It is mostly expressed in terms of annual averages
of temperature and participation. Land and sea areas react in many different ways to the atmosphere
which is constantly circulating. Day to day variations of climatic factors occur and is termed as the
weather. It is measured by thermometers, rain gauges, barometers, and other related instruments.
On land, the atmospheric condition is vital influence on oil, vegetation, and community that
develops in particular area. Temperature and precipitation are related in terms of potential evaporation
and they could become a good to vegetation classification.
Objectives
This particular exercise aims to give the student an opportunity to make measurements of the
physical aspects of the terrestrial environment and determine the interaction of these factors that
produces certain patterns observed in nature. It is expected that the student will explain in writing any
differences of similarities between study areas. The student will also answer the question at the end of
the exercise.
Materials
thermometer rain gauge meterstick ruler
psychrometer Barometer windmeter colored pencil
light meter Altimeter graphing paper marking pen

Procedures
I. The Study Areas
Each group should identify a particular site to study. Within a delineated area, measurements of
the physical conditions will be done at 3 random points. A complete description (with an
illustration/map) of study area should be given. Include the elevation of the area as well as the time of
day specific measurements are made.
II. Atmospheric Measurements
A. Temperature



Take the air temperature readings from three different points in your study area using a
thermometer. Be sure your thermometer is allowed to euilirate for at least one minute
efore taing each reading ecord all results in on data sheet
B. Relative Humidity (Moisture in Air)

In order to measure relative humidity, a psychrometer is used. The instrument has two
thermometers. One will be a dry bulb, the other a wet bulb. The wet bulb of a thermometer,
and then soaking it with distilled water. Place two thermometers in a cup of jar. Wet the
cloth with distilled water and fan it for five minutes. DO NOT KNOCK IT OVER! Record the
difference in wet and dry bulb readings and consult the conversation chart for differences
(Table 1). Repeat 3 times at different sites in the study area.

C. Light Intensity

Using a light meter, record the amount of irradiation in at least 3 different locations in your
study area. When measuring, position the sensor towards the direction of the sun. Report all value in
LUX.
D. Wind Speed and Direction
Position windmeter or anemometer in front of you at eye level with the scale facing you and
the whole unit being oriented with the direction of the windstream. Indicate the direction of the
wind and record speed values in meter per second (m/s)
E. Atmospheric Pressure
With a barometer, record the air pressure at three different sites in your area. This may be
recorded in cm.
F. Rainfall/Precipitation
The rate of precipitation is determined with a rain gauge. Leave the rain gauge (or improvised
calibrated container) within the area after 24 hours, collect and measure the amount of rainfall
in mL/day.
G. Rate of Evaporation
Randomly place 3 aluminum pans with a known of waater in the study area. After 24 hours, note
the final volume of water left in the pans. Determine the rate evaporation and record in mL/day.
CENTIGRADE DEGREES AIR PRESSURE 29.24
Note: A table for determining the percent of relative humidity of a given space from the difference in
temperatures recorded on wet and dry bulb centigrade thermometers subjected to a rapid flow of air.


Most of the percentages are accurate within two or three ercent or more accurate determinations
here differences are recorded for see regg 9 elative umidit Centigrade
Temperature. U.S.D.A. Weather Bureau W.B. 1071.
Dry
(t)
bulb
temp.
Depression of Wet-bulb Thermometer (t-t
Dry
(t)
bulb
temp.
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10
20 96 91 87 83 78 74 70 66 63 59 55 51 48 44 41 37 34 31 28 24 20
21 96 91 87 83 79 75 71 67 64 60 56 52 49 46 42 38 36 32 29 26 21
22 96 91 87 83 80 76 72 68 64 61 57 53 50 49 44 40 37 34 31 28 22
23 96 92 88 84 80 76 72 69 65 62 58 55 52 48 45 42 39 36 33 30 23
24 96 92 88 84 80 77 73 69 66 62 59 56 53 49 46 43 40 37 34 31 24
25 96 92 88 84 81 77 74 70 67 63 60 57 54 50 47 44 41 39 36 33 25
26 96 92 88 85 81 78 74 71 67 64 61 58 54 51 49 46 43 40 37 34 26
27 96 92 89 85 82 78 75 71 68 65 62 58 56 52 50 47 44 41 38 36 27
28 96 93 89 85 82 78 75 72 69 65 62 59 56 53 51 48 45 42 40 37 28
29 96 93 89 86 82 79 76 72 69 66 63 60 57 54 52 49 46 43 41 38 29
30 96 93 89 86 83 79 76 73 70 67 64 61 58 55 52 50 47 44 42 39 30
31 96 93 90 86 83 80 77 73 70 67 64 61 59 56 53 51 48 45 43 40 31
32 96 93 90 86 83 80 77 74 71 68 65 62 60 57 54 51 49 46 44 41 32
33 97 93 90 87 83 80 77 74 71 68 66 63 60 57 55 52 50 47 45 42 33
34 97 93 90 87 84 81 78 75 72 69 66 63 61 58 56 53 51 48 46 43 34
35 97 94 90 87 84 81 78 75 72 69 67 64 61 55 56 54 51 49 47 44 35
36 97 94 90 87 84 81 78 75 73 70 69 64 62 59 57 54 52 50 48 45 36
37 97 94 91 87 84 82 79 76 73 70 68 65 63 60 58 55 53 51 48 46 37
38 97 94 91 88 84 82 79 76 74 71 68 66 63 61 58 56 54 51 49 47 38
39 97 94 91 88 85 82 79 77 74 71 69 66 64 61 59 57 54 52 50 48 39
40 97 94 91 88 85 82 80 77 74 72 69 67 64 62 59 57 54 53 51 48 40
41 97 94 91 88 85 83 80 77 75 72 70 67 65 62 60 58 56 53 51 49 41
42 97 94 91 88 86 83 80 78 75 72 70 67 65 63 61 58 56 54 52 50 42
43 97 94 91 88 86 83 80 78 75 73 70 68 66 63 61 59 57 55 52 50 43
44 97 94 91 89 86 83 81 78 76 73 71 68 66 64 62 59 57 55 53 51 44
Dry
(t)
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10
Dry
(t)

III. Climatographs
The summary of temperature and precipitation could be summarized into graphs and can be
used to predict the climate and vegetation of particular environment.
Using the data provided below, construct the climatographs of the different places of the world
and note the annual patterns that exist in these areas.
1. Tropical Rainforest Biome. Example: Singapore
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Temp 73.3 79.0 80.2 81.5 81.1 81.1 81.0 80.6 80.4 80.1 79.3 78.6
Rain 81.5 6.1 6.1 6.9 7.2 6.77 6.8 8.5 7.1 8.2 10.0 10.4





2. Tropical Savanna Biome. Example: Timbo, W. Africa
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Temp 72 76 81 80 77.1 73 72 72 72 73 72 71
Rain 0.0 0.0 1.0 2.4 6.4 9.0 12.4 14.7 10.2 6.7 1.3 0.0

