i

KIGALI INDEPENDENT
UNIVERSITY ULK




Website: www.ulk.ac.rw
E-mail: info@ulk.ac.rw
P.O. Box : 2280 Kigali



Postgraduate Handbook
for Writing a Thesis








5
th
March 2014
ii

Table of Contents

List of Acronyms and abbreviations .......................................................................................... v
Part 1: OBLIGATIONS, PROCEDURES AND FORMAT ..................................................... 1
1.1 Obligations ....................................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 ULK obligations .............................................................................................................................. 1
1.1.2 The supervisors Obligations: ........................................................................................................ 1
1.1.3 Students obligations ....................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Procedures ........................................................................................................................ 2
1.2.1 The choice of a topic (attributes) .................................................................................................. 2
1.2.2 Thesis Phases ................................................................................................................................... 3
1.2.3 Submission of thesis ....................................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Formatting and style ........................................................................................................ 5
1.3.1 Cover page ................................................................................................................................. 5
1.3.2 More guidelines on formatting and style ..................................................................................... 7
Part 2: CONTENT OF THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL ...................................................... 10
1. Title of Research Project (Academic Research) .............................................................. 10
2. Background to the study .................................................................................................. 10
3. Problem statement .......................................................................................................... 10
4. Research objectives .......................................................................................................... 11
5. Research Questions ......................................................................................................... 11
6. Hypothesis (optional) ...................................................................................................... 11
7. Scope of the study ............................................................................................................ 11
8. Significance of the study .................................................................................................. 11
9. Methodology .................................................................................................................... 12
10. Dissemination of research findings ............................................................................... 12
11. Structure of the thesis ..................................................................................................... 12
12. Duration of the project ................................................................................................... 12
Part 3: THESIS CONTENTS AND FORMAT ..................................................................... 13
Cover Title Page ............................................................................................................... 13
Declaration ........................................................................................................................... 13
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Approval page ...................................................................................................................... 13
Dedication............................................................................................................................ 13
Acknowledgement ............................................................................................................... 14
Table of Contents ................................................................................................................ 14
List of Tables ....................................................................................................................... 14
List of figures / Diagrams / Illustrations ........................................................................... 14
Abbreviations and Acronyms ............................................................................................... 14
Operational Definition of Key Terms .................................................................................. 14
Abstract ................................................................................................................................ 15
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study ................................................................................... 16
1.1 Background to the study ................................................................................................................. 16
1.2 Problem statement ........................................................................................................................... 16
1.3 Research objectives .......................................................................................................................... 16
1.4 Research Questions .......................................................................................................................... 16
1.5 Hypothesis (optional) ......................................................................................................................... 16
1.6 Scope of the study ............................................................................................................................ 16
1.7 Significance of the study .................................................................................................................. 16
1.8 Definitions of key concepts ............................................................................................................ 16
1.9 Structure of the thesis ...................................................................................................................... 17
Chapter 2: Literature Review ............................................................................................... 18
2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 18
2.2 Conceptual and theoretical Perspectives ....................................................................................... 18
2.3 Related case studies .......................................................................................................................... 18
Chapter 3: Research Methodology ...................................................................................... 19
3.1 Research Design ............................................................................................................................... 19
3.2 The population of the study ........................................................................................................... 19
3.3 Sampling ............................................................................................................................................ 19
3.4 Data Collection Techniques and Tools ......................................................................................... 20
3.5 Validity and reliability tests (depending on the study) ................................................................ 20
3.6 Data processing ................................................................................................................................ 20
3.7 Methods of data analysis ................................................................................................................. 21
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3.8 Limitations/delimitations ................................................................................................................ 21
3.9 Ethical considerations ...................................................................................................................... 22
Chapter 4: Research Findings ............................................................................................. 23
Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusion and recommendation .................................................... 24
References ............................................................................................................................ 25
Appendices .......................................................................................................................... 25
Part 4: REFERENCING STYLE ........................................................................................... 26
4.1 References within the text .............................................................................................. 26
4.1.1 Paraphrasing ................................................................................................................................... 26
4.1.2 Quotes ............................................................................................................................................. 29
4.2. List of References .......................................................................................................... 30
4.2.1 Books (print and online) .............................................................................................................. 31
4.2.2 Journal and newspaper articles .................................................................................................... 34
4.2.3 Web documents and sites ............................................................................................................. 35
4.2.4 Other electronic media ................................................................................................................. 36
4.2.5 Audiovisual and other media ....................................................................................................... 42
4.2.6 Unpublished sources ..................................................................................................................... 45
4.2.7 Proceedings and technical reports .............................................................................................. 46





v

List of Acronyms and abbreviations


APA : American Psychological Association
DOI : Digital Object Identifier
ULK : Kigali Independent University

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Part 1: OBLIGATIONS, PROCEDURES AND FORMAT

1.1 Obligations

Supervision of students thesis plays a vital role in the promotion of the standard of the University.
The relationship of the three participants, that is, the student, the supervisor and the university
should be well regulated in order to make this central role of the university to be effective.

1.1.1 ULK obligations
The University shall:
Appoint and terminate supervisors;
Pay supervisors a remuneration specified in the contract on the day of the viva-voce
(defence);
Make follow up on students research progress to guarantee prompt completion;
Ensure quality of university research.

1.1.2 The supervisors Obligations:
The supervisor shall:
Arrange a supervision schedule with a student;
Ensure adherence to the supervision schedule;
Keep record of the supervision meeting and progress;
Read the submitted work and give timely feedback to the student in writing;
Provide mentorship and counselling to the student;
Respect students reasonable views and ideas on his/her research;
Report on the progress of the student in writing to the relevant authority of the University;
Brief the student on the need to conduct his/her research according to ethical principles and
best practices;
Remind the student the implications of misconduct;
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Recommend the student for remedial courses or required literature in order to fill the
identified gaps;
Approve and endorse the students work by signing;
Update himself widely with knowledge in the students area of research;
Uphold profession etiquettes and moral principles.

1.1.3 Students obligations
A student carrying out a research shall:
Develop a supervision schedule in consultation with the Supervisor;
Adhere to the stipulated supervision schedule;
Present to the Supervisor the chapters and other write-ups for review;
Seek guidance from Supervisor from time to time (at least once in 30 days);
Appropriately incorporate amendments made by the supervisors;
Proof read each piece of work developed before presenting to the Supervisor;
Make timely payment of fees as prescribed by the University;
Acquire appropriate materials and tools for carrying out their research;
Behave in a way that conforms to ethics of research and the University rules and regulations;
Present progress reports of research on time;
Present completed proposal and thesis within the prescribed format and time.

1.2 Procedures
1.2.1 The choice of a topic (attributes)
It is worth noting that the formulation of a research topic starts from the researchers interrogation,
i.e. the topic bears on an initial issue that the researcher poses himself and to which he wishes his
research finds an answer. According to Quivy and Campenhoudt (1995: 24), this initial issue, called
research topic must present the following 4 qualities:

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Clarity (concision and precision): the initial questions must be precise and concise, this is
to say that they must display with precision what the researcher will work on and that he is
mostly preoccupied with. In simple words, the research topic should be defined clearly,
concisely and precisely.
Research feasibility: an initial question enables to apprehend a feasible research issue, i.e it
takes into account the resources at the researchers hand (time, money, logistic means,
human resources, resource-person). Feasibility also depends on the possibilities for
observation and access to data pertaining to the hypotheses indicators.
Scientific relevance: a research question is scientifically pertinent/relevant.
Empirical and theoretical foundation/base: this means that the initial question/research
topic must be founded on experimental, verifiable, observable phenomena through our
senses.

In addition to the abovementioned criteria, in order to appoint a supervisor the following will be
considered by the University authorities:
The candidates consent that his or her topic is original and it has never been submitted by
the student for another degree or attempted by another person;
In case a student proposes a Supervisor who is not teaching at ULK, the later should be a
PhD holder having an expertise in the research area. As for other supervisors, the proposed
lecturer should sign a contract with the ULK before the supervision starts;
Masters degree holder with one research publication can be appointed as co-supervisor but
not as supervisor;
Only students who are financially suitable will have access to supervision.

