The Sun Also Rises

1
The Sun Also Rises
The Sun Also Rises is a 1926 novel written by American author Ernest Hemingway about a group of American and
British expatriates who travel from Paris to the Festival of San Fermn in Pamplona to watch the running of the bulls
and the bullfights. An early and enduring modernist novel, it received mixed reviews upon publication. Hemingway
biographer Jeffrey Meyers writes that it is "recognized as Hemingway's greatest work",
[1]
and Hemingway scholar
Linda Wagner-Martin calls it his most important novel.
[2]
The novel was published in the United States in October
1926 by the publishing house Scribner's. A year later, the London publishing house Jonathan Cape published the
novel with the title of Fiesta. Since then it has been continuously in print.
Hemingway began writing the novel on his birthday (21July) in 1925, finishing the draft manuscript barely two
months later in September. After setting aside the manuscript for a short period, he worked on revisions during the
winter of 1926. The basis for the novel was Hemingway's 1925 trip to Spain. The setting was unique and memorable,
showing the seedy caf life in Paris, and the excitement of the Pamplona festival, with a middle section devoted to
descriptions of a fishing trip in the Pyrenees. Equally unique was Hemingway's spare writing style, combined with
his restrained use of description to convey characterizations and action, which became known as the Iceberg Theory.
On the surface the novel is a love story between the protagonist Jake Barnesa man whose war wound has made
him impotentand the promiscuous divorce Lady Brett Ashley. Brett's affair with Robert Cohn causes Jake to be
upset and break off his friendship with Cohn; her seduction of the 19-year-old matador Romero causes Jake to lose
his good reputation among the Spaniards in Pamplona. The novel is a roman clef; the characters are based on real
people and the action is based on real events. In the novel, Hemingway presents his notion that the "Lost
Generation", considered to have been decadent, dissolute and irretrievably damaged by World War I, was resilient
and strong. Additionally, Hemingway investigates the themes of love, death, renewal in nature, and the nature of
masculinity.
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Background
In the 1920s Hemingway lived in Paris, was foreign correspondent for the Toronto Star, and traveled to places such
as Smyrna to report about the GrecoTurkish War. He wanted to use his journalism experience to write fiction,
believing that a story could be based on real events when a writer distilled his own experiences in such a way that,
according to biographer Jeffrey Meyers, "what he made up was truer than what he remembered".
[3]
Hemingway (left), with Harold Loeb, Lady Duff
Twysden (in hat), Hadley Richardson, Donald
Ogden Stewart (obscured), and Pat Guthrie (far
right) at a caf in Pamplona, Spain, July 1925.
Twysden, Loeb, and Guthrie inspired the
characters Brett Ashley, Robert Cohn, and Mike
Campbell in The Sun Also Rises.
With his wife Hadley Richardson, Hemingway first visited the Festival
of San Fermn in Pamplona, Spain, in 1923, where he became
fascinated by bullfighting.
[4]
The couple returned to Pamplona in
1924enjoying the trip immenselythis time accompanied by Chink
Dorman-Smith, John Dos Passos, and Donald Ogden Stewart and his
wife.
[5]
The two returned a third time in June1925. That year, they
brought with them a different group of American and British
expatriates: Hemingway's Michigan boyhood friend Bill Smith,
Stewart, Lady Duff Twysden (recently divorced), her lover Pat
Guthrie, and Harold Loeb. In Pamplona, the group quickly
disintegrated. Hemingway, attracted to Lady Duff, was jealous of
Loeb, who had recently been on a romantic getaway with her; by the
end of the week the two men had a public fistfight. Against this
background was the influence of the young matador from Ronda,
Cayetano Ordez, whose brilliance in the bullring affected the
spectators. Ordez honored Hemingway's wife by presenting her,
from the bullring, with the ear of a bull he killed. Outside of Pamplona,
the fishing trip to the Irati River (near Burguete in Navarre) was
marred by polluted water.
[]
Hemingway had intended to write a nonfiction book about bullfighting,
but then decided that the week's experiences had presented him with
enough material for a novel. A few days after the fiesta ended, on his
birthday (21July), he began writing what would eventually become The Sun Also Rises.
[6]
By 17August, with 14
chapters written and a working title of Fiesta chosen, Hemingway returned to Paris. He finished the draft on
21September1925, writing a foreword the following weekend and changing the title to The Lost Generation.
[7]
A few months later, in December 1925, Hemingway and his wife spent the winter in Schruns, Austria, where he
began revising the manuscript extensively. Pauline Pfeiffer joined them in January, andagainst Richardson's
adviceurged him to sign a contract with Scribner's. Hemingway left Austria for a quick trip to New York to meet
with the publishers, and on his return, during a stop in Paris, began an affair with Pauline. He returned to Schruns to
finish the revisions in March.
[8]
In June, he was in Pamplona with both Richardson and Pfeiffer. On their return to
Paris, Richardson asked for a separation, and left for the south of France.
[9]
In August, alone in Paris, Hemingway
completed the proofs, dedicating the novel to his wife and son.
[10]
After the publication of the book in October,
Richardson asked for a divorce; Hemingway subsequently gave her the book's royalties.
[11]
The Sun Also Rises
3
Publication history
Hemingway spent December 1925 in Schruns,
Austria, with Hadley and Jack. During that period
he wrote The Torrents of Spring.
Hemingway apparently maneuvered Boni & Liveright into terminating
their contract so he could have The Sun Also Rises published by
Scribner's instead. In December 1925 he quickly wrote The Torrents of
Springa satirical novella attacking Sherwood Andersonand sent it
to his publishers Boni & Liveright. His three-book contract with them
included a termination clause should they reject a single submission.
Unamused by the satire against one of their most saleable authors,
Boni & Liveright immediately rejected it and terminated the
contract.