3. Subtropical Biome. Example: Sydney, Australia
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Temp 72 71 69 65 59 54 53 55 59 62 67 70
Rain 3.6 4.4 4.9 5.4 5.1 4.8 5.0 3.0 2.9 2.8 2.8

4. Temperature Deciduous Forest Biome. Example Peoria, Illinois
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Temp 24 28 40 61 62 71 75 73 65 53 39 28
Rain 1.8 2.0 2.7 3.3 3.9 3.8 3.8 3.2 3.8 2.4 2.4 2.0

5. Tundra Biome. Example: Sagastyr, Serbia
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Temp -34 -36 -30 -7 15 32 41 38 33 6 -16 -28
Rain 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.3 1.4 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.2

Guide Questions
1. Which of the climatic factors measured are observed to be correlated with each other? Discuss
these relationships and their ecological significance.
2. What are the factors that influence the amount of radiation reaching a particular area on earth?
3. How does a psychrometer measure relative humidity? What is the relationship between air
temperature and the capacity to hold moisture? How does RH affect organisms (e.g. plants)?
4. What is the correlation between the rate of precipitation and atmospheric pressure?
5. How is the rate of evapotranspiration affected by factors like wind and temperature?
6. What is the value of climatographs? How do you account for the basic differences between
terrestrial biomes?
References
Cox, G.W. (1967) Laboratory Manual of General Ecology. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm C. Brown Company
Publishers. 165 pp.
Griffiths, J.F. and Driscoll, D.M. (1982) Survey of Climatology. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill
Publishing Co., 358 pp.


Smith, R.L. (1990) Ecology and Field Biology. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. 922 pp.
Smith, R.L. and Smith, T.M. (1998) Elements of Ecology. 4rth ed. Addison Wesley Longman Inc. Menlo
Park, California.
Tarbuck, G.J. and Lutgens, F.K. (2001). Earth Science, Prentice Hall, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

























EXERCISE 2
THE EDAPHIC FACTORS
Introduction
The soil forms the suerficial laer of most of the earths land area asic descritions of soils
and climate are an important part of the description of any area of vegetation. An examination of the
soil profile can reveal much useful information. Furthermore, the physico-chemical properties of soil
(e.g. temperature, moisture, nutrients) to a great extent affect the abundance and distribution of
terrestrial organisms.
Objectives
This exercise intends to study the properties of various soil types using simple field and
laboratory techniques. The student is expected to determine the relationships of these factors which
one another, thereby providing a particular edaphic characterization of the area being studied.
Materials
Different soil type Ruler
pail Cellophane
Trowel/shovel Desiccator
Soil tester Evaporating dish
Filter paper Burner
Sieves Beaker
Funnel Clay crucibles
Flower pots Sintered glass crucibles
Graduated cylinder Digital balance
pH meter Calcium hydroxide
1N HC1 Formalin
Muffle furnace Distilled water
Oven Medicine dropper
Berlesa-tulgren apparatus Vials
Microscope Diphenylamine
Forceps Ammonium molybdate
Erlenmeyer flasks (250 ml) H2SO4
Tubing onc iece of tin

Procedures
The methods described below have been adapted to provide some simple field and laboratory
measures of soil features.




I. Field Obsevations
A. Soil Profile
The main feature used in soil profile description is the number and arrangement of horizon, and
the nature of the boundaries. See Table 2 and Figure 1.
Table 2. Horizons which may be present in a soil profile:
HORIZON CHARACTERISTICS
O Horizons dominated by organic matter
O Fresh litter fragments recognizable
Decomposed litter
A Topsoil horizons of eluviation (leaching)
A Dark, humified mineral horizon
A Lighter horizon of maximum eluviation of organic matters, clay, oxides, nutrients
A Transitional to B horizon
B Horizons of illuviation (deposition)
Transitional to A
Horizon of maximum deposition of leached material
Transitional to C horizon
C Slightly weathered parent material
R Unweathered bedrock (regolith)

Select two areas (inside or outside of USC-TC Campus) where the soil are distinctly different.
Note and give a full description of these areas and then do the following: With a shovel, dig at least half
a meter down into the soul to share the intact horizons. Describe the color, texture, and thickness of
each identifiable layer (i.e. O, A, and B horizons).
F:g. 1. generalized soil profile (as given in Brower & Xar, 198)
B. Soi Temperature
Using a laboratory thermometer, obtain temperature readings from different layers of the soil:
surface (0), A, & B Layers to come up with a soil temperature profile. Bury the thermometer into the soil
for about 3 minutes before making any reading. Repeat at least 3 times in the study site
C. Soi pH and Soil Moisture
Dig a shallow hole in the soil and bury the sensitive part of the soil tester into it. After at least 3
minutes, record the pH reading from the upper scale and moisture from the lower scale. Repeat this in 3
random points in the study area.
II. SIMPLE LABORATORY SOIL ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES


A. Soil Texture Analysis
Texture reflects the particle sizes (Table 3) in the soil, and is related to the ratio of sand: silt: clay
fractions Fig. 2).
Table 3. Size categories of soil particles.
Particle Diameter
Stones >20 mm
Gravel 2 20 mm
Coarse sand 200 2000 um
Fine sand 20 200 um
Silt 2 20 um
Clay 0.2 2 um
Fine Clay <0.2 um

Air dry the different soil samples for about 2 days. Weight a sample size for each soil type and
crush it to break up the particles in themselves. Sieve the samples through the series of sieves starting
with the largest mesh size to remove the largest particles and so on to the smallest size. Weight the
amount collected on each sieve.
To get the fine sand, silt and clay place the separated soil from coarse sand in breaker filled with
water and stir for 5 minutes. The fine sand will settle out first, the silt and clay in suspension. Filter the
silt and clay from fine sand and air dry. Then weigh each.
Do this for each of the soul types and get the percentage composition of soil particles in each.
Record the result.
F.g. 2. Soil types based on percentages of Sand, silt and clay (as given Brower and Zar, 1984)
In the field, texture is estimated by the feel and coherence of moist soil. To do this, get a moist
sample of soil in moisten dry soil sample with distilled water and knead in between the fingers. Some
examples of texture classes are:
Sand No coherence, coarse feel.
Loamy sand Slight coherence; can be sheared between thumb and forefinger to give a
minimal ribbon of about 5mm.
Sandy loam just coherent but very sandy feel; will form ribbon 15-25 mm; dominant sand
grains are of medium and visible.
Silt loam Coherent; very smooth to silky when manipulated; will form a ribbon of about
25 mm.


Loam Coherent and spongy; smooth feel with no obvious sandiness or silkiness; feel
maybe somewhat greasy if much organic matter present, forms ribbon of about
25 mm.
Medium clay Smooth and plastic; forms ribbons of 75 mm or more.
B. Soil Color
Soil color is the defined in terms of hue, value and chroma using the Munsell soil color charts
and no reference needed be made to actual color names. Hue relates to the asic sectrum color
resent The asic colors are shon one or to strength of the color, strongest to weakest right to
left across the page from 8 to 1. Value descries the darness or lightness of the asic color to 6
from the bottom of the page to the top.
The full Munsell notation is given thus:
e.g. HUE VALUE/CHROMA
7.5 Yr. 3/2

Moist soil color is commonly used, but the color of dry soil is required in special cases, such as
for definition of leached A horizons

C. Water Content

Weigh about 10 gm of air-dried soil sample. Heat in an evaporating dish or in an oven at aout
until the eight is constant oils containing large amounts of cla or organic material ill tae
longer to dry than lighter ones. Cool the sample in a desiccator and reweigh.