1.2.2 Thesis Phases
This phase will start to be undertaken by the student after completing the core course modules
which includes Research Methodology. The following steps will be followed:
The student will submit to the post graduate directorate his/her research topic;
The Directorate will convene a meeting of the relevant authorities to vet the various topics
submitted;
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After the approval or amendment of the students topic, the University authority will allocate
a supervisor or supervisors to a student based on the expertise of lecturers;
Decisions will be published on the ULK website;
The student should get in contact with his/her supervisor before engaging in writing the
proposal.

1.2.3 Submission of thesis

This section pertains to the channel and/or steps followed by the student for submitting the thesis:
Submitting the authorisation letter signed by the supervisor;
Submitting the internship report (where appropriate), for marking;
Submission of a single copy of the thesis (more copies where appropriate) to the Director of
Research and Postgraduate Studies for review;
After having verified whether the students file is complete, the Director of Research and
Postgraduate Studies will appoint the first examiner in consultation with the Vice Rector of
research and postgraduate studies;
A summarised report on the thesis and observations or corrections of the examiner will be
submitted to the Director of research and postgraduate studies ;
The student is given back the submitted copy (copies) of the thesis with
corrections/observations;
Editing of the thesis by the student taking into account the corrections/observations made;
For the second submission (after corrections), the student should have paid to the bank all
academic fees for the programme, including the thesis fee where appropriate;
All the bank slips should be presented to the finance office for recording;
Submission of 3 edited copies taking into consideration the observations indicated in the
first submission;
The Director of research and Postgraduate Studies will set up the date and hour of the thesis
presentation in consultation with the supervisor and the student;
The panel is nominated by the Vice-Rector of Research and Postgraduate Studies in
consultation with his Director;
Presentation of the thesis on the date and the hour convened;
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After the presentation, two corrected copies of the thesis are submitted to the library
through the Academic office within 1 month after the supervisors approval ;
The Academic Testimonial outlining achievements is withdrawn from the Vice-Rector of
Research and Postgraduate Studies;
The Degree Certificate is issued uniquely after the graduation ceremony.

1.3 Formatting and style

1.3.1 Cover page
A blue hard cover page should bear the title, the author names followed by Thesis Submitted in
Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Masters degree in [name of program], the name of
the institution and the date.
See the format on the next page.

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[THESIS TITLE]

by

[your official name starting with the SURNAME]




Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfilment
of the Requirements for the Masters degree in
[name of program]




Kigali Independent University ULK

[Month and year of Defence]

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1.3.2 More guidelines on formatting and style
The formatting and style depicted below are mostly based on the American Psychological
Association (APA) style.

Size of the
thesis
Based on the guidelines provided below, ULK recommends that the thesis should
have at least 80pages which is in fact above the requirements of the National
Council for Higher Education (NCHE)
Margins Minimum of one inch (1) margin on all sides
Flush left (ragged right edge)
Font New Times Roman for text;
Sans Serif font (e.g., Arial) for statistics in tables and figures
Font size 12 pt. for text and headings; Table font can be reduced to 10 pt., but no smaller
Spacing Double-spaced throughout, including references
One space following any punctuation mark; one space between sentences
No spaces on internal punctuation for abbreviations such as i.e., or e.g., or U.S.
One space between authors initials
Example: ...funky lowercase (e.g., the writing of e. e. cummings).
Paragraphs Indent the beginning of a new paragraph 0.5
Avoid one-sentence paragraphs.
Pagination Page numbers begin with the title page (i.e., page i), but the number is not shown
on the title page. Beginning with page ii, numbers are placed in the upper right-
hand corner.
Allow 5 spaces between the end of the header and the page number.
NB: Use roman numbers on preliminary pages, and Arabic numbers for the
remaining pages.
Numbers Numbers less than 10 are written out as words (i.e., one through nine)
Numbers 10 and greater use Arabic figures (10 999,999)
Use the % symbol and figures to report any number as a percentage (6%, 22.5%)
EXCEPTIONS: Do not use a figure to start a sentence: write out the number
-When writing out the number also write out percent
-Use the word percentage when writing in general terms and not referring to
a specific numerical value.
Example: Sixty-seven percent of the sample....as compared to 2% that
did not qualify. This was a larger percentage than previously
Italics Correct use:
1. To introduce a word used as a term; drop italics on subsequent use of term
(APA 4.21)
2. Titles of books, periodicals, brochures, reports--in text & reference entries
(APA 6.15)
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3. Anchors of a scale
Examples: Familism is preserving the family of origin. Thus, familism
Oprahs latest book club selection, Share the Wealth Girlfriend, sold a staggering
used a 3-point scale with ratings that ranged from 1 (poor) to 3 (excellent)

Incorrect use:
Dont use italics for emphasis rely on your writing to give emphasis to a
thought.
Foreign phrases that have become accepted as English words (i.e., included in
Merriam-Websters Collegiate Dictionary)
Examples:
et al. ; per se ; vis--vis ; ad hoc; ad infinitum ; quid pro quo; a posteriori; ad lib;
a priori; pro bono; ad nauseam; sine qua non
Hyphen use
APA style is stingy with hyphens, and most students tend to overuse hyphens.
Note: Ignore Words suggestions for hyphenationits not APA compliant.
Words that are always hyphenated:
Any compound words with self- as the prefix (self-report, self-talk, self-
esteem)
Two words acting as a compound adjective to modify a third word
- (low-dosage group, 12th-grade students, a two-thirds majority)
Any word easily misunderstood without a hyphen
- (re-pair for pairing again, re-form for form again)
Any compound with a base that is capitalized, a number, or an abbreviation
- (non-Latino, post-1990, anti-FBI rally)
Do not hyphenate:
Racial/ethnic group names
- (African American, European American, Arab American, Scot Irish)
Compound adjectives that include an adverb ending in -ly
- (federally funded grant, randomly assigned rats, widely accepted term)
Compounds that include a comparative or superlative adjective
(better written text, less informed group, higher order analysis, worst case
scenario)

Abbreviations
&
Acronyms



APA recognizes only seven acronyms as words that do not require definition:
HIV, AIDS, IQ, ESP, REM, NADP, ACTH
Define all other abbreviations by writing out name in full on first use and
putting abbreviation in parentheses. Example: School of Social Work (SSW)

Once defined, you must use the abbreviation for all subsequent references;
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no flip-flopping!
Use abbreviations sparinglyoveruse turns a paper into alphabet soup!
APA does not set a limit on the number of abbreviations allowed; however, most
readers can keep track of only 4 to 5 unfamiliar abbreviations.
Quotes


Less than 40
words
is an in-line
quote.


















40 or more
words
are set as a
block quote
Students tend to overuse quotes either because they lack confidence in their ability
to express profound ideas in their own words or because they are lazy writers. In
either case, your instructors are interested in learning your thoughts on a topic, not
the words of another author.
It is appropriate to include a quote when the authors unique phrasing suffers
substantially or loses meaning when paraphrased.
Quotes must be introduced in the text by explaining the meaning, relevance, or
significance of the quote to your text. In-line quotations are incorporated into the
text, set within double quotation marks, and followed by the in-text citation with
the page number of the quote. Use p. for a quote from a single page, use pp. for a
quote that spans a range of pages. Note that the sentence punctuation follows the
citation.
Example: Keep your writing accessible by avoiding use of pointy-headed prose
(Barbaro, 2007, p. 7).
If an in-text citation for the quoted author was given earlier in the sentence, only
the page number follows the quote.
Example: Smith and Jones (1993) found gum chewing improved students
retention of classroom material, but also noted professors found the sight of 30
cud-chewing faces disgusting and demoralizing (p. 32).
Long quotes of 40 words or more are set as block quotes; each line is indented 5
spaces (0.5 in.) and double-spaced. See Sample APA paper at the end of this
document for an example.


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Part 2: CONTENT OF THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL

1. Title of Research Project (Academic Research)

The title of the project should be clear and descriptive enough to reflect the nature of the work
being proposed. The title of the project will remain unchanged once the proposal has been
approved.

2. Background to the study

The background gives the rationale of the study. Therefore a student is expected to provide
evidence and conditions of the existing situation and make clear and logical statements about the
major study variables.
The first paragraphs should state the conceptual aspect, that is, what is the study about and why that
particular topic was chosen. The theoretical aspects, or what theories inform the independent
variable of the area of study; the historical aspect should highlight how other scholars have viewed
the same issues; and the contextual aspect should refer to the exact context where the study is being
carried out.

