Cardiovascular disease or cardiovascular diseases is the class of diseases that involve the

heart or blood vessels (arteries and veins). While the term technically refers to any disease that
affects the cardiovascular system (as used in MeSH), it is usually used to refer to those related to
atherosclerosis (arterial disease). These conditions have similar causes, mechanisms, and
treatments. In practice, cardiovascular disease is treated by cardiologists, thoracic surgeons,
vascular surgeons, neurologists, and interventional radiologists, depending on the organ system
that is being treated. There is considerable overlap in the specialties, and it is common for certain
procedures to be performed by different types of specialists in the same hospital.
Most countries face high and increasing rates of cardiovascular disease. Each year, heart disease
kills more Americans than cancer.
It is the number one cause of death and disability in the United States and most European
countries (data available through 2005). A large histological study (PDAY) showed vascular
injury accumulates from adolescence, making primary prevention efforts necessary from
childhood.
By the time that heart problems are detected, the underlying cause (atherosclerosis) is usually
quite advanced, having progressed for decades. There is therefore increased emphasis on
preventing atherosclerosis by modifying risk factors, such as healthy eating, exercise and
avoidance of smoking.

Contents

• 1 Classification
• 2 Causes
• 3 Pathophysiology
• 4 Diagnosis
○ 4.1 Associated diagnostic markers
• 5 Screening
• 6 Management
• 7 Epidemiology
• 8 Research
• 9 See also
• 10 References
• 11 External links

Classification
• Aneurysm
• Angina
• Atherosclerosis
• Cerebrovascular Accident (Stroke)
• Cerebrovascular disease
 • Congestive Heart Failure
• Coronary Artery Disease
• Myocardial infarction (Heart Attack)
• Peripheral vascular disease
Causes
In his book "The Heart Healthy Program", the cardiologist Dr Richard M. Fleming has identified
several key dietary factors that can lower the risk of heart disease, including:
• Lowering of LDL cholesterol by reducing saturated fat intake.
• Lowering of Triglyceride levels by reducing consumption of sugary and processed foods.
• Reduction of Homocysteine levels by supplementation with Vitamins B6 and B12, and
folic acid.
• Increased antioxidant activity by higher consumption of fruits and vegetables.
• Lowering of fibrinogen and growth factors by cutting back on foods such as red meat,
dairy products, poultry and eggs.
Pathophysiology
Population based studies in the youth show that the precursors of heart disease start in
adolescence. The process of atherosclerosis evolves over decades, and begins as early as
childhood. The Pathobiological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth Study demonstrated
that intimal lesions appear in all the aortas and more than half of the right coronary arteries of
youths aged 7–9 years. However, most adolescents are more concerned about other risks such as
HIV, accidents, and cancer than cardiovascular disease. This is extremely important considering
that 1 in 3 people will die from complications attributable to atherosclerosis. In order to stem the
tide of cardiovascular disease, primary prevention is needed. Primary prevention starts with
education and awareness that cardiovascular disease poses the greatest threat and measures to
prevent or reverse this disease must be taken
Diagnosis
Platelet and Fibrin complexes can be seen with the technique of dark field microscopy. They are
much bigger than red blood cells and easily block capillaries. These complexes are clearly
visible in dark field but not in stained bright field samples because the different staining methods
disburse them. However, they are not visible in unstained blood smears. This method of early
detection allows to identify people at risk and take appropriate measures.

Associated diagnostic markers

• Low-density lipoprotein
• Lipoprotein(a)
• Apolipoprotein A1
• Apolipoprotein B
• Ratio of Apolipoprotein A1/Apolipoprotein B
Screening
Some biomarkers are thought to offer a more detailed risk of cardiovascular disease. However,
the clinical value of these biomarkers is questionable. Currently, biomarkers which may reflect a
higher risk of cardiovascular disease include:
• Higher fibrinogen and PAI-1 blood concentrations
• Elevated homocysteine, or even upper half of normal
• Elevated blood levels of asymmetric dimethylarginine
• High inflammation as measured by C-reactive protein
• Elevated blood levels of brain natriuretic peptide (also known as B-type) (BNP)
Management
Unlike many other chronic medical conditions, Cardiovascular disease is treatable and
reversible, even after a long history of disease. Treatment is primarily focused on diet and stress
reduction.
Epidemiology

Disability-adjusted life year for cardiovascular diseases per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004.[12]
no data less than 900 900-1650 1650-2300 2300-3000 3000-3700 3700-
4400 4400-5100 5100-5800 5800-6500 6500-7200 7200-7900 more than 7900

Research
The first studies on cardiovascular health were performed in 1949 by Jerry Morris (physician)
using occupational health data and were published in 1958.[13] The causes, prevention, and/or
treatment of all forms of cardiovascular disease remain active fields of biomedical research, with
hundreds of scientific studies being published on a weekly basis.
A fairly recent emphasis is on the link between low-grade inflammation that hallmarks
atherosclerosis and its possible interventions. C-reactive protein (CRP) is an inflammatory
marker that may be present in increased levels in the blood in patients at risk for cardiovascular
disease. Its exact role in predicting disease is the subject of debate.
Some areas currently being researched include possible links between infection with
Chlamydophila pneumoniae and coronary artery disease. The Chlamydia link has become less
plausible with the absence of improvement after antibiotic use.[14]