[12]
Within weeks Hemingway signed a contract with
Scribner's, who agreed to publish The Torrents of Spring and all of his
subsequent work.
[13][14]
Scribner's published the novel on 22October1926. Its first edition
consisted of 5090 copies, selling at $2.00 per copy.
[15]
Cleonike
Damianakes illustrated the dust jacket with a Hellenistic design of a
seated, robed woman, her head bent to her shoulder, eyes closed, one
hand holding an apple, her shoulders and a thigh exposed. Editor
Maxwell Perkins intended "Cleon's respectably sexy"
[]
design to attract
"the feminine readers who control the destinies of so many novels".
[16]
Two months later the book was in a second printing with 7000 copies
sold. Subsequent printings were ordered; by 1928, after the publication
of Hemingway's short story collection Men Without Women, the novel was in its eighth printing.
[17]
In 1927 the
novel was published in the UK by Jonathan Cape, titled Fiesta, without the two epigraphs.
[18]
Two decades later, in
1947, Scribner's released three of Hemingway's works as a boxed set, including The Sun Also Rises, A Farewell to
Arms, and For Whom the Bell Tolls.
[19]
By 1983, The Sun Also Rises had been in print continuously since its publication in 1926, and was likely one of the
most translated titles in the world. At that time Scribner's began to print cheaper mass-market paperbacks of the
book, in addition to the more expensive trade paperbacks already in print.
[20]
In the 1990s, British editions were
titled Fiesta: The Sun Also Rises.
[21]
In 2006 Simon & Schuster began to produce audiobook versions of
Hemingway's novels, including The Sun Also Rises.
[22]
Plot summary
The protagonist of The Sun Also Rises is Jake Barnes, an expatriate American journalist living in Paris. Jake suffered
a war wound that left him impotent; the nature of his injury is not explicitly described. He is in love with Lady Brett
Ashley, a twice-divorced Englishwoman. Brett, with her bobbed hair and numerous love affairs, embodies the new
sexual freedom of the 1920s.
Book One is set in the caf society of Paris. In the opening scenes, Jake plays tennis with his college friend Robert
Cohn, picks up a prostitute (Georgette), and runs into Brett and Count Mippipopolous in a nightclub. Later, Brett
tells Jake she loves him, but they both know that they have no chance at a stable relationship.
In Book Two, Jake is joined by Bill Gorton, recently arrived from New York, and Brett's fianc Mike Campbell, who
arrives from Scotland. Jake and Bill travel south and meet Robert Cohn at Bayonne for a fishing trip in the hills
northeast of Pamplona. Instead of fishing, Cohn stays in Pamplona to wait for the overdue Brett and Mike. Cohn had
an affair with Brett a few weeks earlier and still feels possessive of her despite her engagement to Mike. After Jake
and Bill enjoy five days of tranquility fishing the streams near Burguete, they rejoin the group in Pamplona where
they begin to drink heavily. Cohn's presence is increasingly resented by the others, who taunt him with anti-semitic
The Sun Also Rises
4
remarks. During the fiesta the characters drink, eat, watch the running of the bulls, attend bullfights, and bicker with
each other. Jake introduces Brett to the 19-year-old matador Romero at the Hotel Montoya; she is smitten with him
and seduces him. The jealous tension among the men buildsJake, Campbell, Cohn, and Romero each love Brett.
Cohn, who had been a champion boxer in college, has fistfights with Jake, Mike, and Romero, whom he beats up.
Despite his injuries, Romero continues to perform brilliantly in the bullring.
Book Three shows the characters in the aftermath of the fiesta. Sober again, they leave Pamplona; Bill returns to
Paris, Mike stays in Bayonne, and Jake goes to San Sebastin in northeastern Spain. As Jake is about to return to
Paris, he receives a telegram from Brett asking for help; she had gone to Madrid with Romero. He finds her there in
a cheap hotel, without money, and without Romero. She announces she has decided to go back to Mike. The novel
ends with Jake and Brett in a taxi speaking of the things that might have been.
Major themes
Paris and the Lost Generation
Gertrude Stein in 1924 with Hemingway's son
Jack. She coined the phrase "Lost Generation".
The first book of The Sun Also Rises is set in mid-1920s Paris.
Americans were drawn to Paris in the Roaring Twenties by the
favorable exchange rate, with as many as 200,000 English-speaking
expatriates living there. The Paris Tribune reported in 1925 that Paris
had an American Hospital, an American Library, and an American
Chamber of Commerce.
[23]
Many American writers were disenchanted
with the US, where they found less artistic freedom than in Europe.
Hemingway had more artistic freedom in Paris than in the US at a
period when Ulysses, written by his friend James Joyce, was banned
and burned in New York.
[24]
The themes of The Sun Also Rises appear in its two epigraphs. The first
is an allusion to the "Lost Generation," a term coined by Gertrude Stein
referring to the post-war generation;
[25][26]
the other epigraph is a long
quotation from Ecclesiastes: "What profit hath a man of all his labour
which he taketh under the sun? One generation passeth away, and another generation cometh: but the earth abideth
for ever. The sun also ariseth, and the sun goeth down, and hasteth to his place where he arose." Hemingway told his
editor Max Perkins that the book was not so much about a generation being lost, but that "the earth abideth forever."
He thought the characters in The Sun Also Rises may have been "battered" but were not lost.
[27]
Hemingway scholar Wagner-Martin writes that Hemingway wanted the book to be about morality, which he
emphasized by changing the working title from Fiesta to The Sun Also Rises. Wagner-Martin claims that the book
can be read either as a novel about bored expatriates or as a morality tale about a protagonist who searches for
integrity in an immoral world.
[28]
Months before Hemingway left for Pamplona, the press was depicting the Parisian
Latin Quarter, where he lived, as decadent and depraved. He began writing the story of a matador corrupted by the
influence of the Latin Quarter crowd; he expanded it into a novel about Jake Barnes at risk of being corrupted by
wealthy and inauthentic expatriates.