3. Problem statement

The statement of the problem refers to what has been detected in the practical or theoretical world
and needs a solution. It is derived from the background and should be supported with published
literature or recorded statements. The student should clearly state the nature of the problem, its
known or estimated extent or magnitude and bring out the limitations or delimitations of the
independent and dependent variables as noted in the background (about one to three pages).





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4. Research objectives

These arise directly from the purpose of the study. Each specific objective should state what must
be achieved. The student should write the objectives in such a way that they reflect what he/she
intended to achieve. Objectives should be categorized into General and Specific Objectives.

5. Research Questions

The research questions must be stated in question form and in a way that they are synchronized with
the research objectives.

6. Hypothesis (optional)

The research hypothesis is a tentative explanation of the research problem. It is also a tentative answer
to the research problem and can be an educated guess about the research outcome. Not all researches
need a hypothesis; therefore, if the study is hypothesis free, an ASSUMPTION may take its place. The
hypothesis must be stated where it is applicable. Ideally, the hypothesis can be in null or alternative
form.

7. Scope of the study

This section defines the research coverage in terms of time, content and geography or space. It
therefore, defines the parameters of the research. The student should state with justification the
scope of his/her study.

8. Significance of the study

This refers to the academic relevance of the study. It focuses on academic contributions and
practical use arising out of the research findings. It should emphasize knowledge creation, the
technological or socio-economic value to society. The student should point out the potential
contribution and relevancy of his/her study.

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9. Methodology

This describes the activities to be employed to achieve the desired results. Here a complete research
plan for the project should be clearly spelt out with the different phases of the project being
indicated. A clear definition of the analytical techniques to be used as well as the methodology to be
adopted should be explained. The facilities and equipments as well as other logistical materials to be
used must also be mentioned.

10. Dissemination of research findings

The anticipated results should be stated and these should align with the objectives. Details on the
steps already taken (or planned to be taken) to utilize the research results must be provided.


11. Structure of the thesis

The proposed structure of the thesis displays its different chapters, subchapters, sections and
subsections.

12. Duration of the project

The expected duration of the project with clear indications of the various phases or stages must be
given and clearly shown by the use of a Gantt chart.
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Part 3: THESIS CONTENTS AND FORMAT

Cover Title Page
The cover page should bear the following information:
The title - which is concise and written in capitalize major words;
Author names - first name, middle initial, last name;
The following sentence - Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for
the [Bachelors/Masters] degree in [name of program];
Institutional affiliation - Kigali Independent University ;
Date - Month and year

Declaration

This is a pronouncement by the student that this study is original, done by the student and has not
been submitted for any award anywhere else by the student or any other person. The student shall
sign the declaration.

Approval page

The appointed Supervisors have to sign the approval page as a confirmation that they supervised the
student and submission is made with their approval.

Dedication

This mentions the name(s) to who the research is dedicated and basis for dedication in a precise
manner.

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Acknowledgement

As an example, this entails recognition of the founder of ULK, supervisors, colleagues, sponsors,
individuals and institutions that have made significant contribution to the research.

Table of Contents

The table of content serves as a synopsis or headline display, it contains an index and reference to all
major sections of the thesis with an indication of page numbers on which they are located.

List of Tables

This consists of all the tables in the thesis showing their headings, titles and page numbers.

List of figures / Diagrams / Illustrations

Captions of figures, diagrams and illustrations used in the thesis and their corresponding pages are
listed.

Abbreviations and Acronyms

All abbreviations and acronyms used in the thesis are listed alphabetically and written in full form.

Operational Definition of Key Terms

The student shall give Operational definitions of the key terms used in context of the research in
case it is necessary.

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Abstract

An abstract is a brief statement of the thesis pointing out the focus of the study, objectives,
theoretical and conceptual frameworks, methodology, the key findings and students contribution to
knowledge and recommendations. This should not exceed 300 words.
The abstract should be followed by key words (5 to 7) for internet indexing.


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Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study

This chapter should contain the explanations under the following headings; the details of which are
given in Pg.10 to Pg.13.

1.1 Background to the study
As explained in the part of the proposal (See page 10 for more explanations).

1.2 Problem statement
As explained in the part of the proposal (See page 10 for more explanations).

1.3 Research objectives
As explained in the part of the proposal (See page 11 for more explanations).

1.4 Research Questions
As explained in the part of the proposal (See page 11 for more explanations).

1.5 Hypothesis (optional)
As explained in the part of the proposal (See page 11 for more explanations).

1.6 Scope of the study
As explained in the part of the proposal (See page 11 for more explanations).

1.7 Significance of the study
As explained in the part of the proposal (See page 11 for more explanations).

1.8 Definitions of key concepts
This gives the definitions of major terms as they are used in the study. Key terms are ideally found in
the research title, research instrument and other parts of the study where the terms need to be
operationally defined in this section.

17

1.9 Structure of the thesis
Unlike the structure of the thesis which is detailed in the proposal, in the introduction it only
displays its different chapters.


18

Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.1 Introduction
This gives a short introduction on the coverage of this chapter.

2.2 Conceptual and theoretical Perspectives
This should discuss the theory to which the study is based (one for each independent and dependent
variable or combined). One or more theories may need to be discussed in this section if the topic is
a well-researched area with various antecedents before arriving at a theory or synthesis of two or
more theories that will serve as the pivot for the study. In some cases where few studies have been
undertaken, there may be no theories to draw upon. In such a case, the conceptual framework shall
be used.

2.3 Related case studies
This portion discusses past empirical investigations similar to or related to the present study. This
section should identify the gaps (in terms of coverage, context, timing and methodology) existing in
literature and specify the ones that the research will focus on.

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Chapter 3: Research Methodology

This chapter should show the methods and approaches used to obtain data and information from
the field. In case of experimental research or in case the researcher uses secondary data, the content
of this chapter will be discussed between the supervisor and his/her supervisee. For any of these
cases, this chapter should start with an introduction.

3.1 Research Design
A research design is a plan for carrying out field research. It describes the nature and pattern used
during field research. The research design (for example; survey, historical, experimental, exploratory,
descriptive etc) used in the study should be clearly explained. The qualitative and quantitative
methods of data collection used should be indicated and justified.

3.2 The population of the study
The population of the study refers to the people, objects and events from which the study sample is
drawn.
The student should describe and justify the choice of the study population for his/her field research,
clearly pointing out the major characteristics and numbers involved. The choice of study population
should be justified in relation to variables studied.

3.3 Sampling
Sampling is a method of determining a subset of a study population (sample size) to be used when
carrying out field research as well as specifying the techniques used in selecting the units of the
subset. This can be achieved through identification of sampling frame. The sample size should be
determined using either confidence level or sampling formulae or rule-of the thumb and as much
as possible should be adequate. There are several sampling techniques such as random sampling,
stratified, classified, purposive, and systematic. Snowballing etc from which a student should choose
the ones most appropriate to the nature of the study.
20

The student should describe the sampling frame used in the study. He/She should describe and
justify the sample size as well as the sampling techniques used in the study.

3.4 Data Collection Techniques and Tools
The techniques and instruments used to collect data from the field are many and varied. They
include: interviews; Focus Group Discussion (FGD); observation; questionnaire; reviews of primary
Documents; etc. The choice of these techniques and instruments depends so much on the overall
design of the study. Each of the techniques and instruments to be used in the study has to be
explained fully and a copy of the instrument appended.

The student should describe, explain and justify each of the data collection tools used in the study
and clearly show how each tool was administered.

3.5 Validity and reliability tests (depending on the study)
Validity is the extent to which a test (items of research instrument) measures what it claims to
measure. The four common types of validity are content, concurrent, predictive and construct. It is
important for the test to be valid so that the results can be accurately interpreted, believed and
applied. A student should explain and justify at least two tests of validity of his/her research
instruments used in the study.

Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure. The variable on the research instrument is
considered reliable if when tested several times, the same results are obtained. Students should
explain the reliability test conducted and justify the results obtained.