The loss in weight of soil expressed as percentage conveniently represents the moisture derived
from the hygroscopic water (imbibed water) and some of the capillary water. This gives an idea of the
humidity of the different soils provided the samples are subjected to the same amount of preliminary
air-drying.

Calculate the amount of water that was in the soil and express as percentage of the dry soil
weight.






D. Water Holding Capacity (Soil Saturation) or Field Capacity

True field capacity should be estimated on undisturbed soil, however the amount of water held
by disturbed soil at its saturation point is more easily determined (Denis & Freitas, 1970)



Weigh an oven-dried sintered glass crucible, then with the sinter wet (saturate the sinter and
blot off excess water). Fill the crucible in water with 25 g of dry soil, tap down and level off. Immerse the
crucible in water with the water level just above the sinter until saturation (2 hours or more). Remove
and quickly blot the excess water and weight. Dry the crucile and soil at to constant eight at
least 6 hours). Cool in a desiccator and reweigh. Calculate the % saturation according to the formula:


( ) ( )
( )

where A = wt of dry crucible,
B = wt of dry crucible with sinter wet
C = wt of dry crucible with saturated soil
and D = wt of dry crucible and soil.

E. Organic Matter Content

Accurately weigh a crucible using a 4 figure gravimetric balance and add about 10 20 g of dry
soil. Record the weight. CAREFULLY place the crucible and soil in the maffle furnace with the tongs and
ash for the desiccator for 30 min. and then weigh. Calculate the loss on ignition as a percentage of the
original dry weight.

The loss in eight should e reorted as loss on ignition ecause some of the eight loss is
water from clay lattice structure, as well as the loss of the organic matter by

























Exercise 5

POPULATION GROWTH

Introduction

Through physiological processes the factors in the environment affect the growth and
distribution of individuals and populations. Up to now we have considered the effect of the environment
on the individual plant or animal. With this exercise we shall start to deal with organisms at the
population level.

A growing population is characterized by a definite growth pattern. Data from populations such
as those above have led animal ecologists on formulate a mathematical description of the growth curve
of ideal oulations This is called the sigmoid groth form or sigmond curve from the shae of the
curve. (More information may be found in Odum, 1971). Its formula is:

= rn (K-N)
K

where: N = population size at any point in time
t = time from start of growth
r = constant, intrinsic rate of increase
K = a constant, the upper asymptote of curve (maximum population
size)
This is also called the logistics growth pattern and graphically it appears as the S-shaped curve.

If the population is presented with a new habitat with unlimited resources, the population tends to
follow an exponential growth. It is represented by the mathematical equation:

and is graphically represented by the J-shaped curve.

Objective



In this exercise the students shall study the growth of several real populations to gain an
understanding of the nature of population growth.



Materials

Live Drosophila flies Drosophilia culture medium
Fresh Lemna fronds Semilog graph paper
Lemna culture medium Ordinary graph paper
Erlenmeyer flasks Wire loop
Petri-dishes Vials
Cotton plugs
Culture tubes with nylon Stocking cover

Procedures

I. Lemna aequinoctialis population.

1. Place 200 mL of the standard culture medium for Lemna sp. (Bongo, 1995) into a sterile 250
mL flask.
2. From a pure culture, select 4 healthy three-frond Lemna plants and inculate into the
medium using a sterile wireloop. Seal the flask with a sterile cotton plug and place it inside
the culture chamber with the desired optimum light and temperature conditions.
3. Make note of the number of fronds in the flask from the start of the experiment (should be
12) and every day until the 7
th
day.

Incubation should be interrupted after 7 days. Pour the cultured plants in the flask into a
petri-dish and count the total number of fronds. Record data in a table (Table 5)

Table 5. Growth of the Lemna population in Laboratory culture

Days Total Number of Fronds
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

12




4. Graph the raw data on ordinary and then in semi-log paper.




II. Drosophila melanogaster population

A. Preparation
Study the file cycle of D. melanogaster carefully before using it in population growth
experiment. In the laboratory, the flies reared in culture should be prepared for the experiment.
Selection of adult males and females is done in the following manner.

1. Anesthesizing the fruit flies.
First prepare an etherizer set-up, i.e. a glass container with funnel over it into which a
few drops of ether is poured just enough to allow the vapour to fill the glass. Then release
the fruit flies from the culture tubes or vials into the funnel and down into the etherizer
glass.As soon as the last fly stops moving, remove the funnel and empty the files into an
examination plate. Mae sure you remove the flies out of the etherizer in not more than 1
minute, otherwise, they die.

2. Sexing the fruit flies.
Move the fruit flies on the examination plate gently with a hush. Using the following
tabulated and illustrated features ( Table 6, Fig. 4 ), distinguish the male from female.

Table 6 Comparison between male and female Prosophilla
Feature Male Female
Over all size

Shape of Abdomen

Color of posterior end

Sex comb on foreleg

External genitalia
Smaller

Smaller & less pointed

Darker & uniform

Present

Penis

Large

Larger & more pointed

Lighter

Absent

Oviposition














Figure 4. Comparison of male and female fruit fly ( as given in Hal are, 2001 )
B. Population growth experiment
1. Place 5 pairs ( 5 males and 5 females ) of Drosophila into a culture tube covered nylon
stockings. This serves as the initial population size. Provided food for the flies, i.e. mashed banana or
sweet potato. Prepare this set-up in triplicate. Set aside the set-up and allow the flies to mate.
2. When some of the eggs laid by the initial population has metamorphosed to adults, the
second counting should be done, the succeeding counts shall be done every 5 days until the end 4
weeks.
3. Plot the growth of the experimental Drosophila population on ordinary graphing paper.

Guide Questions
1. What do you conclude about the population growth of lemna?
2. What will eventually happen to the size of population? Why?
3. How does the Drosophila growth pattern differ from that of the lemna? Explain why organism
different growth curve?
4. hat is meant r? Exlain ho e M otain TE VALUE O OM YOU DATA
5. What factors limit the growth rate of populations. Compose density-dependent and density-
independent regulation of population size.
6. Differentiate the two life history patterns r- and k- selection. How does this concept to
population growth principle?
References

Brower, J. and J. Zar ( 1984 ). Field and Laboratory Methods in General Ecology. 2
nd
ed. Wm. C. Brown
Publ. Iowa.

Freeman, D.C., Miglia, K. and Wang, H. 1996. Laboratory Exercises for General and Evolution.
kendoll/Hunt Publishing, Company. Dubuque, Iowa.

Hallare, A.V. (2001) . General Ecology Concepts and Selected Laboratory Exercises. Busybook
Distributors, Manila.

