Curriculum and educational practice are often not culturally responsive, with limited integration of

information about different cultural groups into the curriculum

The United States is composed of a shared core culture and many subcultures (Banks, 2008). Students in
our schools are influenced by this core culture, sometimes referred to as the macroculture. The United
States is such a complex and diverse nation that its macroculture is somewhat difficult to describe, but
Banks ( 2008) suggests the following key components: Equality, justice, and human dignity Individual
versus group orientation Orientation toward materialism At the same time, students are influenced by
their home and/ or regional cultures, or microcultures ( Banks, 2008). Microcultures are often based on
such factors as national ori-gin, ethnicity, socioeconomic class, religion, gender, age, and disability.
Sometimes the core values of the macroculture and microcultures are relatively similar, but in other
cases the microculture values are quite different from those of the macroculture (Banks, 2008). For
example, the emphasis on individuality is generally not as important in African American, Latino
American, and Native American ethnic communities as it is in the European American macroculture.
Another example of differences between the macroculture and various microcultures in the United
States is the value given to personalized knowledge ( i. e., knowledge that results from firsthand
observation). Although the macroculture values knowledge based on objectivity, and educational
institutions emphasize abstract out- of- context knowledge, research on womens ways of knowing
suggests that women value personalized knowledge
from firsthand observation). Although the macroculture values knowledge based on objectivity, and
educational institutions emphasize abstract out- of- context knowledge, research on womens ways of
knowing suggests that women value personalized knowledge. This knowledge can keep teachers from
misinterpreting students actions. Culturally responsive teachers recognize the differences between
their students and themselves and strive to become nonjudgmental
Following are general areas and questions you can use to guide inquiry about the cultural characteristics
of students in your classroom: Time. How do students perceive time? How is timeliness regarded in
their cultures? Space. What personal distance do students use in interactions with other students and
with adults? How does the culture determine the space allotted to boys and to girls? Dress and food.
How does dress differ for age, gender, and social class? What clothing and accessories are considered
acceptable? What foods are typical? Rituals and ceremonies. What rituals do students use to show
respect? What celebrations do students observe, and for what reasons? How and where do parents
expect to be greeted when visiting the class? Work. What types of work are students expected to
perform in the home and community, and at what age? To what extent are students expected to work
together? Leisure. What are the purposes for play? What typical activities are done for enjoyment in
the home and community? Gender roles. What tasks are performed by boys? By girls? What
expectations do parents and students hold for boys and girls achievements, and how do these differ by
subject areas? Status. What resources ( e. g., study area and materials, study assistance from parents
and siblings) are available at home and in the community? What power do parents have to obtain
information about the school and to influence educational choices? Goals. What kinds of work are
considered prestigious or desirable? What role does educa-tion play in achieving occupational goals?
What education level do the family and student desire for the student? Education. What methods for
teaching and learning are used in the home ( e. g., modeling and imitation, didactic stories and proverbs,
direct verbal instruction)? Communication. What roles do verbal and nonverbal language play in
learning and teach-ing? What roles do conventions such as silence, questions, rhetorical questions, and
discourse style play in communication? What types of literature ( e. g., newspapers, books) are used in
the home, and in what language( s) are they written? How is writing used in the home ( e. g., letters,
lists, notes), and in what language( s)? Interaction. What roles do cooperation and competition play in
learning? How are children expected to interact with teachers? Behavior. What are cultural
expectations for appropriate behavior in school settings?
Cultural Boundaries. Erickson ( 2005) defines a cultural boundary as the presence of some kind of
cultural difference ( p. 41). Cultural boundaries can occur at many levels, including when there are
differences between the student and the teacher or between the student and the culture of schooling.
In his work, he classified cultural groups as autonomous minorities, immigrant or voluntary minorities,
and castelike or involuntary minorities. Autonomous minorities are considered minorities in a
numerical sense; they include Jews, Mormons, and the Amish. In the United States, there are no non-
White autonomous minorities. Immigrant or voluntary minorities are people who have moved to the
new society or culture more or less voluntarily because they desire greater economic opportunities and
political freedom. The Chinese and Punjabi Indians are representative examples in the United States.
Castelike or involuntary minorities are people who were brought to the United States or conquered
against their will. Examples in the United States are African Americans, Native Americans, early Mexican
Americans in the Southwest, and Native Hawaiians.
Cultural inversion, or the tendency to regard certain forms of behavior, events, sym-bols, and meanings
as inappropriate because they are characteristic of European American culture. A collective identity, in
opposition to the social identity of the dominant group, devel-ops as the involuntary minorities are
treated as subordinates by European Americans in economic, political, social, psychological, cultural,
and language domains.