3.6 Data processing
This is a process of cleaning and organizing data for the purposes of presentation and analysis. Data
processing includes editing, coding, tabulating and synchronizing the data. The student should
describe how he/she processed the data. The student should also specify the computer program
he/she used.
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3.7 Methods of data analysis
Data analysis involves organization and interpretation of the data generated in respect of each
objective in the study. There are several approaches to data analysis: qualitative and quantitative
approaches. There several methods that can be used under data analysis. These include explanatory
techniques for qualitative data and statistical techniques (correlations, regression, chisquare, etc.)
for quantitative data. There are two types of statistics for analysis; that are descriptive and inferential
statistics. Descriptive statistics use for instance mean, medium, mode, percentages and range.
Inferential statistics use for instance T. Test, correlation, regression and Chi square. The student
should adequately describe and justify the data analysis approaches used for each objective in the
study.
In addition to the qualitative and quantitative approaches, a list of other methods includes:
i. The functionalist method;
ii. The structural method;
iii. The systemic method;
iv. The comparative method;
v. The historical method;
vi. The deductive method;
vii. The inductive method;
viii. Experimental method;
ix. Analytical method.
As for the techniques, the choice of methods depends so much on the topic and the overall design
of the study. Each of the method to be used should be relevant for the study and has to be
explained clearly.

3.8 Limitations/delimitations
The limitations and delimitations sections of the thesis describe situations and circumstances that
may affect or restrict the methods and analysis of research data. Limitations are influences that the
researcher cannot control. They are the shortcomings, conditions or influences that place
restrictions on the methodology and conclusions of a study. Any limitations that might influence
22

the results should be described and explained. In stating the limitation, the student should consider
a number of factors such as analysis of data, the nature of self-reporting, the instruments used the
sampling strategy and time constraints. A student should state clearly the problems, challenges and
risks encountered during the study and show how these have been overcome.

Delimitations are choices made by the researcher which should be mentioned. They describe the
boundaries that have been set by the student for the study. The student should explain and justify
the things that he/she has not done (e.g. population not studied, literature not reviewed, methods
not used, etc.)

3.9 Ethical considerations
The student shall explain how he/she handled ethical concerns or issues regarding the research such
as matters of confidentiality, consent, safety, integrity, truthfulness, plagiarism/copying, etc.

23

Chapter 4: Research Findings

This chapter will start with an introduction to the chapter.

After the first three chapters of the thesis, the student is required to present the analysis and
interpretations of the research findings in respect to each study objective in this chapter.
Alternatively, each research objective can be presented, analysed and interpreted in a separate
chapter. Hence, chapter four will be presentation, analysis and interpretation of the first specific
objective and the proceeding chapters likewise each doing the same to the remaining specific
objectives.

Guidelines for presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Findings

For presentation, the student has to explain using tables, figures, illustrations and case stories in
order to convey his/her findings. The presentation should be structured logically according to the
research questions.

For analysis, the student may analyze the data using descriptive statistics (e.g. percentages, averages,
and counts) and/or inferential statistics (e.g. chi square, correlation, regression, etc) A student may
also analyze data qualitatively) e.g. by critical description, explanation, dialogue, comparison etc.).

For interpretation, the student should generate answers and make conclusive remarks in relation to
each of the research question and the key variables.


24

Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusion and recommendation

Chapter five will be composed of Summary of the Findings, Conclusion and
Recommendations in case the first choice in chapter four has been adopted. If the second choice
has been given the priority then this will be applied on the last chapter after the chapters presenting,
analyzing, interpreting and exhausting all the objectives researched upon.

For summary:
In each chapter, the student should provide a clear summary of the key issues and observations.

For the conclusion:
In each chapter, the student should state his/her interpretation or understanding of the outcomes in
relation to the overall purpose of the study.

For recommendations:
For recommendations a student must not only outline or state them, but he should also try to
contextualise them.


25

References

A thesis must include a detailed list of references, which tells the reader where to look for articles
cited in the text. In this section, the student should list in alphabetical order all works cited in the
thesis. It should be written according to the APA formatting style.

The student should bear in mind the following:
Only cited authors in the thesis should be listed in the reference section;
All authors in the reference section should appear in the body of the thesis.

Appendices

The appendices should include; field research instruments, maps and relevant documents and
illustrations.
26

Part 4: REFERENCING STYLE

For uniformity, the Kigali Independent University ULK has adopted the American Psychological
Association (APA) referencing style. Therefore, for more detailed information about how to write,
structure and publish using the APA standards, refer to the following publication:
American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological
Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

4.1 References within the text

Use the author-date method of citation for quotations (exact words of another author) and
paraphrasing (summarising the words and ideas of one or more authors).

4.1.1 Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing is when you summarise the ideas, concepts or words from the work or one or more
authors.

Please note: changing only a few words from another author does not constitute paraphrasing.

Type Examples
If you are referring to the
general theme of a book
or article
Brown (1991) investigated the effects of ...
An investigation into the effects of maternal age
(Brown, 1991) found that ...
When to include page
numbers
When paraphrasing or referring to an idea in another work, page or
paragraph numbers are not required. But it can be helpful, for
example when paraphrasing or referring to information or an idea
that can be located on a particular page, quoting or referring to
images, figures or data, or when a work is particularly long and page
numbers might be useful for the reader.
Soil layers below the well tip contribute relatively little water (Kozeny,
1988, pp. 223-224).
Kozeny (1988, p. 223) found soil layers below the well tip contributed
27

Type Examples
little.
When the authors of a
source are not part of the
formal sentence structure
Both the authors and years of publication appear in parentheses,
separated by semicolons.
Reviews of research on sport and reading have concluded
that at least some types of reading behaviours are related to
higher levels of physical health (Austin, 1990; McGovern &
Henderson, 2001; Wright & Morgan, 2001).
When the names of the
authors of a source are
part of the formal
sentence structure
The year of publication appears in parentheses following the
identification of the authors.
Wright and Mander (2002) found that although there was a reduction
in literacy, the difference was not statistically significant.
Group authors and
abbreviations
The names of groups are usually spelled out each time they appear in
text.
Only abbreviate if the name is long, cumbersome and the
abbreviation is familiar or easily understood.
First citation in text:
(Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
[UNHCR], 2008)
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
(UNHCR, 2008)
Subsequent citations :
(UNHCR, 2008)
UNHCR (2008)
One or two authors Cite the names every time the reference occurs:
Smythe and Jones (2001) found ... (first and subsequent
citations)
... as has been shown (Smythe & Jones, 2001).
More than two authors For three, four or five authors, cite all authors in the first instance,
thereafter, only first author followed by "et al." (not underlined and
with no stop after "et") and the year of publication.
Campbell, Brady, Bradley, and Smithson (1991)
found ... (first citation)
Campbell et al. (1991) found ... (subsequent citations)
For with six or more authors, cite only the first author followed by
28

Type Examples
"et al." and the year. In the list of references give all names up to and
including six authors.
"and" or "&"? In running text use "and" to join the names of multiple authors, but
use an ampersand (&) inside parentheses.
Jones and Brady (1991) continued to find ...
The authors found the same result in the second and third trials
(Jones & Brady, 1991).
Citing multiple works by
the same author at the
same time
Arrange dates in order (oldest to newest). Use suffixes after the year
when there are multiple publications from the same year. If the
publication dates are same, the suffixes are assigned in the reference
list where these kinds of references are ordered in alphabetical order
by title (article, chapter or complete work).
Several studies (Jackson, 1999, 2001a, 2001b, 2005) revealed a similar
outcome.
Primary authors with the
same surname
Include the first author's initials in all text citations even if the year of
publication differs.
T.R. Smith (2006) and B. E. Smith (2007) found that ...
J. J. Jackson and Robertson (2000) and E. M. Jackson
and Johns (2005) reached the conclusion that ...
Secondary citations You must acknowledge both the primary and secondary source of
information. To do this, include the primary source first and then
insert the words "as cited in" before the secondary source.
Cumming's (1980) study (as cited in Pauley, 1991) ...
This belief has been confirmed (Cumming, 1980, as cited in Pauley,
1991) ...
You do not need to source the primary or original work cited (e.g.
Cumming, 1980) but the secondary source (e.g. Pauley, 1991) needs
to be given in your list of references.
No author When a citing a source in text that has no identified author, use a
shortened title (or the full title if it is short) and year for the
parenthetical citation.
The in text citation for the online source "New drug appears to
sharply cut risk of death from heart failure" would be ("New Drug,"
2001).
Use double quotation marks for article titles, chapter titles or web
page titles.
29

Type Examples
Italicize (without quotation marks) book titles.
(Psychological effects, 1999)
For works designated as "Anonymous", cite in text as Anonymous
followed by a comma and the date.
(Anonymous, 2007)
Legislation (includes Acts
and Bills)
The Equal Opportunity Act 1995 (Vic) prohibits ...
... the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) ...
... according to s. 15 of the Anti-Discrimination Act 1991 (Qld) ...
... Interactive Gambling Bill 2001 (Cth) ...
Legal authorities (cases) Carey v. Price (2005)
Mabo v. Queensland (1992)

4.1.2 Quotes
Quotations or quotes are when you use the exact words of another author or your own previously
published work. Quotations must always be referenced with page numbers.
Quotations of less than 40 words (approximately) should form part of the text and be
designated with double quotation marks.
With quotations of 40 or more words, DO NOT use quotation marks; set the quotation
in an indented (about a half inch) free standing block of text. Use double-line-spacing to
separate the quote from the text of your work.