Odum, E.P. (1971). Fundamental of Ecology. 3
rd
ed. Saunders, Philadelphia.

Price, P.W. (1997). Insert Ecology. 3
rd
ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York.

Smith, R.L. (1990). Ecology and Field Biology. Harper and Row Publishers, New York.



Stiling P. (1992). Introductory Ecology. Premitce Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Vodopich, D.S. and Moore, R. (1999). Biology Laboratory Manual. 5
th
ed. LUCB/McGraw-Hill Dubuque IA,
USA.




Exercise 6

AGE STRUCURE OF A HUMAN POPULATION
Introduction
Population vary in their proportions of young and old individuals. Individuals in a population
can be assigned to age classes reflecting different stages in their ideal life span. The proportions of
individuals belonging to the structure or age group are collectively referred to as the age structure or
age distribution of population.

Knowledge of the age structure is valuable for it helps us predict the growth and dynamics ot
the population. From the age structure date, one can obtain age-specific mortality and survivorship
estimates which are important in determining the future growth of the population.

Objective

In this exercise, the student will determine the age distribution of a local human population
and construct an age sex pyramid from the collected data. They shall also make projections about the
population based on the age structure.

Materials
Record book
Ruler
Graphing paper
pencil
Procedure
A. Collection of Age Data
1. Every member of the class will make a census of 10 families picked at random in Talamban,
Cebu City.
2. Only persons belonging to the direct line of descent will be included.
3. Members will be separated according sex and the respective age will be given in every case.
B. Evaluation of Data
1. The individual date ( of every member ) will be combined into one single (class) survey.
2. Age groups will be formed for each sex with a difference of 5 years between every group.
Tabulate the data as in Table 7.
3. These sex and age will be compared graphically between sexes using two separate
histograms pleased side by side.


4. These age group of both sexes will be combined and the resulting groups presented in the
form of a pyramid, the Eltonian pyramid.
Graph:


5.


Table 7.
Number of individuals I each age class (of families surveyed in Talamban, Cebu City).

Age group
(years)
Males Females Total
0-5
6-10
10-15
16-20
21-25
26-30
31-35
36-40
41-45
46-50
51-55
56-60
61-65
66-70
71-75
76-80
81-85
86-90
91-95
96-100
Grand Total

Guide Questions
1. What are the different types of age pyramids?
Differentiate one from the other.
2. Based on these results here, what type of population do the surveyed families in Talamban
represent? Is this expected?
3. What are the factors that influence age distribution of a population? Discuss.
Vertical axis
Horizontal axis
= age class
= No. of persons
Based on the resulting age pyramid, describe the
population being studied.





4. Is there a difference are age distributions data gathered from different areas of one country?
from various countries of the world?
5. How does your current data compare with the data of whole Philippines? with global population
data?
References

Brower, J. and J. Zar (1984). Field and Laboratory Method in general Ecology. 2
nd
ed. Wm. C. Brown Publ.
Iowa

Bush, M.B. (2000). Ecology of a Changing Planet, Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
Emberlin, J.C. (1983). Introduction to Ecology. Macdonald and Evans Ltd. Estover, Plymouth.

Freeman, D.C. , Miglia, K. and Wang, H. 1996. Laboratory Exercises for General Ecology and Evolution.
Kendoll/hunt Publishing, Company. Dubuque, Iowa.

Odum, E.P.(1971). Fundamentals of Ecology. 3
rd
ed. Saunders. Philadelphia.

Pielou, E.C. (1974). Population and Community Ecology. Gordon and Breach, New York.

Smith, R.L. (1990). Ecology and Field Biology. Harper and Row Publishers, New York.

Smith, R.L. and Smith, T.M. (1998) Elements of Ecology. 4
th
ed. Adison Wesley Longman Inc. Menlo Park,
California.


























Exercise 8

MARK AND RECAPTURE TECHNIQUE

Introduction

It is often difficult and sometimes impossible to get estimates of population size based on
direct counts. Alternatively, the population of a species in an area may be calculated by using Lincoln
index method of mark, release and recapture. This simple procedure is especially useful for animal
groups such as molluscs or woodlice which are easily spotted and marked.

To calculate population density using capture-recapture technique, two samples of the
population will be captured, successively. In first sampling, all animals captured are marked and then
release back to the habitat. In the second sampling, the number of marked and unmarked individuals of
the total sample are counted. The numbers obtained are then used to express the proportionality:

()
()
=
()
()


Thus, rearranging the proportionality gives us the formula for estimating population size.

The capture-recapture techniques are based on the following necessary assumptions.

1. Mark are not lost or overlooked.
2. There is no immigration or emigration
3. Marked and unmarked animals must behave alike, i.e. morality, activity, and response to traps
must be the same
4. Marked and unmarked animals are captured in a random fashion.
5. Enough time is given for the members of the population to dispense throughout the whole area.

All these conditions are unlikely to be fully satisfied in every study. Nevertheless is possible to make a
good approximation to them.

Objective



The student is expected to be able to determine the population density of a species using the
Lincoln index.



Materials

Cellulose paint or Nail polish (not a bright distinctive colour)
Fine paint brush
Calculator

Procedure

1. In the study areas a garden, a pond, or stream, locate as many snails as possible in a standard
period of time ca. 30 minutes.
2. Count the numbers of individuals and apply a small blob of paint to the back of each specimen,
allow to dry, and release, leaving them to mingle with the rest of the population in the area;
3. Return to the site after a period of 2-3 hours, or a day or so, collect as many individuals as
possible in the same area at the same time;
4. Count the number of marked and unmarked specimens in this second sample. The population
may then be calculated using Lincoln index formula

()
() ()
()


5. Calculated the 95% confidence interval about population. This is done by
a. determining the standard error by the formula:

S.E. =
()

b. Multiplying the standard error by the z-score of 1.96.
Population size = Lincoln Index + (1.96 x s.e.) (N)

Guide Questions

1. It is easy to recognize the imprecision of the mark and recapture technique. Under what
instances can this method become more reliable?
2. In which habitats and what kinds of organisms can the mark and recapture technique become
very relevant?
3. What are some of the methods of marking animals in population estimate studies, such as birds,
fish and mammals?


4. What constitute a good and bad markers when doing field work
5. Marking is one thing and trapping is another. How will trapping methods affect population
estimates? Exlain tra-sh and tra-rone animals
6. What are some of the modified mark and recapture methods? Describe some of these and
discuss their relevance in population sampling.
References

Brower, J. and J. Zar (91984). Field and Laboratory Methods in General Ecology. 2
nd
ed. Wm. C. Brown
Publ. Iowa.

Fowler, J. and Cohen, L. (1990). Practical Statistics for Field Biology. Open University Press. Milton
Keynes Philadelphia.

Freeman, D.C. Miglia, K. and Wang, H. 1996. Laboratory Exercises for General Ecology and Evolution.
Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. Dubuque, Iowa.

Gilbertson, D.D., Kent, M. and Pyatt, F.B. (1985). Practical Ecology for Geography and Biology, Survey
,Mapping and Data Analysis. Unwin Hyman Ltd. ,London.
Odum, E.P. (1971). Fundamentals of Ecology. 3
rd
ed. Saunders, Philadelphia.
Sutherland, W.J. (1996). Ecological Census Techniques. A Handbook. Cambridge University Press. Great
Britain.