[29]
The Sun Also Rises
5
Hemingway at home in his apartment on the Left
Bank, Paris, 1924
The characters form a group, sharing similar norms, and each greatly
affected by the war. Hemingway captures the angst of the age and
transcends the love story of Brett and Jake, although they are
representative of the period: Brett is starved for reassurance and love
and Jake is sexually maimed. His wound symbolizes the disability of
the age, the disillusion, and the frustrations felt by an entire generation.
Hemingway thought he lost touch with American values while living
in Paris, but his biographer Michael Reynolds claims the opposite,
seeing evidence of the author's midwestern American values in the
novel. Hemingway admired hard work. He portrayed the matadors and
the prostitutes, who work for a living, in a positive manner, but Brett,
who prostitutes herself, is emblematic of "the rotten crowd" living on inherited money. It is Jake, the working
journalist, who pays the bills again and again when those who can pay do not. Hemingway shows, through Jake's
actions, his disapproval of the people who did not pay up.
[30]
Reynolds says that Hemingway shows the tragedy, not
so much of the decadence of the Montparnasse crowd, but of the decline in American values of the period. As such,
the author created an American hero who is impotent and powerless. Jake becomes the moral center of the story. He
never considers himself part of the expatriate crowd because he is a working man; to Jake a working man is genuine
and authentic, and those who do not work for a living spend their lives posing.
[31]
Women and love
The twice-divorced Lady Brett Ashley represented the liberated New Woman (in the 1920s, divorces were common
and easy to be had in Paris).
[32]
James Nagel writes that, in Brett, Hemingway created one of the more fascinating
women in 20th-century American literature. Sexually promiscuous, she is a denizen of Parisian nightlife and cafs.
In Pamplona she sparks chaos: in her presence, the men drink too much and fight. She also seduces the young
bullfighter and becomes a Circe in the festival.
[33]
Critics describe her variously as complicated, elusive, and
enigmatic; Donald Daiker writes that Hemingway "treats her with a delicate balance of sympathy and antipathy."
[34]
She is vulnerable, forgiving, independentqualities that Hemingway juxtaposes with the other women in the book,
who are either prostitutes or overbearing nags.
[35]
Nagel considers the novel a tragedy. Jake and Brett have a relationship that becomes destructive because their love
cannot be consummated. Conflict over Brett destroys Jake's friendship with Robert Cohn, and her behavior in
Pamplona affects Jake's hard-won reputation among the Spaniards. Meyers sees Brett as a woman who wants sex
without love while Jake can only give her love without sex. Although Brett sleeps with many men, it is Jake she
loves.
[36]
Dana Fore writes that Brett is willing to be with Jake in spite of his disability, in a "non-traditional erotic
relationship."
[37]
Other critics such as Leslie Fiedler and Nina Baym see her as a supreme bitch; Fiedler sees Brett as
one of the "outstanding examples of Hemingway's 'bitch women.'"
[38][39]
Jake becomes bitter about their
relationship, as when he says, "Send a girl off with a man.... Now go and bring her back. And sign the wire with
love."
[40]
Critics interpret the JakeBrett relationship in various ways. Daiker suggests that Brett's behavior in Madridafter
Romero leaves and when Jake arrives at her summonsreflects her immorality.
[41]
Scott Donaldson thinks
Hemingway presents the JakeBrett relationship in such a manner that Jake knew "that in having Brett for a friend
'he had been getting something for nothing' and that sooner or later he would have to pay the bill."
[42]
Daiker notes
that Brett relies on Jake to pay for her train fare from Madrid to San Sebastin, where she rejoins her fianc Mike.
[43]
In a piece Hemingway cut, he has Jake thinking, "you learned a lot about a woman by not sleeping with her." By the
end of the novel, although Jake loves Brett, he appears to undergo a transformation in Madrid when he begins to
distance himself from her.
[]
Reynolds believes that Jake represents the "everyman," and that in the course of the
narrative he loses his honor, faith, and hope. He sees the novel as a morality play with Jake as the person who loses
The Sun Also Rises
6
the most.
[44]
The corrida, the fiesta, and nature
Hemingway (in white trousers and dark shirt) fighting a bull in the
amateur corrida at Pamplona fiesta, July 1925.
In The Sun Also Rises, Hemingway contrasts Paris
with Spain, and the frenzy of the fiesta with the
tranquillity of the Spanish countryside. Spain was
Hemingway's favorite European country; he
considered it a healthy place, and the only country
"that hasn't been shot to pieces." He was profoundly
affected by the spectacle of bullfighting, writing,
It isn't just brutal like they always told
us. It's a great tragedyand the most
beautiful thing I've ever seen and takes
more guts and skill and guts again than
anything possibly could. It's just like
having a ringside seat at the war with
nothing going to happen to you.
[]
He demonstrated what he considered the purity in the culture of bullfightingcalled aficinand presented it as an
authentic way of life, contrasted against the inauthenticity of the Parisian bohemians.
[45]
To be accepted as an
aficionado was rare for a non-Spaniard; Jake goes through a difficult process to gain acceptance by the "fellowship
of aficin."
[46]
The Hemingway scholar Allen Josephs thinks the novel is centered on the corrida (the bullfighting), and how each
character reacts to it. Brett seduces the young matador; Cohn fails to understand and expects to be bored; Jake
understands fully because only he moves between the world of the inauthentic expatriates and the authentic
Spaniards; the hotel-keeper Montoya is the keeper of the faith; and Romero is the artist in the ringhe is both
innocent and perfect, and the one who bravely faces death.
[47]
The corrida is presented as an idealized drama in
which the matador faces death, creating a moment of existentialism or nada (nothingness), broken when he
vanquishes death by killing the bull.