Type Examples
Direct
quotation
Less than 40 words:
Always include the author, year, and page number(s) as part of the citation.
Students receiving "additional information literacy training achieved higher grades
than students who did not attend any skills' sessions" (Capel, 2002, p. 323).
40 or more words:
Although the groups contained different age groups, they were not differentiated in
the feasibility study:
The intensive ESL program was enthusiastically supported by the
30

Type Examples
administration and was popular with the young learners and their parents.
Although the groups differed in age, measures of English and French
proficiency and language aptitude administered at the outset of the
experiment indicated that differences between the fourth and fifth year classes
were non-significant (White, Horst, & Bell, October 2007); thus in the
research reported here, we do not distinguish between the two groups.
(Horst, White, & Bell, 2010, p. 334)
Do not omit or alter citations embedded within the quote. These embedded
citations are not included in your list of references unless used as a primary source
elsewhere in your work. In the above example, the 2010 article (where the entire
quote comes from) is included in the list of references but the 2007 work
mentioned within the quote is not, unless it is used as a source elsewhere in the
work.
For additional paragraphs within the quotation, insert a double-line-spacing and
indent the first line of each an additional half inch (five to seven spaces).
Specific
parts of a
source
Always give page numbers for quotations (if available).
For sources that do not provide page numbers, use the paragraph number, if
possible, preceded by the abbreviation 'para.'
(Zelow, 2001, para. 17)
(Broome & Davies, 1999, para. 5)
(Bray, 1999, chap. 3)
(Beutler, 2000, Conclusion section, para. 1)


4.2. List of References

At the end of your essay, place a list of the references you have cited in the text. Arrange this in
alphabetical order of authors' surnames, and then chronologically (earliest publication date first) for
each author where more than one work by that author is cited. The author's surname is placed first,
followed by initials or first name, and then the year of publication is given. If the list contains more
than one item published by the same author(s) in the same year, add lower case letters immediately
after the year to distinguish them (e.g. 1983a). These are ordered alphabetically by title disregarding
any initial articles (a, an or the).
31

The reference list includes only the sources you have used in any submission. APA Style
requires reference lists, not bibliographies.
The reference list begins a new page with the centred heading - References
Double-space all reference entries.
Reference list entries should be indented half an inch (five to seven spaces) on the second
and subsequent lines of the reference list for every entry - a hanging indent is the preferred
style. (i.e. entries should begin flush left, and the second and subsequent lines should be
indented).
Arrange entries in alphabetical order by the surname of the first author as the letters appear
(e.g. M, Mac, MacD, Mc).
If there is no author, the title moves to the author position (filed under the first significant
word of the title). If the title in this instance begins with numerals, spell them out.
States and territories are abbreviated in the location section of the publication
information. For U.S. states, use the official two-letter postal service abbreviation (e.g. New
York, NY: McGraw-Hill). Spell out country names if outside Australia or the United States.

4.2.1 Books (print and online)
General forms (when Digital Object Identifiers (DOIs) are assigned, use them):
Author, A. A. (year). Title of work. doi:xx.xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Author, A. A. (year). Title of work. Location: Publisher.
Author, A. A. (year). Title of work. Retrieved from http://www.xxxxxxxxxxx
Author, A. A. (year). Title of work. Retrieved from xxxxxxxxxxxx database.
Include subtitles. All titles must be italicised.
Information about editions (if other than the first), series, volume numbers or chapter page ranges
should be included in parentheses ( ) after the title - not in italics but before the full stop.
Other descriptive information may also follow the title and any parenthetical information in brackets
[ ] also before the full stop.


32



Type Examples
Online
books
When a Digital Object Identifier (DOI) is available:
Leaver, B. L., Ehrman, M., & Shekhtman, B. (2005). Achieving success in second language
acquisition. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511610431
Schiraldi, G. R. (2000). The post-traumatic stress disorder sourcebook: A guide to healing,
recovery, and growth [Adobe Digital Editions version]. doi:10.1036/0071393722
When a DOI is not available, use the URL:
Burton, R. (1832). The anatomy of melancholy. Retrieved from
http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/b/burton/robert/melancholy/
Database information may be given for books (monographs) of limited
circulation (e.g. from the University's database subscriptions):
Nazareth, L. (2007). The leisure economy: How changing demographics, economics, and
generational attitudes will reshape our lives and our industries [Monograph].
Retrieved from Books24x7 database.
Use "Available from" when the URL leads to information on how to obtain
the cited material (rather than to the material itself):
Tyler, G. W. (n.d.). Evolution in the systems age. Available from
http://www.onlineoriginals.com/showitem.asp? itemID=46&page=2
Books downloaded to mobile devices (without a DOI).
Ware, C. (2010). Cottage by the sea [Kindle version]. Naperville, IL: Sourcebooks
Landmark.
Tzu, S. (2011). The art of war [Kobo version]. Berkeley, CA: Shambhala.
Up to seven
authors
List all authors names.
Calder, A. (2009). Compliance for green IT: A pocket guide. Cambridgeshire: IT
Governance.
Bernstein, D. K., & Tiegerman, E. (1989). Language and communication disorders in
children (2nd ed.). Columbus, OH: Merill.
Curwen, B., Palmer, S., & Ruddell, P. (2000). Brief cognitive behaviour therapy (Brief
Therapies Series). London: Sage.
More than
seven
authors
List the first six and then the last.
Midgley, C., Maehr, M. L., Hruda, L., Anderman, E. M., Freeman, K. E., Gheen, M.,
... Urdan, T. (2000). Manual for the patterns of adaptive learning scales (PALS). Ann Arbor,
MI: University of Michigan. In-text: (Midgley et al., 2000).
Edited General form:
33

Type Examples
books Editor, A. A. (Ed.). (year). Title of work. Location: Publisher.
Roy, M. J. (Ed.). (2006). Novel approaches to the diagnosis and treatment of posttraumatic stress
disorder (NATO Security Through Science Series). Amsterdam: IOS.
No authors
or editors
If there are no authors or editors, move the title to that position.
Psychological effects of cocaine and crack addiction: A survey of the psychological side of so-called
"designer drugs". (1999). Philadelphia, PA: Chelsea House.
In text, use a few words of the title (in italics), or the whole title if it is short, in place
of an author name in the citation: (Psychological effects, 1999).
If a work is signed "Anonymous", begin the entry with the word Anonymous as if it
were a true name.
Author as
publisher
American Psychiatric Association. (2001). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental
disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Group
authors
Full official names of group authors such as associations or government agencies
should be used. Parent bodies precede subdivisions. File by the first significant
word.
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2006). Measures of Australia's progress (Catalogue No.
1370.0). Canberra: Author.
Church of England. Archdeaconry of Maidstone. (1877). The Church in its divine
constitution and office, and in its relations with the civil power: A charge delivered to the clergy
of the Archdeaconry of Maidstone at the ordinary visitation in may 1877; with
notes (Talbot Collection of British Pamphlets). Retrieved from
http://www.archive.org/details/churchin itsdivin00chur
National Health and Medical Research Council (Australia). Health Care Committee.
Expert Panel on Mental Health. (1991). Homelessness and severe mental disorders:
Report of the Health Care Committee Expert Panel on Mental Health (Monograph
series (National Health and Medical Research Council (Australia). Health Care
Committee) No. 2). Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service.
Queensland. Department of Corrective Services. Women's Policy Unit. (2000). Profile
of female offenders under community and custodial supervision in Queensland. Brisbane:
Author.
United States. Public Health Service. Office of the Surgeon General. (1988). The
health consequences of smoking: Nicotine addiction; a report of the Surgeon General (DHHS
Publication No. (CDC) 88-8406). Rockville, MD: Office of Smoking and
Health.
World Bank. (2008). Textbooks and school library provision in secondary education in Sub-
Saharan Africa (World Bank Working Paper No. 126. Africa Human
Development Series). Retrieved from EBL database.
Translators Levy-Leboyer, C. (1982). Psychology and environment (D. Cantor and I. Griffiths,
34

Type Examples
and
illustrators
Trans.). Beverley Hills, CA: Sage. (Original work published 1979).
The Publication manual does not include examples for including illustrators but the
following format would be consistent.
Reesink, M. (1980). The princess who always ran away (F. Tresy, Illus.). Oxford: Oxford
University Press.