Exercise 10
VEGETATION ANALYSIS: QUADRAT SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Introduction
A number of techniques are available for obtaining quantitative information about the
structure and composition terrestrial plant communities. The most widely applicable technique,
however, is that of sampling with quadrats or plots of standard size. Quadrat sampling techniques may
be adapted for use in all major types of plant communities, and for the study of communities of sessile
sedentary animals as well.
Objectives
Using the quadrat method, the student will study and describe the vegetation of specific
areas within the USC Talamban Campus. The students will also recognize the advantages and
disadvantages of the quadrat method in vegetation analysis.
Materials
Meter stick Transect line or measuring tape
Metal stakes or pegs markers
Clinometer Compass/GPS
Procedure
The details of quadrat sampling procedure, including the size, shape, number, and
arrangement of the sample plots, must be determined for the particular type of community being
sampled and on the basis of the type of information desired.
I. Determining Plot Size
Plot size should be determined on the basis of the size and density of the plants being
sampled. Plots should be large enough to contain significant numbers of individuals, but small enough
that the individuals present can be separated, counted, and measured without confusion to duplication
or omission of individuals.


Plot size may be determined in a semi-objective manner by plotting a species-area curve as
the sampling is being carried out. This curve consists of the cumulative species total plotted against the
area of quadrat sampled. A species-area curve usually rises sharply at first, since the first samples reveal
many new species, but eventually levels of, indicating that additional are revealing few new species. An
adequate quadrat size usually should be well into the latter portion of the curve.
To determine the minimum quadrat size, do the following.
1. Find the middle of a representative area of the vegetation type to be studied.
2. Starting with the smallest possible quadrat size, usually containing just one or two plant species,
count the number of plant species present.
3. Double the size of the quadrat using the pattern shown in Figure 5 (a) and count the number of
species present. Repeat the doubling and counting procedure until the number of species
counted at each doubling of quadrat size levels off.
4. Cease work when further doubling of the quadrat either gives new species, or a sudden increase
in the number of species occurs.
5. Plot the graph of species in the number of species occurs.
6. Plot the graph of species numbers against quadrat size.
The result is the minimal area or species-are curve.
Figure 5 (b).
If determination of the minimum quadrat size is not possible, the choice of plot size may be done
rule of thum ased on revious studies there a numer of uadrat sizes hich ma e used for
specific vegetation types. In Gilbertson et al. (1985), suggested quadrat sizes are:
Vegetation type Quadrat size
Bryophyte and lichen communities 0.5 x 0.5m
Grasslands and dwarf heaths 1m x 1m to 2m x 2m
Shrubby heaths, tall herb and Grassland
communities
2m x 2m to 4m x 4m
Scrub and woodland shrubs 10m x 10m
Woodland canopies 20m x 20m to 50m x 50m or use plotless sampling
methods
(a.)
1 2
4 6
3


5
7
Progressive doubling of quadrat size
(b.)
Fig. 5(a). Progressive doubling of quadrat area for minimal area and species-area curves. (b). The
resulting species-area curve
II. Quadrat Sampling
1. Lay out quadrats over the entire area being studied. The number of plots must, in minimum, be
sufficient to turn up the bulk of the species. The number and location of the quadrats must be
determined based on the heterogeneity of the vegetation. There are 3 sampling design
recommended as follows:

Sampling Designs

a. Random sampling
If analysis of species of environmental data using inferential statistics is anticipated, the
quadrats should ideally be located at random. A grid of coordinates is set up over the study
area (Figure 6a), and pairs of random numbers are taken to locate each quadrat.
b. Systematic sampling
Used in combination with transect approach where a sampling line is set up across areas
where there are known to be clear environmental gradients. Vegetation is sampled at
regular intervals (Figure 6b). Care has to be taken to ensure that the sampling interval does
not coincide with some marked patterning in the vegetation.
c. Stratified sampling
This is useful in areas with vegetation that may be divided first into different but internally
homogeneous types (strata). Often the division is based on physiognomic grounds (e.g.
scrub within woodland). Sampling is then carried out randomly or systematically within each
vegetation type or stratum (Figure 6c).

Once the plots have been identified, note the orientation of the quadrat with a compass or
with GPS instrument.



(a) Random areal sample
(b) Systematically aligned samples
(c) Stratified random areal sample
Fig. 6(a) A sampling grid comprising sampling points located using random number tables; (b) A
systematic sampling grid; (c) A stratified sampling grid.

2. Once sample plots have been laid out, the individual plants should be identified and measured.
It may be necessary to devise arbitrary criteria for inclusion or exclusion of plants occurring on
the edge of the plot. For example, plants with rooted bases lying more than halfway inside the
plot boundary may be completely inside, while plants lying more than halfway outside may be
completely excluded. For some types of vegetation, an arbitrary definition of what constitutes a
single individual may be needed.
For each quadrat, the following should be determined:
a. Density
Assessing density is done by total counts i.e. counting every individual of each species
occurring within the quadrat. Subdivided quadrats are essential for accuracy in
counting.
b. Cover
Measurements of the basal area of the areal coverage of the crown should be taken for
the plants in the plot. For large woody plants, the diameter or circumference of the
trunk may be measured and the basal area obtained from Table 8. For smaller plants,
the diameters of the crown are of coverage values may then be recorded in a table,
where they will serve to indicate both the number and size of the individuals of each
species encountered. A subjective estimate of the cover may be used to assess the
species cover. A number of recording scales have been used to aid assessments, such as
the Braun-Blanquet or the Domin scales as given below.
Value Braun-Blanquet Domin
+ Less than 1% cover A single individual No measurable cover.
1
1-5% cover 1-2 individuals No measureable cover.
Individuals with normal vigour.
2 6-15% cover Several individuals but less than 1%
3 26-50% cover 1-4% cover
4 51-75% cover 4-10% cover
5 76-100% cover 11-25% cover


6 26 33% cover
7 34 50% cover
8 51 75% cover
9 76-90% cover
10 91-100% cover

c. Frequency
The chance of finding the species in a particular quadrat is called frequency. This is
determined by subdividing the quadrat into 10 x 10 sub-units, and percentage frequency is determined
by recording presence/absence of species in each of the sub-units Frequency is dependent on quadrat
size, plant size and patterning of vegetation.
III. Data Analysis
1. Calculating Species Abundance
In summarizing the data, density, dominance, and frequency values can be determined for each species.
Density refers to the number of individuals per unit area, dominance to the basal area or crown
coverage per unit area, and frequency to the fraction of sample plots containing the species. For a
particular species, these values may be expressed either in an absolute form in a relative form, which
shows the percentage that the species value is of the total for all species. Relative values for density,
dominance, and frequency may be combined into a single important value, which reflects these three
somewhat different measures of the importance of the
Table 8. Conversion of Circumference Measurements to Circular Area Values
Circ. Area Circ. Area Circ. Area Circ. Area
1 0.10 46 168.39 91 658.98 136 1471.87
2 0.32 47 175.79 92 673.56 137 1493.58
3 0.94 48 183.35 93 688.26 138 1515.47
4 1.6 49 191.06 94 703.17 139 1537.52
5 1.99 50 198.94 95 718.18 140 1559.72
6 2.86 51 206.98 96 733.41 141 1582.08
7 3.90 52 215.15 97 748.74 142 1604.60
8 5.09 53 223.53 98 764.28 143 1627.28
9 6.44 54 232.05 99 779.94 144 1650.12
10 7.96 55 240.72 100 795.80 145 1673.12
11 9.63 56 249.55 101 811.77 146 1696.27