[48]
Hemingway named his character Romero for Pedro Romero, shown
here in Goya's etching Pedro Romero Killing the Halted Bull (1816).
Hemingway presents matadors as heroic characters
dancing in a bullring. He considered the bullring as
war with precise rules, in contrast to the messiness of
the real war that he, and by extension Jake,
experienced. Critic Keneth Kinnamon notes that
young Romero is the novel's only honorable
character. Hemingway named Romero after Pedro
Romero, an 18th-century bullfighter who killed
thousands of bulls in the most difficult manner:
having the bull impale itself on his sword as he stood
perfectly still. Reynolds says Romero, who
symbolizes the classically pure matador, is the "one
idealized figure in the novel."
[49]
Josephs says that
when Hemingway changed Romero's name from
Guerrita and imbued him with the characteristics of the historical Romero, he also changed the scene in which
Romero kills a bull to one of recibiendo (receiving the bull) in homage to the historical namesake.
[50]
The Sun Also Rises
7
Before the group arrives in Pamplona, Jake and Bill take a fishing trip to the Irati River. As Harold Bloom points
out, the scene serves as an interlude between the Paris and Pamplona sections, "an oasis that exists outside linear
time." More importantly, on another level it reflects "the mainstream of American fiction beginning with the
Pilgrims seeking refuge from English oppression"the prominent theme in American literature of escaping into the
wilderness, as seen in Cooper, Hawthorne, Melville, Twain, and Thoreau.
[51]
Fiedler calls the theme "The Sacred
Land"; he thinks the American West is evoked in The Sun Also Rises by the Pyrenees and given a symbolic nod with
the name of the "Hotel Montana." In Hemingway's writing, nature is a place of refuge and rebirth, according to
Stoltzfus, where the hunter or fisherman gains a moment of transcendence at the moment the prey is killed. Nature is
the place where men act without women: men fish, men hunt, men find redemption. In nature Jake and Bill do not
need to discuss the war because their war experience, paradoxically, is ever-present. The nature scenes serve as
counterpoint to the fiesta scenes.
All of the characters drink heavily during the fiesta and generally throughout the novel. In his essay "Alcoholism in
Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises," Matts Djos says the main characters exhibit alcoholic tendencies such as
depression, anxiety and sexual inadequacy. He writes that Jake's self-pity is symptomatic of an alcoholic, as is Brett's
out-of-control behavior.
[52]
William Balassi thinks that Jake gets drunk to avoid his feelings for Brett, notably in the
Madrid scenes at the end where he has three martinis before lunch and drinks three bottles of wine with lunch.
[53]
Reynolds, however, believes the drinking is relevant as set against the historical context of Prohibition in the United
States. The atmosphere of the fiesta lends itself to drunkenness, but the degree of revelry among the Americans also
reflects a reaction against Prohibition. Bill, visiting from the US, drinks in Paris and in Spain. Jake is rarely drunk in
Paris where he works but on vacation in Pamplona, he drinks constantly. Reynolds says that Prohibition split
attitudes about morality, and in the novel Hemingway made clear his dislike of Prohibition.
[54]
Masculinity and gender
Critics have seen Jake as an ambiguous representative of Hemingway manliness. For example, in the bar scene in
Paris, Jake is angry at some homosexual men. The critic Ira Elliot suggests that Hemingway viewed homosexuality
as an inauthentic way of life, and that he aligns Jake with homosexual men because, like them, Jake does not have
sex with women. Jake's anger shows his self-hatred at his inauthenticity and lack of masculinity.
[55]
His sense of
masculine identity is losthe is less than a man.
[56]
Elliot wonders if Jake's wound perhaps signifies latent
homosexuality, rather than only a loss of masculinity; the emphasis in the novel, however, is on Jake's interest in
women.
[57]
Hemingway's writing has been called homophobic because of the language his characters use. For
example, in the fishing scenes, Bill confesses his fondness for Jake but then goes on to say, "I couldn't tell you that in
New York. It'd mean I was a faggot."
[58]
Since Hemingway is merely depicting contemporary notions of sexuality,
however, he cannot be called homophobic on these grounds.
In contrast to Jake's troubled masculinity, Romero represents an ideal masculine identity grounded in self-assurance,
bravery, competence, and uprightness. The Davidsons note that Brett is attracted to Romero for these reasons, and
they speculate that Jake might be trying to undermine Romero's masculinity by bringing Brett to him and thus
diminishing his ideal stature.
[59]
Critics have examined issues of gender misidentification that are prevalent in much of Hemingway's work. He was
interested in cross-gender themes, as shown by his depictions of effeminate men and boyish women.
[60]
In his
fiction, a woman's hair is often symbolically important and used to denote gender. Brett, with her short hair, is
androgynous and compared to a boyyet the ambiguity lies in the fact that she is described as a "damned
fine-looking woman." While Jake is attracted to this ambiguity, Romero is repulsed by it. In keeping with his strict
moral code he wants a feminine partner and rejects Brett, among other things, because she will not grow her hair.
The Sun Also Rises
8
Anti-semitism
Mike lay on the bed looking like a death mask of himself. He opened his eyes and looked at me.
'Hello Jake' he said very slowly. 'I'm getting a little sleep. I've wanted a little sleep for a long time
....'
'You'll sleep, Mike. Don't worry, boy.'
'Brett's got a bullfighter,' Mike said. 'But her Jew has gone away .... Damned good thing, what?'
The Sun Also Rises
[61]
Hemingway has been called anti-Semitic, most notably because of the characterization of Robert Cohn in the book.
The other characters often refer to Cohn as a Jew, and once as a 'kike'.