4.2.2 Journal and newspaper articles
General forms (when DOIs are assigned, use them):
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Article title. Journal Title, volume
number(issue number), page numbers. doi:xx.xxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Article title. Journal Title, volume
number(issue number), page numbers. Retrieved from http://www.xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Article title. Journal Title, volume
number(issue number), page numbers.
The issue number of the journal is included if the journal is paginated by issue rather than if there is
continuous pagination throughout the entire volume.
Type Examples
Journal articles
with a DOI
When a DOI is available:
Radford, M. (2001). Aesthetic and religious awareness among pupils: Similarities
and differences. British Journal of Music Education, 18(2), 151-159.
doi:10.1017/s0265051701000249
Online journal
articles without
a DOI
Russell-Bowie, D. (2010). Cross-national comparisons of background and
confidence in visual arts and music education of pre-service primary
teachers. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 35(4), 65-78. Retrieved from
http://ajte.education.ecu.edu.au/
Print articles
without a DOI
Coltheart, M., & Prior, M. (2006). Learning to read in Australia. Australian Journal
of Learning Disabilities, 11(4), 157-164.
No authors If there is no author, move the article title to the author position.
In brief. (2010). Harvard Heart Letter, 20(12), 7. Retrieved
from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/
35

Type Examples
ehost/detail?hid=22&sid=6544e16c-21a3-4092-87 ad-
ac80b1cda933%40sessionmgr11&vid=1&bdata=
JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=a9h&jid= HHR
In-text: ("In brief", 2010).
If a work is signed "Anonymous", begin the entry with the word Anonymous as if
it were a true name.
Group authors Full official names of group authors such as associations or government agencies
should be used. Parent bodies precede subdivisions. File by the first significant
word.
Australia. Department of Family and Community Services. (2003, Spring-
Summer). The role of families in an ageing Australia. Family Matters, (66), 46-
53. Retrieved from http://www.aifs.gov.au/institute/pubs/fammats.html
British Medical Association. (2007). British Medical Association expert witness
guidance. Clinical Risk, 13(4), 143-146. doi:10.1258/13562620778125112
University of Queensland. Department of Social Work. (1998). Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander health: Current policy issues. Australian Journal of
Indigenous Education, 26(1), 18-24.
Reviews, peer
commentary
and abstracts
Morris, S. (2008). Henry Giroux - urgently necessary and necessarily urgent: An
essay review [Review of the book Against the terror of neoliberalism: Politics beyond the
age of greed]. Education Review, 11(3). Retrieved from http://edrev.info/index.html


4.2.3 Web documents and sites
As with any published reference, the goals of a citation to online material are to credit the author
and to enable the reader to find the material.
When citing Internet sources, observe the following guidelines:
Follow previous sections for format of author, date, and title elements.
The date element should indicate the year of publication or, if the source undergoes
regular revision, the most recent update.
Direct readers as closely as possible to the information being cited; whenever possible,
reference specific documents rather than home or menu pages.
Include retrieval dates where the source material is likely to change over time.
36

Provide addresses that work where possible.
When citing entire websites, it is sufficient to give the address of the site in the text only (e.g.
Comprehensive information about the University can be found at http://www.usq.edu.au, or, the
University of Southern Queensland website (http://www.usq.edu.au) gives comprehensive
information). Specific information from a site, or parts of a site, need to be cited as follows:
Type Examples
Author and date
known
General form (include a retrieval date if the source material is likely to change
over time):
Author, A. A. (year). Title of work. Retrieved month day,
year, from source.
Allen, D. (2004). Dealing with your meeting notes. Retrieved
from http://www.effectivemeetings.com/meetingbasics/
notes.asp
No author given General form:
Title of work. (year). Retrieved month day, year, from source.
Psychological perspectives (n.d.). Retrieved June 2,
2001, from http://www.onl.org.jp/horo~3/htm

4.2.4 Other electronic media
Follow previous sections for format of author, date, and title elements.
The date element should indicate the year of publication or, if the source undergoes
regular revision, the most recent update.
After the title of the work, insert in brackets as part of the title element (i.e., before the
period) the type of medium for the material.
A retrieval or availability statement replaces the location and name of the publisher
typically provided for text references. Use "Available from" when the URL leads to
information on how to obtain the cited material (rather than to the material itself).
Include retrieval dates where the source material is likely to change over time (e.g. Wikis).
See also, the audiovisual section of this guide for some examples not included here.
37

Type Examples
Theses or
dissertations
Retrieved from a database.
Murray, B. P. (2008). Prior knowledge, two teaching
approaches for metacognition: Main idea and
summarization strategies in reading (Doctoral
dissertation, Fordham University, New York).
Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses.
(AAT 3302116)
Retrieved from an institutional or personal Web site.
McDonald, J. (2007). The role of online discussion forums
in supporting learning in higher education (Doctoral
dissertation, University of Southern Queensland).
Retrieved from http://eprints.usq.edu.au/3588/2/
McDonald_2007_whole.pdf
Encyclopedias and
dictionaries
Give the home or index page URL for reference works.
Claiborn, C. D. (2008). Psychotherapy. In D. Hoiberg (Ed.),
Encyclopedia Britannica online (Academic ed.).
Retrieved from http://search.eb.com
Psychotherapy. (2008). Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Retrieved June 17, 2007, from http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Main_Page
Psychotherapy. (2008). In AskOxford.com. Retrieved
from http://www.askoxford.com/?view=uk
Annual reports BHP Billiton. (2007). 2007 BHP Billiton annual report.
Retrieved from http://bhpbilliton.com/bbContent
Repository/20071114140799/bhbpannualreport07.pdf
Fact sheets, brochures
and press releases
Florek, S. (2003). Megafauna extinction: Patterns of
extinction [Fact sheet]. Retrieved from
http://www.austmus.gov.au/factsheets/megafauna.htm
Australian Museum. (2003). Concretions, thunder eggs and
geodes [Fact sheet]. Retrieved from http://www.austmus.
38

Type Examples
gov.au/factsheets/geodes.htm
Xerox Corporation. (2004). Looks small, acts big: The Xerox
Phaser 3150 personal laser printer for business [Brochure].
Retrieved from http://www.office.xerox.com/latest/315BR-01
.PDF
Apple Inc. (2007). iPhone delivers up to eight hours of talk
time [Press release]. Retrieved from http://www.apple.
com/pr/library/2007/06/18iphone.html
Presentation slides OWL at Purdue University. (2004). Conquering the comma
[PowerPoint slides]. Retrieved from http://owl.english.
purdue.edu/workshops/pp/comma.PPT#256,1,Conquering
the Comma
Images When referring to information gained from images:
Human skeleton [Image]. (2011). Retrieved from http://www.
teachpe.com/images/anatomy/skeleton.jpg
Saudi Arabia [Topographic map]. (2009). Retrieved from
http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/asia/
sa.htm
Tunbridge, D. I. (2003). Volunteers of the ACT Bushfire
Service lighting a back-burn on the Mount Franklin Road,
Brindabella Ranges, on the night of 11/12 January 2003
[Digital photograph]. Retrieved from http://nla.gov.au/
nla.pic-an24954626
Try to be consistent when specifying the medium in brackets [
], immediately after the title.
Message posted
to newsgroups, online
forums, discussion
groups or electronic
mailing lists
Moore, R. (2006, October 29). Survey of test subjects
[Newsgroup message]. Retrieved from
news://sci.psychology.consciousness
Blaire, T. (2007, January 20). Transition in leadership
[Electronic mailing list message]. Retrieved from
39