12 11.46 57 258.55 102 827.95 147 1719.59
13 13.45 58 267.70 103 844.24 148 1743.07
14 15.60 59 277.02 104 860.74 149 1766.70
15 17.90 60 286.48 105 877.34 150 1790.50
16 20.37 61 296.11 106 894.16 151 1814.44
17 23.00 62 305.90 107 911.08 152 1838.56
18 25.78 63 315396 108 928.21 153 1862.83
19 28.73 64 325.95 109 945.46 154 1887.26
20 31.83 65 336.21 110 962.92 155 1911.84
21 35.27 66 346.64 111 980.47 156 1936.60
22 38.51 67 357.23 112 998.25 157 1961.52
23 42.10 68 367.98 113 1016.12 158 1986.57
24 45.8 69 378.88 114 1034.22 159 2011.81
25 49.74 70 389.93 115 1052.41 160 2037.18
26 53.79 71 401.16 116 1070.83 161 2062.73
27 58.01 72 412.54 117 1089.33 162 2088.43
28 62.39 73 424.08 118 1108.77 163 2114.30
29 66.92 74 435.78 119 1126.89 164 2140.31
30 71.62 75 447.64 120 1145.95 165 2166.50
31 76.47 76 459.65 121 1165.10 166 2192.83
32 81.49 77 471.83 122 1184.43 167 2219.34
33 86.66 78 484.16 123 1203.93 168 2254.99
34 91.99 79 494.66 124 1223.58 169 2272.81
35 97.48 80 509.31 125 1243.40 170 2299.80
36 103.13 81 522.11 126 1263.37 171 2326.92
37 108.94 82 535.08 127 1283.51 172 2354.23
38 114.90 83 548.21 128 1303.79 173 2381.67
39 121.04 84 561.50 129 1324.25 174 2409.29
40 127.48 85 574.95 130 1344.86 175 2437.06
41 133.77 86 588.57 131 1365.63 176 2464.99
42 140.37 87 602.32 132 1386.56 177 2493.08
43 157.14 88 616.27 133 1407.64 178 2521.33
44 154.06 89 630.33 134 1428.90 179 2549.75
45 161.14 90 644.60 135 1450.30 180 2578.31
Species in the community. These various vegetational measurements are determined according to the
following formulas:


( )











( )

















2. Measuring Diversity
The term diversit used lant ecologist has to components:
1. The number of species represented: all else being equal, we regard a community as being
more diverse if it has more secies reresented than a communit ith feer secies
(The variety component)
2. Evenness: If two communities have the same number of species, the more diverse
community will be the one that has more even number of individuals of each species (The
equitability or evenness component)
Measures of diversity used by ecologists generally combine these two components. The most common
one is the Shannon-Wiener diversit index or here
H = -pi ln pi
Where Pi = proportion of the total sample of individuals of the ith species.
For example, if we have a community containing five species, A,B,C,D, and E and a random sample gives
us the following numbers of individuals of each species A-55, B-30, C-15, D-5, and E-3, (118 in the total
sample), then
= -[ (55/118) x ln (55/118)] + [(30/188 x ln /8]+[/8 x ln /8]


= - (-1.403) = 1.403
For given number of species, the maximum value of max occurs hen there are exactl the same
number of individuals of each species.
max = ln k, where k is the number of species.
Evenness (J) can e calculated as the ratio of to max
In a erfectl even communit J =
Another diversit index simsons index estimates the roailit that if to individuals are randoml
selected, they will be the same species. In diverse community, this will be unlikely, and the probability
will low (i.e. <<1). It ranges from 1 when all individuals belong to the same species to 1/k when every
individual belongs to the same species, i.e. the value decreases with increasing heterogeneity. The
modified Simpsons Index given as
SI = pi
was introduced, so that it increases with increasing heterogeneity. This is also called the index
Dominance.
Guide Questions

1. Compare the quadrat method to other quantitative vegetation analysis techniques. What are its
advantages?
2. How does quadrat size and number each affect the accuracy of the results?
3. Describe conditions under which species importance rankings based on density, dominance, and
frequency values may give very different result.
4. What is the value of converting these absolute values to relative values?
5. What are the values obtained for the Shannon-iener index evenness the imsons index?
Explain the implications of these values.
6. How would you describe the vegetation being studied? Any factor to attribute this formation
to?

References:

Barbour, M.G., Burk, J.H. and Pitts, U.P. (1987). Terrestrial Plant Ecology. 2
nd
ed. Benjamin Cummings,
California.

Brower, J. and J. Zar (1984). Field and Laboratory Methods in General Ecology. 2
nd
ed. Wm. C. Brown
Publ. Iowa.



Emberlin, J.C. (1983) Introduction to Ecology. Mcdonald & Evans Ltd., Estover, Plymouth.

Gilbertson, D.D., Kent, M. and Pyatt, F.B. (1985). Practical Ecology for Geography and Biology, Survey,
Mapping and Data Analysis. Unwin Hyman Ltd., London.

Greig-Smith, P. (1964) Quantitative Plant Ecology. 2
nd
ed. London: Butterworth and Company.

Kershaw, K.A. and Looneym J.H.H, (1985) Quantitative and Dynamic Plant Ecology, 3
rd
edition. Edward
Arnold, London.

Muller-Dombois, D. and Ellenberg, H. (1974) Aims and Methods of Vegetation Ecology. John Wiley &
Sons, New York.

Sutherland, W.J. ed. (1996). Ecological Census Techniques: A Handbook. Cambridge University Press,
London.

University of the Philippines (1971). Plants of the Philippines. UP, Manila.





































Exercise 11

FOREST ECOSYSTEM

Introduction

Forests consist of communities in which the individual plants are closely spaced and in which
the dominant plants consists of woody plants of shrub size or larger. Depending on the climate, a
number of forest type is the tropical rainforest.

Objective

A locally existing secondary forest will be visited and studied to give the student ample data
to describe this specific ecosystem.

Materials

Meter stick Measuring tape Soil tester
Markers Insect nets Plastic bags
Transect line Light meter Animal traps
pH meter Thermometer Psychometer
Anemometer Muffle furnace Sieves
Trowel Compass/GPS bottles
formalin

Procedures

I. The Study Area

The class will go on a fieldtrip to Camp 7, Minglanilla, Cebu City. It is located 20 km. south of
Cebu City and is part of the Mananga Watershed which is managed the Department of Environment and
Natural Resources (DENR). The study area is a reforestation site of about 2,710 hectares with an
elevation of 1500 m above sea level (ASL). The dry season in the area starts from June to September


with occasional rains from October to November. The vegetation is primarily composed of exotic species
with a small percentage of indigenous species.