[62]
Shunned by the other members of the
group, Cohn is characterized as "different," unable or unwilling to understand and participate in the fiesta. Cohn is
never really part of the groupseparated by his difference or his Jewishness. Critic Susan Beegel goes so far as to
claim, "Hemingway never lets the reader forget that Cohn is a Jew, not an unattractive character who happens to be a
Jew but a character who is unattractive because he is a Jew."
[63]
Hemingway critic Josephine Knopf speculates that
Hemingway might have wanted to depict Cohn as a "shlemiel" (or fool), but she points out that Cohn lacks the
characteristics of a traditional shlemiel.
[64]
Cohn is based on Harold Loeb, a fellow writer who rivaled Hemingway for the affections of Lady Duff (the real-life
inspiration for Brett). Biographer Michael Reynolds writes that in 1925, Loeb should have declined Hemingway's
invitation to join them in Pamplona. Before the trip he was Lady Duff's lover and Hemingway's friend; during the
fiasco of the fiesta, he lost Lady Duff and Hemingway's friendship. Hemingway used Loeb as the basis of a character
remembered chiefly as a "rich Jew."
[65]
Writing style
The novel is well known for its style, which is variously described as modern, hard-boiled, or understated. As a
novice writer and journalist in Paris, Hemingway turned to Ezra Poundwho had a reputation as "an unofficial
minister of culture who acted as mid-wife for new literary talent"to mark and blue-ink his short stories.
[66]
From
Pound, Hemingway learned to write in the modernist style: he used understatement, pared away sentimentalism, and
presented images and scenes without explanations of meaning, most notably at the book's conclusion, in which
multiple future possibilities are left for Brett and Jake.
[][67]
The scholar Anders Hallengren writes that because
Hemingway learned from Pound to "distrust adjectives," he created a style "in accordance with the esthetics and
ethics of raising the emotional temperature towards the level of universal truth by shutting the door on sentiment, on
the subjective."
[68]
F.Scott Fitzgerald told Hemingway to "let the book's action play itself out among its characters." Hemingway
scholar Linda Wagner-Martin writes that, in taking Fitzgerald's advice, Hemingway produced a novel without a
central narrator: "Hemingway's book was a step ahead; it was the modernist novel."
[69]
When Fitzgerald advised
Hemingway to trim at least 2500 words from the opening sequence, which was 30 pages long, Hemingway wired the
publishers telling them to cut the opening 30 pages altogether. The result was a novel without a focused starting
point, which was seen as a modern perspective and critically well received.
[70]
Each time he let the bull pass so close that the man and the bull and the cape that filled and pivoted ahead of the bull were all one sharply
etched mass. It was all so slow and so controlled. It was as though he were rocking the bull to sleep. He made four veronicas like that...
and came away toward the applause, his hand on his hip, his cape on his arm, and the bull watching his back going away.
bullfighting scene from The Sun Also Rises
[71]
Wagner-Martin speculates that Hemingway may have wanted to have a weak or negative hero as defined by Edith
Wharton, but he had no experience creating a hero or protagonist. At that point his fiction consisted of extremely
short stories, not one of which featured a hero. The hero changed during the writing of The Sun Also Rises: first the
The Sun Also Rises
9
matador was the hero, then Cohn was the hero, then Brett, and finally Hemingway realized "maybe there is not any
hero at all. Maybe a story is better without any hero."
[72]
Balassi believes that in eliminating other characters as the
protagonist, Hemingway brought Jake indirectly into the role of the novel's hero.
[73]
As a roman clef, the novel bases its characters on living people, causing scandal in the expatriate community.
Hemingway biographer Carlos Baker writes that "word-of-mouth of the book" helped sales. Parisian expatriates
gleefully tried to match the fictional characters to real identities. Moreover, he writes that Hemingway used
prototypes easily found in the Latin Quarter on which to base his characters.
[74]
The early draft identified the
characters by their living counterparts; Jake's character was called Hem, and Brett's was called Duff.
[75]
Although the novel is written in a journalistic style, Frederic Svoboda writes that the striking thing about the work is
"how quickly it moves away from a simple recounting of events."
[76]
Jackson Benson believes that Hemingway used
autobiographical details as framing devices for life in general. For example, Benson says that Hemingway drew out
his experiences with "what-if" scenarios: "what if I were wounded in such a way that I could not sleep at night?
What if I were wounded and made crazy, what would happen if I were sent back to the front?"
[77]
Hemingway
believed that the writer could describe one thing while an entirely different thing occurs below the surfacean
approach he called the iceberg theory, or the theory of omission.
[78]
If a writer of prose knows enough of what he is writing about he may omit things that he knows and the reader, if the writer is writing truly
enough, will have a feeling of those things as strongly as though the writer had stated them. The dignity of movement of an ice-berg is due
to only one-eighth of it being above water. A writer who omits things because he does not know them only makes hollow places in his
writing.
Hemingway explained the iceberg theory in Death in the Afternoon (1932).
[79]
Balassi says Hemingway applied the iceberg theory better in The Sun Also Rises than in any of his other works, by
editing extraneous material or purposely leaving gaps in the story. He made editorial remarks in the manuscript that
show he wanted to break from the stricture of Gertrude Stein's advice to use "clear restrained writing." In the earliest
draft, the novel begins in Pamplona, but Hemingway moved the opening setting to Paris because he thought the
Montparnasse life was necessary as a counterpoint to the later action in Spain. He wrote of Paris extensively,
intending "not to be limited by the literary theories of others, [but] to write in his own way, and possibly, to fail."
[80]
He added metaphors for each character: Mike's money problems, Brett's association with the Circe myth, Robert's
association with the segregated steer.
[81]
It wasn't until the revision process that he pared down the story, taking out
unnecessary explanations, minimizing descriptive passages, and stripping the dialogue, all of which created a
"complex but tightly compressed story."
[82]
Hemingway said that he learned what he needed as a foundation for his writing from the style sheet for The Kansas
City Star, where he worked as cub reporter.