Type Examples
the Politics and Government electronic mailing list:
http://www.polgov.org/mail-archive/rp/msg7.html
For personal email, refer to personal communication in the section on
unpublished works.
Include the name of the list if the information is not part of the URL.
Wikis Self-study: Broadening the concepts of participation and program
support. (2007). Retrieved June 18, 2008, from the Adult
Literacy Education (ALE) Wiki: http://wiki.literacytent.org/index.
php/Self-Study:_Broadening_the_Concepts_of_Participation_
and_Program_Support
Audio podcasts Hutcheon, J. (2008, June 15). Jane Hutcheon reflects on life in
London [Audio podcast]. Retrieved from http://www.abc.net.
au/correspondents/content/2008/s2274772.htm
Curtis, B., & Diez, M. (2008). Intermediate Spanish podcast
42: La Mafia [Audio podcast]. Available from http://www.
notesinspanish.com/category/intermediate-spanish-podcast/
Video podcasts Give the name and, in parentheses, the function of the originator or
primary contributors (the director or the producer, or both).
National Geographic Society. (Producer). (2008, May 19).
Chimp memory beats humans' [Video podcast]. Retrieved
from http://www.podanza.com/podcast/national-geographic-
video-shorts/42ac4d6d3d12b6ad80303e9f6556d4a0/
Early Childhood Australia. (Producer). (2010). Intentional
teaching and the Early Years Learning Framework with
Judy Radich [Video podcast]. Available from http://www.
earlychildhoodaustralia.org.au/eylfplp/play_based_
learning_and_the_eylf.php
Holland, A. (Producer), & Harris, H. (Director). (2008, June 12).
Bog man [Video podcast]. Retrieved from ABC: http://www.
abc.net.au/catalyst/stories/2272392.htm
Streaming videos Sarra, C. (2010). Elders and community [Video].
40

Type Examples

Retrieved from http://mediasite.eq.edu.au/eq/
Viewer/?peid=bb3dbc846b2a4426ae2f1256
bca8cf7e
Cambridge Educational. (Producer). (2011). Alcohol
and the family: Breaking the chain [Video]. Retrieved
from http://digital. films.com.libdbauth.nait.ab.ca/
portal/Playlists.aspx?aid=7892&xtdi98765
William James: The psychology of possibility (Giants of
Psychology) [Video]. (2011). Available from http://ffh.
films.com/id/20410/William_James_The_Psychology_
of_Possibility.htm
Interviews Interviews that are not retrievable should be cited in text as a personal
communication (including month, day, year) and not included in the
reference list (see section on unpublished works).
Hughes, R. (Interviewer), & Cilento, D. (Interviewee). (2000,
June 20). Diane Cilento [Interview transcript]. Retrieved
from http://www.australianbiography.gov.au/subjects/
cilento/intertext1.html
Blog posts Bedford, T. (2008, June 12). Re: Got a problem using EndNote?
Let us know here [Web log comment]. Retrieved from
http://library.usq.edu.au/wordpress/?p=539
McGarry, A. (2008, June 13). China's pain fires Olympic dream
[Web log post]. Retrieved from http://blogs.abc.net.au/
olympics/
Video blog posts (e.g.
Youtube)
BridgeTEFL. (2007, October 5). TEFL online tutorial:
Teaching grammar in context [Video file]. Video
posted to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
EXg3w_jbNrc
Westrom, M. (2009, June 18). Psychology - short and long
term memory [Video file]. Video posted to http://www.
41

Type Examples
youtube.com/watch?v=TausqSK9p9k
Computer programs,
software, or
programming
languages
Reference list entries are not necessary for standard off-the-shelf
software and programming languages. Provide entries for specialized
software or programs with limited distribution.
In text, give the name of the software, the version number and year.
Do not italicise the names of software, programs, or languages.

If an individual has proprietary rights to the software, name him or her as
the author; otherwise, treat such references as unauthored works.

Immediately after the title and version, identify with a source type such as
[Computer program], [Computer language], or [Computer software].

If no version number is available, include the retrieval date.
If the program can be downloaded or ordered from the web, give this
information in the publisher position.
Schoonjans, F. (2008). MedCalc Statistical Software
(Version 9.5.2.0) [Computer software]. Retrieved from
3D2F.COM Software Directory: http://3d2f.com/programs
/13-638-medcalc-statistical-software-download.shtml
Accurate Personality Test [Computer software]. (2007).
Retrieved June 19, 2008, from http://www.
sharewareconnection.com/accurate-personality-
test.htm
Tools and applications.
CultureGPS lite (Version 1.13) [Computer software].
(2011). Retrieved from http://itunes.apple.com/
app/culturegps-lite/id297051765?mt=8
Pages (Version 1.5) [Computer software]. (2011).
Retrieved from http://itunes.apple.com/us/
pages/id361309726?mt=8&ls=1
Scott, C. (2011). Treasure hunt - the interactive
boardgame (Version 1.1) [Computer software].
Retrieved from http://itunes.apple.com/us/app/
42

Type Examples
treasure-hunt-the-interactive/id4425986640?
mt=8
Data sets twins.dta - twins study (life characteristics in midlife)
(UCLA Statistics Data Sets) [Data file]. 2003.
Retrieved from http://www.stat.ucla.edu/data/
Government of Southern Sudan. Ministry of Education,
Science and Technology. Directorate of Planning
and Budgeting. (2010). South Sudan 2010 secondary
data (2010 Annual School Census) [Data file].
Retrieved from http://southsudan.ed-assist.net/


4.2.5 Audiovisual and other media
Type Examples
Motion
pictures
General form:
Producer, A A. (Producer), & Director, B. B. (Director).
(year). Title of motion picture [Motion picture].
Country of Origin: Studio.
Grazer, B. (Producer), & Howard, R. (Director). (2001).
A beautiful mind [Motion picture]. USA: Universal
Studios.
Television
programs
Television program.
Campbell, C. (Executive producer). (2011, February 9).
The 7pm project [Television program]. Melbourne,
Vic: Network TEN.
Television series.
Gunton, M. (Executive producer). (2009). Life [Television
series]. United Kingdom: BBC Natural History Unit.
43

Type Examples
Television series edisode.
Fairfax, F. (Writer), Mulholland, T., & Rich, J. (Directors).
(2005). The curse of Tutankhamun [Television series
episode]. In P. Dolling [Executive producer], Egypt:
Rediscovering a lost world. United Kingdom: British
Broadcasting Corporation.
Videos and
DVDs
Strang, G. (1992). The teaching of calculus: Careful
changes (Selected Lectures in Mathematics)
[Videocassette]. Providence, RI: American
Mathematical Society.
The self: Testing and intelligence (Discovering Psychology)
[DVD]. (2001). Boston, MA: WGBH Educational
Foundation.
Annunziata, J. (2007). Play therapy with a 6-year-old [DVD].
Available from http://www.apa.org/pubs/videos/4310799.
aspx
Music
recordings
General form:
Writer, A. (copyright year). Title of the song or music
[Recorded by B. B. Artist if different from writer].
On Title of album [Medium of recording]. Location:
Label. (date of recording if different from copyright
date)
Badnews, U. R. (1927). We only live twice
[Recorded by P. Murray]. On Resurrection [CD].
Sandgate, Qld: Ibis Records. (1999)
Williamson, J. (2003). The last of the pioneers. On
Home among the gum trees [CD]. Pyrmont, NSW:
EMI Australia.
In text, include the side, band or track numbers.
"The Last of the Pioneers" (Williamson, 2003, track 5) ...
44

Type Examples
Audio
recordings
Bacon, T. (Writer). (1997). Amazing journeys (Literacy
Links Plus Fluent D) [Audiocassette]. Auckland, NZ:
Shortland.
Costa, P. T. (Speaker). (1998). Personality and
continuity (Audio Recording No. 207-433-88A-B)
[Audiocassette]. Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.
Smith, D. (2001, August 16). Airline nightmare (Audio
Recording from Nightline series) [Audiocassette].
Brisbane, Qld: Australian Broadcasting Commission.
Australian poetry live: Classics from the Hazel de Berg
collection [Audiocassette]. (1996). Canberra, ACT:
National Library of Australia.
Other non-
book media
Specify the medium type or description of the form in brackets [ ], immediately after
the title. Capitalize the first letter of the notation. Be consistent when
specifying formats.
Media formats can include, but are not limited to, the following:
Motion picture, Television program, Television series, Television series episode, CD,
Record, Cassette, Audiocassette, Audiorecord, Audiotape, DVD, Videotape,
Videorecording, Videocassette, Computer software, Data file, Chart, Flashcard,
Game, Picture, Transparency, Slide, Realia, Kit, Filmstrip, Print, Work of art,
Microform, etc.
Fractions are as easy as pie: A game of common fractions
[Game]. (1985). Baltimore, MD: Media Materials.
Zupelz - orange: Stimulating logical thinking - one puzzle at a
time [Flashcard]. Narangba, Qld: Origo Education.
Shaping the future: Working with the under-threes [Kit].
(2000). Buckingham, United Kingdom: Open University
Press.
Nervous system [Picture]. (2006). Burleigh Heads: Network
Education Australia.
Measuring cylinders [Realia]. (n.d.). England: Gradplex.
45

Type Examples
Hill, M. (1985). Australia's first people (Social Studies
Wallcharts) [Chart]. Sydney, NSW: McGraw-Hill.
Leadership Research Institute. (1999). Creative
leadership [Brochure]. Toowoomba, Qld: Author.