II. Field Work

The class will work in teams corresponding to the different aspects to be studied. Different
teams will be assigned to do the following tasks:



A. Vegetation Analysis

Two methods will be applied in this exercise: quadrat for determining species composition
and plotless technique is best adopted for determining tree density.

1. Quadrat method

Establish a 20m x 20m quadrat randomly inside the forest. Determine the exact location of the
site with compass or GPS apparatus. Then, record the species of plants included in the quadrat.
For trees, note their abundance, i.e. density (number of individuals), cover (canopy diameter at
breast height or dbh), and estimated height. For shrubs and samplings, it is usually necessary to
record only the number of individuals of each species. For herbs, the mere presence of each
species is noted for each quadrat. Trees falling on one of the boundary lines should be counted
only if more than one-half of the trunks are within the quadrat. In the case of herbs and shrubs,
only those which are rooted within the quadrat should be counted. Draw a profile diagram of
the sampled area to show the stratification (layering of vegetation and the canopy coverage).

2. Point-Centered quadrat method

For this technique, a series of random points first should be located within the stand to be
sampled. In most cases, it is satisfactory to pick random points along the series of line transects
passing through the stand. The area around each point should be divided into four equal parts,
or quadrants. This may be done with the compass, or, if a line transect is used, the quadrats may
be formed by the line itself and a perpendicular to the line at the sampling point. The individual
nearest the point in each quadrant then is located. The species, basal area or areal coverage,
and the point-to-plant distance are determined for each plant and record. Basal area or areal
coverage may be determined from diameter or circumference measurements by reference to
Table 8 (Ex. 10). Point-to-plant distance should be measured in the center of the crown or to the
center of the rooted base rather than to the edge of the crown. Point-centered quarter sampling
procedure is shown diagrammatically in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Point-centered quarter sampling procedure.



In summarizing the sampling data, point-to-plant distances should first be totaled for all
individuals and averaged to give the mean point-in-plant distance. This value squared gives the
mean area per plant. The mean area per plant represents the average area of ground surface on
which one plant occurs. The total density of plants in the area sampled is then obtained by
dividing the mean area per plant into the unit area on the basis of which density is to be
expressed. As a formula, this may be written:

Mean distance (d) =

Mean area = mean distance

Tree density =




B. Faunal Survey

Make a complete list of the animals observed in the plot or quadrat including those in the soil
subsystem. Use all the methods of determining animal population outlined below.

Note: Do not attempt to shoot birds.

1. Direct counts this can rarely be done, except in the case of large animals such as birds, reptiles,
amphibians and small mammals.
2. Using a sweep net this is frequently used to sample insect population along a transect line. The
user marks out a line and follows it closely, sweeping the net to trap the flying insects.
3. Pitfall trapping this is a frequently used to sample invertebrates living on the surface of the
soil. Holes are dug at frequent intervals and a can is placed to catch all forms which fall into the
trap. The can should be covered with a flat stone to keep out of the rain, and a little formalin
can be placed inside to kill the trapped insects.
4. Signs this is the least reliable method. Instead of counting the organisms themselves, some sin
of its presence is used. For example, dropping or nests of birds; footprints and excreta nocturnal
mammals.
5. For soil animals, take a soil sample (using a core sampler) and sieve to separate individuals from
the soil particles.

C. Physico-Chemical Parameters

The following should be measured every hour: air temperature, relative humidity, wind
direction, and light intensity. Soil samples should be collected and characterized in the laboratory. pH
and moisture content of the soil may be determined electronically in the field using the soil apparatus.

Guide Questions



1. Which method is best adapted for sampling forest vegetation? Give your reasons.
2. What are the dominant species in the study area?
3. Describe the stratification exhibited by the forest vegetation.
4. Discuss the interactions of the biotic and abiotic components of the community
5. What are the important environmental factors that affect the productivity of terrestrial forests.



References:

Barbour, M.G., Burk, J.H. and Pitts, U.P. (1987). Terrestrial Plant Ecology. 2
nd
ed. Benjamin Cummings,
Californial

Greig-Smith, P. (1964) Quantitative Plant Ecology, 2
nd
ed., London: Butterworth and Company.

Odum, E.P. (1971). Fundamentals of Ecology. Saunders, Philadelphia, Pa.

Smith, R. L. and Smith, T. M. (1998) Elements of Ecology. 4rth ed. Addison Wesley Longman Inc. Menlo
Park, California.

Sutherland, W.J. ed. (1996). Ecological Census Techniques: A Handbook. Cambridge University Press,
London.

Whitmore, T.C. (1990). An Introduction to Tropical Rain Forests. Clarendon Pess, Oxford.




























Exercise 12

FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEM

Introduction

Aquatic habitats are markedly different from terrestrial ones. Unlike most terrestrial ecosystems,
freshwater systems have well-defined boundaries. In moving systems such as streams and rivers, a
number of factors greatly influenced the communities that exist in the habitat. Organisms should have a
number of adaptations to live in moving water.

The area of land a stream or river drains is its watershed. A watershed maybe unique in its vegetative
cover, geology, soils and topography. Thus, lotic or moving freshwater systems are really an integral part
of a watershed or catch basins.

Objectives
In this exercise the students will do the following:

1) collect field data using sampling techniques relevant to freshwater systems
2) describe the various aspects of the ecology of a local freshwater ecosystem
3) account the productivity and relationships of organisms in this type of habitat

Materials

Thermometer D.O. meter Salinometer
Pyschrometer Stopwatch Plankton net
Secchi disk Plastic bags Core sampler
Transect line Pail BOD bottles
Meter stick Compass or GPS Floats
pH meter Vials Ropes
Scrapers Formalin Light meter
Measuring tape Water ecology kit Chemicals for 0 determination

Procedures



I. The Study Area

The class will go on a fieldtrip to Matutinao River which is located in Badian town, more than
hundreds kilometers South of Cebu. The river flows in the Southwest of Cebu Island and empties into
the Taon Strait, which separates Cebu from Negros. The whole river system includes a spring, the
Kawasan Falls, and the pool-creek sections that eventually lead to the estuarine region. The Matutinao
River is flanked by tropical vegetation and the whole area now represents a natural reserve of Cebu
Island.

A GPS apparatus should give the location of the actual study site.

II. Fieldwork

The class will be divided into teams with each team being assigned to do their respective tasks
in two different sites, i.e. upstream and downstream.