[83][84]
The critic John Aldridge says that the minimalist style resulted
from Hemingway's belief that to write authentically, each word had to be carefully chosen for its simplicity and
authenticity and carry a great deal of weight. Aldridge writes that Hemingway's style "of a minimum of simple
words that seemed to be squeezed onto the page against a great compulsion to be silent, creates the impression that
those wordsif only because there are so few of themare sacramental."
[85]
In Paris Hemingway had been
experimenting with the prosody of the King James Bible, reading aloud with his friend John Dos Passos. From the
style of the biblical text, he learned to build his prose incrementally; the action in the novel builds sentence by
sentence, scene by scene and chapter by chapter.
The Sun Also Rises
10
Paul Czanne, L'Estaque, Melting Snow, c. 1871. Writer Ronald
Berman draws comparison between Czanne's treatment of this
landscape and the way Hemingway imbues the Irati River with
emotional texture. In both, the landscape is a subjective element
seen differently by each character.
[86]
The simplicity of his style is deceptive. Bloom writes that
it is the effective use of parataxis that elevates
Hemingway's prose. Drawing on the Bible, Walt
Whitman and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn,
Hemingway wrote in deliberate understatement and he
heavily incorporated parataxis, which in some cases
almost becomes cinematic.
[87]
His skeletal sentences
were crafted in response to Henry James's observation
that World WarI had "used up words," explains
Hemingway scholar Zoe Trodd, who writes that his style
is similar to a "multi-focal" photographic reality. The
syntax, which lacks subordinating conjunctions, creates
static sentences. The photographic "snapshot" style
creates a collage of images. Hemingway omits internal
punctuation (colons, semicolons, dashes, parentheses) in
favor of short declarative sentences, which are meant to
build, as events build, to create a sense of the whole. He
also uses techniques analogous to cinema, such as cutting quickly from one scene to the next, or splicing one scene
into another. Intentional omissions allow the reader to fill the gap as though responding to instructions from the
author and create three-dimensional prose.
[88]
Biographer James Mellow writes that the bullfighting scenes are
presented with a crispness and clarity that evoke the sense of a newsreel.
[89]
Hemingway also uses color and visual art techniques to convey emotional range in his descriptions of the Irati River.
In Translating Modernism: Fitzgerald and Hemingway, Ronald Berman compares Hemingway's treatment of
landscape with that of the post-Impressionist painter Paul Czanne. During a 1949 interview, Hemingway told
Lillian Ross that he learned from Czanne how to "make a landscape." In comparing writing to painting he told her,
"This is what we try to do in writing, this and this, and woods, and the rocks we have to climb over."
[90]
The
landscape is seen subjectivelythe viewpoint of the observer is paramount.
[91]
To Jake, landscape "meant a search
for a solid form.... not existentially present in [his] life in Paris."
Reception
Hemingway's first novel was arguably his best and most important and came to be seen as an iconic modernist novel,
although Reynolds emphasizes that Hemingway was not philosophically a modernist.
[92]
In the book, his characters
epitomized the post-war expatriate generation for future generations.
[93]
He had received good reviews for his
volume of short stories, In Our Time, of which Edmund Wilson wrote, "Hemingway's prose was of the first
distinction." Wilson's comments were enough to bring attention to the young writer.
[94]
No amount of analysis can convey the quality of The Sun Also Rises. It is a truly gripping story, told in a lean, hard, athletic narrative prose
that puts more literary English to shame. Mr. Hemingway knows how not only to make words be specific but how to arrange a collection of
words which shall betray a great deal more than is to be found in the individual parts. It is magnificent writing.
The New York Times review of The Sun Also Rises, 31October1926.
[95]
Good reviews came in from many major publications. Conrad Aiken wrote in the New York Herald Tribune, "If
there is a better dialogue to be written today I do not know where to find it"; and Bruce Barton wrote in The Atlantic
that Hemingway "writes as if he had never read anybody's writing, as if he had fashioned the art of writing himself,"
and that the characters "are amazingly real and alive."
[]
Many reviewers, among them H.L. Mencken, praised
Hemingway's style, use of understatement, and tight writing.
[96]
The Sun Also Rises
11
Other critics, however, disliked the novel. The Nation's critic believed Hemingway's hard-boiled style was better
suited to the short stories published in In Our Time than his novel. Writing in the New Masses, Hemingway's friend
John Dos Passos asked: "What's the matter with American writing these days?.... The few unsad young men of this
lost generation will have to look for another way of finding themselves than the one indicated here." Privately he
wrote Hemingway an apology for the review. The reviewer for the Chicago Daily Tribune wrote of the novel, "The
Sun Also Rises is the kind of book that makes this reviewer at least almost plain angry."
[97]
Some reviewers disliked
the characters, among them the reviewer for The Dial, who thought the characters were shallow and vapid; and The
Nation and Atheneum deemed the characters boring and the novel unimportant. The reviewer for The Cincinnati
Enquirer wrote of the book that it "begins nowhere and ends in nothing."
Hemingway's family hated it. His mother, Grace Hemingway, distressed that she could not face the criticism at her
local book study classwhere it was said that her son was "prostituting a great ability.... to the lowest
uses"expressed her displeasure in a letter to him:
The critics seem to be full of praise for your style and ability to draw word pictures but the decent ones
always regret that you should use such great gifts in perpetuating the lives and habits of so degraded a
strata of humanity.... It is a doubtful honor to produce one of the filthiest books of the year.... What is
the matter? Have you ceased to be interested in nobility, honor and fineness in life?.... Surely you have
other words in your vocabulary than "damn" and "bitch"Every page fills me with a sick loathing.