What can the classroom teacher do? Like Kristina, classroom teachers can strive to develop a culturally
responsive teaching ( CRT) style. Many ethnically diverse students do not find schooling exciting or
inviting; they often feel unwelcome, insignificant, and alienated . . . learning is more interesting and
easier to accomplish when it has personal mean-ing for students ( Gay, 2004, p. 33). Noted scholar
Geneva Gay ( 2000) defines CRT as using the cultural knowledge, prior experiences, and performance
styles of diverse students to make learning more appropriate and effective for them; it teaches to and
through the strengths of these students ( p. 29). CRT is particularly important in thinking about
implementation of RTI models ( Klingner, Barletta, & Hoover, 2008; Taylor, 2008). However, teachers
involved in all tiers of instruction must be prepared to teach in ways that will promote student
engagement and address individual needs. Teachers and administrators should also use multiple
assessment tools ( including student observation) to ensure fair and accurate assessment. Developing an
understanding of diverse cultures and cultural characteristics are two of the best steps in becoming a
culturally responsive teacher.
Multicultural education is an educational reform movement whose major goal is to restruc-ture
curricula and educational institutions so that students from diverse social- class, racial, and ethnic
groups as well as both gender groups will experience equal educational opportuni-ties ( Banks,
2008, p. 135). Multicultural education is closely linked to cultural diversity ( Ariza, Morales- Jones, Yahya,
& Zainuddin, 2006) and fosters pride in minority cultures, assists students in developing new insights
into their cultures, reduces prejudice and stereotyp-ing, and promotes intercultural understanding
Dimensions of Multicultural Education
Multicultural education is much more than a curriculum focused on learning about diverse cultures
based on such parameters as gender, ethnicity, and race. It is a thread running through the total
curriculum, not a subject to be taught ( Gay, 2004; Tiedt & Tiedt, 2006). Banks ( 2008) suggests that
multicultural education has four dimensions: content integration, knowl-edge construction, prejudice
reduction, and an equity pedagogy, as well as an empowering school culture and social structure. 1.
Content integration focuses on using examples and content from a variety of cultures and groups to
illustrate concepts, principles, generalizations, and theories. Ethnic and cul-tural content is infused into
the subject areas in a natural, logical way ( Banks, 2008). For example, you can teach students about
traditional dress and celebrations in many different cultures by discussing different holidays, the dress
worn, and the reasons for the holidays and traditional dress. As a follow- up activity, students can
interview their parents and other family members to learn about traditional dress and holidays
celebrated by their families. 2. Knowledge construction refers to students learning about how implicit
cultural assumptions, frames of reference, perspectives, and biases influence the ways in which
knowledge is constructed. For example, the discovery of America by Europeans has two very different
frames of reference when presented from the perspectives of the Native Americans and the Europeans.
Similarly, the power of the mind over the body is viewed differently by Asian and European cultures.
3. Prejudice reduction is the idea that when misconceptions and stereotypes about diverse cultural and
ethnic groups are dispelled, students can learn to develop an appreciation for individuals from
backgrounds other than their own. Teachers can promote prejudice reduction through well- planned
units and lessons that help students develop knowledge and positive images of a wide range of groups.
4. With an equity pedagogy, the teacher attends to different teaching and learning styles and modifies
teaching to facilitate the academic achievement of students from diverse cultures.
CHAPTER 5
Establishing a Positive Classroom Climate
Keep the classroom uncluttered, clean, attractive, and uncrowded, especially in high- traffic areas ( e.
g., group work areas, space around the pencil sharpener, door-ways, supply areas). Make sure
necessary materials are accessible, organized, and stored appropriately. Ensure that the classroom is
well ventilated with appro-priate lighting. Maintain an appropriate noise level. Consider which objects
might be removed or changed to make the room less noisy.
Establish personal physical space, desk, and materials for each student. Be sure all students are easily
seen and accessible to the teacher and that all students can easily see instructional presentations and
displays. Post a schedule that provides a predictable routine. Post classroom rules and consequences
so that students can see them.
Creating a Learning Community
Recognize that students are children or adolescents first. Focus on abilities. Celebrate diversity.
Demonstrate high regard for all students. Provide opportunities for students to work in mixed- ability
groups.
Engaging Students Through Class Meetings Another way to improve the classroom climate is to engage
students in taking responsibility for their classroom through class meetings. Class meetings are formal or
informal meetings to set mutual goals, solve problems, or plan activities ( Schaps, 2003).
Positive reinforcement is the presentation, following the target behavior, of a stimulus ( a verbal
response; a physical response, such as touching; or a tangible response, such as a reward) to maintain or
increase the target behavior. Negative reinforcement is the removal of a stimulus to increase
engagement in desirable behaviors.
The hierarchy of reinforcers includes the following types: Consumable ( raisins, crackers, jelly beans)
Tangible ( school supplies, toys) Token ( stickers, checks, coupons) Activity ( computer time, free
time) Privilege ( errands, line leader) Peer recognition ( peer acceptance, approval) Teacher
approval ( recognition, praise) Self- satisfaction ( motivation, seeing ones accomplishments)
These basic principles are sometimes referred to as universal strategies ( Anderson & Spaulding, 2007) in
that they are used for all students in a classroom. Following these principles can avoid situations such as
the following.
Consequences are the repercussions associated with appropriate behavior ( e. g., gaining a token) and
inappropriate behavior
Consequences are the repercussions associated with appropriate behavior ( e. g., gaining a token) and
inappropri-ate behavior
This modification of behavior management principles is called positive behavior support ( PBS) ( OSEP
Technical Assistance Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports, 2009). It is described as
being problem- solving oriented, data- based, evidence-based, and systemic (