4.2.6 Unpublished sources
Type Examples
Personal
communication
Personal communication may be unpublished lecture notes, letters, memos,
personal interviews, telephone conversations, email or messages from non-
archived discussion groups or bulletin boards, photographs, images, tables
or data; all these sources are usually non-recoverable from the reader's
perspective and are not to be included in the reference list, but should be
cited in text as they are referred to.
Cite personal correspondence in text only.
Give the initials as well as the surname of the communicator, and provide as
exact a date as possible:

O. Stone (personal communication, March 29, 2001)
(M. A. Toby, personal photograph, May 2, 1987)
Lecture notes are treated as personal communication if they are unpublished
(i.e. not copied and distributed in print or on the web with the instructor's
permission).
Doctoral
dissertations and
Master's theses
(unpublished)
Swinton, M. A. (1984). Family stress in phenylketonuria
(Unpublished master's thesis). University of Auckland,
New Zealand.
Online articles not
yet formally
published
In preprint archives, articles are posted online ahead of print and are not yet
indexed. Use the DOI or the exact URL.
Charles, S. J., & Hogan, N. (in press). Dynamics of wrist rotation. Journal of
Biomechanics. doi:10.1016/j.biomech.2010.11.016
Vickers, P. (in press). Theory eliminativism as a
methodological tool. Philosophy of Science.
Retrieved from http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/8472/1/
46

Type Examples
Theory_Eliminativism.pdf
Advance online publications are generally peer reviewed but may not be
copyedited or formatted for final production. If there is no DOI assigned,
give the URL of the journal home page.
Diekelmann, S., Buchel, C., Born, J., & Rasch, B. (2011).
Labile or stable: Opposing consequences for memory when
reactivated during waking and sleep. Nature Neuroscience.
Advance online publication. doi:10.1038/nn.2744
Update your references and refer to final versions, if possible, before you
submit your work.
Manuscripts General form.
Author, A. A. (year). Title of manuscript. Unpublished manuscript
[or "Manuscript submitted for publication", or "Manuscript in
preparation"].
Geisel, T. S. (n.d.). All sorts of sports. Unpublished manuscript.
Informally published or self-archived work.
Benchimol, G. (2007). Prospects for innovating organisations.
Retrieved from http://cogprints.org/5701/1/PROSPECTS_
FOR_INNOVATING_ORGANIZATIONS.pdf

4.2.7 Proceedings and technical reports
When citing from a mongraph (book), use the same format as for a book or book chapter. Regularly
published proceedings use the same format as journal or periodical articles.

Type Examples
Published
proceedings in book
form
Capitalise the names of symposia, conferences and meetings.
If there are more than two editors a comma is placed before the
ampersand.
Hughes, H. (2002). Information literacy with an
47

Type Examples
international focus. In K. Appleton, C. Macpherson,
& D. Orr (Eds.), International Lifelong Learning
Conference: Refereed papers from the 2nd
International Lifelong Learning Conference (pp.
208-213). Rockhampton: Central Queensland
University Press.
Hirata, J. (2005). How Should happiness guide policy?
Why gross national happiness is not opposed to
democracy. In Rethinking development: Local
pathways to global wellbeing; the Second
International Conference on Gross National
Happiness. Antigonish, Nova Scotia: St. Francis
Xavier University. Retrieved from http://www.
gpiatlantic.org/conference/papers/hirata.pdf
Davelaar, E. J., & Usher, M. (2004). An extended buffer
model for active maintenance and selective updating.
In Bowman, H. & Labiouse, C. (Eds.), Connectionist
models of cognition and perception II: proceedings of
the Eighth Neural Computation and Psychology
Workshop (pp. 3-14). River Edge, NJ: World Scientific.
Retrieved from ebrary database.
Blascovich, J., & McCall, C. (2010). Attitudes in virtual
reality. In J. P. Forgas, J. Cooper, & W. D. Crano (Eds.),
The psychology of attitudes and attitude change (Sydney
Symposium in Social Psychology). London: Psychology
Press.
Proceedings
published regularly
Treat regularly published proceedings as periodicals.
Kozkovski, O., & Van Strien, S. (2009). Local connectivity
and quasi-conformal rigidity of non-renormalizable
polynomials. Proceedings of the London Mathematical
Society, 99(2), 275-296. doi:10.1112/plms/pdn055
48

Type Examples
Conference papers
and symposium
contributions
For symposium contributions, papers and poster presentations, give the
month with the year.
Gorman, B. (2009, March). A treatment plan: Some hopes
(pipe dreams?) and suggestions for effective statistical
education. In B. Gorman (Chair), The crisis in the
statistical education of psychologists. Symposium
conducted at the 24th annual meeting of the Society for
Industrial and Organizational Psychology, New Orleans,
LA.
Liu, C., Wu, D., Fan, J., & Nauta, M. M. (2008, November).
Does job complexity predict job strains? Paper presented
at the 8th Biannual Conference of the European Academy
of Occupational Health Psychology, Valencia, Spain.
Rosenshine, B. (1997). The case for explicit, teacher-led,
cognitive strategy instruction. Paper presented at the
Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research
Association, Chicago, IL. Retrieved from http://apaa.asu.
edu/barak/barak1.html
Abstract.
Dickens, A. (2003). Working with the community. Paper
presented at the 8th Australian Institute of Family Studies
Conference, Melbourne. Abstract retrieved from http://www.
aifs.gov.au/conferences/aifs8/dickens-ab.pdf
Technical and
research reports
General form:
Author, A. A. (year). Title of work (Report No. xxx).
Location: Publisher.
This format can be used for issue briefs, working papers and other
corporate documents. Include the appropriate document number where
available.
For online reports, identify the publisher in the retrieval statement unless
the publisher is also identified as the author.
Queensland School Curriculum Council. (2000).
49

Type Examples
Consistency of teacher judgement (Research Report).
Brisbane: Author.
Ford, M., Gurney, A., Heyhoe, E., & Gunasekera, D. (2007).
Energy security, clean technology development and
climate change: Addressing the future challenges in
APEC (ABARE Research Report 07.14). Retrieved
from Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource
Economics website: http://www.abare.gov.au/
publications_html/climate_07/apec_security.pdf
Australian Human Resources Institute. (2008). The parent
trap: The parental leave debate (Research Report).
Retrieved from http://www.ahri.com.au/MMSdocuments/
profdevelopment/research/research_papers/0809_
pulse_report_the _parent_trap.pdf
Aermark, L. (2011). Spectral and Hardy inequalities for
some sub-elliptical operators (Research Reports in
Mathematics Number 1, 2011). Retrieved from
Stockholm University, Department of Mathematics,
Research Reports in Mathematics website:
http://www2.math.su.se/reports/2011/1/2011-1.pdf
Database information may be given for monographs from the University's
limited circulation database subscriptions.
Bramley, G. (2010). Analysis of youth offending team
inspection reports (LGA Research Report). Retrieved
from ERIC database.
Australian Furniture Research and Development Institute, &
Standards Australia. (1997). Office desks (Australian/
New Zealand Standard AS/NZS 4442:1997). Retrieved
from Standards On-Line Premium database.