[98]
Still, the book sold well, and young women began to emulate Brett while male students at Ivy League universities
wanted to become "Hemingway heroes." Scribner's encouraged the publicity and allowed Hemingway to "become a
minor American phenomenon"a celebrity to the point that his divorce from Richardson and marriage to Pfieffer
attracted media attention.
[99]
Reynolds believes The Sun Also Rises could only have been written in 1925: it perfectly captured the period between
World WarI and the Great Depression, and immortalized a group of characters.
[100]
In the years since its
publication, the novel has been criticized for its anti-Semitism, as expressed in the characterization of Robert Cohn.
Reynolds explains that although the publishers complained to Hemingway about his description of bulls, they
allowed his use of Jewish epithets, which showed the degree to which anti-Semitism was accepted in the US after
World WarI. Cohn represented the Jewish establishment and contemporary readers would have understood this from
his description. Hemingway clearly makes Cohn unlikeable not only as a character but as a character who is
Jewish.
[101]
Critics of the 1970s and 1980s considered Hemingway to be misogynistic and homophobic; by the
1990s his work, including The Sun Also Rises, began to receive critical reconsideration by female scholars.
[102]
Legacy and adaptations
Hemingway's work continued to be popular in the latter half of the century and after his suicide in 1961. During the
1970s, The Sun Also Rises appealed to what Beegel calls the lost generation of the Vietnam era.
[103]
Aldridge writes
that The Sun Also Rises has kept its appeal because the novel is about being young. The characters live in the most
beautiful city in the world, spend their days traveling, fishing, drinking, making love, and generally reveling in their
youth. He believes the expatriate writers of the 1920s appeal for this reason, but that Hemingway was the most
successful in capturing the time and the place in The Sun Also Rises.
[104]
Bloom says that some of the characters have not stood the test of time, writing that modern readers are
uncomfortable with the anti-semitic treatment of Cohn's character and the romanticization of a bullfighter. Moreover,
Brett and Mike belong uniquely to the Jazz Age and do not translate to the modern era. Bloom believes the novel is
in the canon of American literature for its formal qualities: its prose and style.
[105]
The novel made Hemingway famous, inspired young ladies across America to wear short hair and sweater sets like
the heroine'sand to act like her tooand changed writing style in ways that could be seen in any American
magazine published in the next twenty years. In many ways, the novel's stripped-down prose became a model for
20th-century American writing. Nagel writes that "The Sun Also Rises was a dramatic literary event and its effects
The Sun Also Rises
12
have not diminished over the years."
[106]
The success of The Sun Also Rises guaranteed interest from Broadway and Hollywood. In 1927 two Broadway
producers wanted to adapt the story for the stage but made no immediate offers. Hemingway considered marketing
the story directly to Hollywood, telling his editor Max Perkins that he would not sell it for less than $30,000money
he wanted his estranged wife Hadley Richardson to have. Conrad Aiken thought the book was perfect for a film
adaptation solely on the strength of dialogue. Hemingway would not see a stage or film adaption anytime soon:
[107]
he sold the film rights to RKO Pictures in 1932,
[108]
but only in 1956 was the novel adapted to a film of the same
name. Peter Viertel wrote the screenplay. Tyrone Power as Jake played the lead role opposite Ava Gardner as Brett
and Errol Flynn as Mike. The royalties went to Richardson.
[109]
Hemingway wrote more books about bullfighting: Death in the Afternoon was published in 1932 and The Dangerous
Summer was published posthumously in 1985. His depictions of Pamplona, beginning with The Sun Also Rises,
helped to popularize the annual running of the bulls at the Festival of St. Fermin.
[110]
Notes
[1] [1] Meyers (1985), 192
[2] [2] Wagner-Martin (1990), 1
[3] Meyers (1985), 9899
[4] Meyers (1985), 117119
[5] [5] Balassi (1990), 128
[6] [6] Meyers (1985), 189
[7] [7] Balassi (1990), 132, 142, 146
[8] Reynolds (1989), vivii
[9] [9] Meyers (1985), 172
[10] [10] Baker (1972), 44
[11] Mellow (1992), 338340
[12] Mellow (1992), 317321
[13] Baker (1972), 76, 3034
[14] The Torrents of Spring has little scholarly criticism as it is considered to be of less importance than Hemingway's subsequent work. See
Oliver (1999), 330
[15] [15] Oliver (1999), 318
[16] [16] qtd. in Leff (1999), 51
[17] [17] Leff (1999), 75
[18] [18] White (1969), iv
[19] [19] Reynolds (1999), 154
[20] McDowell, Edwin, "Hemingway's Status Revives Among Scholars and Readers". (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ books/ 99/ 07/ 04/ specials/
hemingway-revives.html) The New York Times (July 26, 1983). Retrieved 27 February 2011
[21] "Books at Random House" (http:/ / www. randomhouse. co. uk/ catalog/ results. htm). Random House. Retrieved 31 May 2011.
[22] "Hemingway books coming out in audio editions" (http:/ / msnbc. msn. com/ id/ 11368532/ site/ todayshow/ ns/ today-entertainment/ )
MSNBC.com (February 15, 2006). Retrieved 27 February 2011.