A. Physico-Chemical Factors Team

Get readings or determine the following every hour during the whole duration of stay:

1.) Air Temperature 1 ft. above water surface and 8 ft. above the water surface (3 trials each).
Take note of the time of day when these are taken.
2.) Water temperature Record the temperature at water surface and 1 ft. subsurface.
3.) Relative humidity Measure this in the same site as air temperature (3 trials)
4.) Light Note down the general topography of the place and observe areas of the pond exposed
or unexposed to direct sunlight. With a light meter, measure the irradiation at water surface and
1 ft. below water surface.
5.) Turbidity Throw a Secchi disk (tied to a rope) to a part of the pond. Note down the length of
the rope of which the Secchi disk color become indistinguishable.
6.) Dissolved oxygen content Get water samples from surface and bottom of the pond. Fix with
manganous sulfate alkaline KI and concentrated H2SO4. Titrate in the laboratory. A digital D.O.
content.
7.) Salinity Record the salinity at the surface and subsurface using a salinometer. (3 trials)
8.) Nutrient Determine the presence of nitrated and phosphates using the water ecology kit. (3
trials)
9.) pH With a pH meter, record the pH of the water (surface and subsurface). Do 3 trials
10.) Current Record the speed of current using floating system (will be demonstrated on site).
11.) Subtrate Note the nature of substrate.

B. Producers Team



1) Identify and list down the number of macroflora species found in the pond. If unable to identify
bring samples to laboratory for further examination.
2) For microflora, make 3 surface towings on the pond with plankton net. Sample every 2 hours for
the whole duration of stay. Analyze quantitatively and qualitively the phytoplankton in the
laboratory.

C. Productivity Team

Determine the productivity of the pond using the light and dark bottle method (if time allows
for 12 hours incubation).
D. Consumers Team

1. Macroconsumers Identify and list down the ff.
a. number of animals seen (insects, snail, fishes, toad and other large animals.)
b. examine the muddy bottom soil of the pond for animal bottom dwellers. Get core samples of
the substrate and treat with fixing reagent. Separate organisms using forceps, under the
dissectoscope.

2. Microconsumers Sampling is done simultaneously with phytoplankton; i.e. once every 2 hours
for the whole duration of stay. In the laboratory, analyze quantitatively the plankton samples
taken by the producer team for zooplankton.

Guide Questions

1) What are the environmental factors affecting plants and animals in the freshwater system? How
do they affect them?
2) Discuss the relationship between plants and animals, among plants, and among animals living in
rivers and streams.
3) What type of food chains and foodweb predominate in the freshwater system?
4) Describe the status of the Matutinao River system as far as eutrophican is concerned. Provide
basis for your answer.

References

Brower J. and J. Zar (1984). Field and Laboratory Methods in General Ecology. 2
nd
ed. Wm. C. Brown
Publ. Iowa.

Odum, E.P. (1971) Fundamentals of Ecology. 3
rd
ed. Saunders, Philadelphia, Pa.

Smith, R. L. and Smith, T.M. (1998) Elements of Ecology. 4
th
ed. Addison Wesley Longman Inc. Menlo
Park, California.



Sutherland, W.J. ed. (1996). Ecological Census Techniques: A Handbook. Cambridge University Press,
London.

Umaly, R.C. and Cuvin, Ma. L.A. (1988) Limnology: Laboratory and Field Guide, Physico-Chemical Factors,
Biological Factors. National Bookstore, Inc., Manila.





Exercise 13

MARINE ECOSYSTEM

Introduction

The marine environment is markedly different from the freshwater habitats. Marine waters occupy
7% of Earths surface and it can e as dee as m rimaril roduction is mostl accounted to
microscopic organisms, the phytoplankton and is limited to the sunlit portions of the water body.
Factors such as currents, waves, tides pressure, and salinity play a major role in restricting life in the sea.

Objectives

The purpose of the field trip is too looking at the distribution and abundance of the various plants and
animals living in a marine habitat. In addition, the group will also determine the environmental factors
that are most influential to the marine community.

Materials

Thermometer Plastic bags Light meter
Psychrometer Pail Salinometer
Secchi disk Compass or GPS Plankton net
Transect line Vials Mask & snorkel
Meter stick Formalin Metal quadrat
pH meter Wooden forceps Floats
Scrapers BOD bottles Chimecals for 02 determination
Floats

Procedures

I. The Study Area



The class will study the coastal area fronting the mouth of the Matutinao River in Badian, Cebu. The
fieldwork will be done after the exercise on freshwater ecosystems (Ex. 18). The body of water here is
part of the Taon Strait that stretches along the southwestern coast of Cebu Island.

II. Fieldwork

Each group will carry out different tasks which shall be indicated by the instructor. These are listed as
follows:



A. Community Study

Put up a series of 10 quadrats laid from the high water mark to the low water to get some
idea of the distribution of the low water to get some idea of the distribution of the organisms present.
This should be done systematically by laying the quadrats at a series of stations along a transect line of
100 meters. Do this in at least 2 sites in the study area. (Should be located accurately with the GPS
apparatus).

1. Macroflora

Count the species of algae and seagrasses present and estimate the cover of each species per
quadrat based on the ranking below.

Algal coverage degree of dominance or abundance

5: Covering -- 1/1 of substratum surface.
4: Covering -- of substratum surface.
3: Covering 1/8 --1/4 of the substratum surface.
2: Covering 1/16 1/8 of substratum surface.
1: Covering less than 1/16 of substratum surface.

2. Macrofauna

For the animals, list all species encountered and count the individual found in each quadrat.
Include benthic as well as pelagic species.

3. Plankton

Using the plankton net, make 3 surface towings on the seawater. Do this at least every 2 hours
fo the whole sampling period. Samples should be kept in bottles and brought to the laboratory
for identification and counting.



B. Physico-Chemical Factors Determination

Measure the different physico-chemical factors for at least 3 trials each every hour the whole
sampling duration (~ 8 hours). Specifically, the following should be read and recorded:

1. H2o temperature : surface 1 ft. subsurface
2. Air : 1 m above H2o surface 2 m above H2o surface
3. Relative Humidity
4. pH of H2o
5. Turbidity
6. Dissolved oxygen: surface 1 ft. subsurface
7. salinity
8. light

Then, note the nature of the substrate.

C. Productivity

A group will determine the productivity of the area using the light and dark bottle method, for a
12-hr incubation period, if time allows.

Guide Questions

1. What are the effects of the following environmental factors on the plants and animals.
a. exposure to sunlight
b. danger of desiccation
c. fluctuation in temperature (H2o or air)
d. salinity in tidal pools
e. oxygen content of H2o
2. What other environmental factors may affect the organisms?
3. How are plants and animals adapted to withstand the possible deleterious effects of the above-
mentioned environmental factors?
4. Discuss the relationship between the individual species (plants and plants; animals and animals;
plants and animals in this marine community).
5. Describe the foodweb that occurs in the marine habitat.

References

Odum, E.P. (1971) Fundamentals of Ecology 3
rd
ed. Saunders, Philadelphia, Pa.

Nybakken, J.W. (1982) Marine biology: and ecological approach. Harper & Row, New York.



Smith, R.L. (1990) Ecology and Field Biology. Harper and Row, Publishers, New York.

Smith, R.L and Smith T.M. (1998) Elements of Ecology. 4
th
ed. Addison Wesley Longman Inc. Menlo Park,
California.

Steele, J.H. (1974) The Structure of Marine Ecosystems. Blackwell Science Publication, Oxford.