[23] Reynolds (1990), 4849
[24] Oliver (1999), 316318
[25] [25] Hemingway may have used the term as an early title for the novel, according to biographer James Mellow. The term originated from a
remark in French made to Gertrude Stein by the owner of a garage, speaking of those who went to war: "C'est une gnration perdue"
(literally, "they are a lost generation"). See Mellow (1992), 309
[26] [26] Meyers (1985), 191
[27] [27] Baker (1972), 82
[28] Wagner-Martin (1990), 69
[29] Reynolds (1990), 6263
[30] Reynolds (1990), 4550
[31] Reynolds (1990), 6063
[32] Reynolds (1990), 5859
[33] Nagel (1996), 9496
[34] [34] Daiker (2009), 74
[35] Nagel (1996), 99103
[36] [36] Meyers (1985), 190
The Sun Also Rises
13
[37] [37] Fore (2007), 80
[38] Fiedler (1975), 345365
[39] [39] Baym (1990), 112
[40] [40] qtd. in Reynolds (1990), 60
[41] [41] Daiker (2009), 80
[42] [42] Donaldson (2002), 82
[43] [43] Daiker (2009), 83
[44] Reynolds (1989), 323324
[45] Mller (2010), 3132
[46] [46] Kinnamon (2002), 128
[47] [47] Josephs (1987), 158
[48] Stoltzfus (2005), 215218
[49] [49] Reynolds (1989), 320
[50] [50] Josephs (1987), 163
[51] [51] Bloom (2007), 31
[52] Djos (1995), 6568
[53] [53] Balassi (1990), 145
[54] Reynolds (1990), 5657
[55] Elliot (1995), 8082
[56] Elliot (1995), 8688
[57] [57] Elliot (1995), 87
[58] [58] Mellow (1992), 312
[59] [59] Davidson (1990), 97
[60] [60] Fore (2007), 75
[61] [61] Hemingway (2006 ed), 214
[62] [62] Oliver (1999), 270
[63] [63] Beegel (1996), 288
[64] Knopf (1987), 6869
[65] [65] Reynolds (1989), 297
[66] Meyers (1985), 7074
[67] [67] Hemingway wrote a fragment of an unpublished sequel in which he has Jake and Brett meeting in the Dingo Bar in Paris. With Brett is Mike
Campbell. See Daiker (2009), 85
[68] Hallengren, Anders. "A Case of Identity: Ernest Hemingway" (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ literature/ laureates/ 1954/
hemingway-article. html), Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
[69] [69] Wagner-Martin (2002), 7
[70] Wagner-Martin (1990), 1112
[71] [71] Hemingway (2006 ed), 221
[72] [72] qtd. in Balassi (1990), 138
[73] [73] Balassi (1990), 138
[74] [74] Baker (1987), 11
[75] [75] Mellow (1992), 303
[76] [76] Svoboda (1983), 9
[77] [77] Benson (1989), 351
[78] Oliver (1999), 321322
[79] [79] qtd. in Oliver (1999), 322
[80] [80] Balassi (1990), 136
[81] Balassi (1990), 125, 136, 139141
[82] [82] Balassi (1990), 150; Svoboda (1983), 44
[83] [83] "Use short sentences. Use short first paragraphs. Use vigorous English. Be positive, not negative."
[84] "Star style and rules for writing" (http:/ / www.kcstar. com/ hemingway/ ehstarstyle. shtml). The Kansas City Star. KansasCity.com.
Retrieved 15 April 2011.
[85] [85] Aldridge (1990), 126
[86] [86] Berman (2011), 59
[87] Bloom (1987), 78
[88] [88] Trodd (2007), 8
[89] [89] Mellow (1992), 311
[90] [90] Berman (2011), 52
[91] [91] Berman (2011), 55
[92] [92] Wagner-Martin (1990), 1, 15; Reynolds (1990), 46
The Sun Also Rises
14
[93] [93] Mellow (1992), 302
[94] Wagner-Martin (2002), 45
[95] "The Sun Also Rises" (http:/ / www.nytimes. com/ books/ 99/ 07/ 04/ specials/ hemingway-rises. html). (October 31, 1926) The New York
Times. Retrieved 13 March 2011.
[96] Wagner-Martin (2002), 12
[97] [97] qtd. in Wagner-Martin (1990), 1
[98] [98] qtd. in Reynolds (1998), 53
[99] [99] Leff (1999), 63
[100] [100] Reynolds (1990), 43
[101] Reynolds (1990), 5355
[102] [102] Bloom (2007), 28; Beegel (1996), 282
[103] [103] Beegel (1996), 281
[104] Aldridge (1990), 122123
[105] Bloom (1987), 56
[106] [106] Nagel (1996), 87
[107] [107] Leff (1999), 64
[108] [108] Leff (1999), 156
[109] [109] Reynolds (1999), 293
[110] Palin, Michael. "Lifelong Aficionado" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ hemingwayadventure/ spain. html) and "San Fermn Festival" (http:/ / www.
pbs. org/ hemingwayadventure/ pamplona. html). in Michael Palin's Hemingway Adventure. PBS.org. Retrieved 23 May 2011.
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16
External links
Hemingway Archives (http:/ / www. jfklibrary. org/ Research/ The-Ernest-Hemingway-Collection. aspx), John F.
Kennedy Library
The Sun Also Rises: Bibliography (http:/ / public. wsu. edu/ ~campbelld/ amlit/ hemingwaytsarbib. htm),
Washington State University
Article Sources and Contributors
17
Article Sources and Contributors
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:HemingwayLoeb.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HemingwayLoeb.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Not specified, owned by John F. Kennedy Presidential
Library and Museum, Boston
File:Ernest Hadley and Bumby Hemingway.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ernest_Hadley_and_Bumby_Hemingway.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors:
Not specified, owned by John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston
File:GertrudeStein JackHemingway Paris.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GertrudeStein_JackHemingway_Paris.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Not
specified, held by John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston
File:Ernest Hemingway, Paris, 1924.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ernest_Hemingway,_Paris,_1924.jpg License: anonymous-EU Contributors: Not specified,
owned by John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston
File:Hemingway bullfighting cropped.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hemingway_bullfighting_cropped.png License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SreeBot
File:Goya Pedro Romero (Tauromaquia Plate 30).png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Goya_Pedro_Romero_(Tauromaquia_Plate_30).png License: Public Domain
Contributors: Victoriaearle
File:Paul Czanne 146.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Paul_Czanne_146.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Boo-Boo Baroo, Bukk, EDUCA33E, Lna,
Olivier, Rlbberlin
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