Elements of Masonry Design

Scranton, Pa.
El ements of
Masonr y Desi gn
PREPARED ESPECIALLY FOR HOME STUDY
By
I. C. S. STAFF
IN COLLABORATION WITH
C. E. OROURKE, C. E.
PROFESSOR OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING, CORNELL UNIVERSITY
3404 EDITION 1
Copyright, 1936, by I n t e r n a t i o n a l T e x t b o o k Co m p a n y . Copyright in Great
Britain. All rights reserved
Printed in U. S. A.
3404
ELEMENTS OF MASONRY DESIGN
Serial 3404 Edition 1
STRESSES IN MASONRY
INTRODUCTION
1. Classes of Masonry.A structure that is built either of
stone or of manufactured stone-like materials, such as concrete,
brick, or hollow clay tile, is known as a masonry structure.
Thus, masonry may be classified according to the materials
used as stone masonry, concrete masonry, brick masonry, or
hollow-tile masonry.
In stone masonry, blocks of stone of comparatively large
size are fitted in place and are usually held together by port-
land-cement mortar or cement-lime mortar. Although the
blocks used in stone masonry have a wide variety of shapes
and sizes, all stone masonry may be divided into two general
classes, namely, ashlar and rubble. The masonry is classed
as ashlar when the stones are cut so accurately and are laid so
carefully that the mortar joints are not more than \ inch thick.
The stone blocks in rubble masonry either are of irregular
shape or are not laid with sufficient accuracy to meet the
requirements of ashlar.
Concrete consists of comparatively small particles of crushed
stone, gravel, or blast-furnace slag that are bound together by
cement mortar. Concrete may be either plain or reinforced
with steel bars or other shapes.
Brick masonry, or brickwork, is similar to ashlar masonry,
but the bricks are much smaller than the stone blocks and the
thickness of the mortar joints usually does not exceed J inch.
Also, in brick masonry, lime mortar, as well as portland-
COPYRIGHTED BY I NTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COM PA N Y. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
2 ELEMENTS OF MASONRY DESIGN
cement and cement-lime mortar, is employed. Brick masonry
may be reinforced with steel bars, in which case it is called
reinforced brick masonry.
Concrete blocks or clay-tile blocks laid in mortar are fre
quently used for walls in buildings. Such blocks are made
hollow in order to reduce their weight and to provide an air
space in the walls. The faces of the blocks are essentially
plane and rectangular, but the surfaces may be grooved to
improve the adhesion of the mortar.
2. Comparison of Masonry With Other Structural Mate
rials.It is comparatively easy to give a masonry structure a
pleasing appearance. Masonry structures that are built of
good material, and are properly designed and erected, are very
durable and fairly fireproof. On the other hand, metal struc
tures are subject to rust and timber structures are subject to
decay, and structures of either material are seriously affected
by fire. Masonry, unlike steel and timber, is not suited for
resisting tensile stresses and should preferably be subjected
only to direct compression. Also, to carry a given compressive
stress safely, a masonry member must be considerably larger
than a metal one and somewhat larger than a timber one.
3. Uses of Different Kinds of Masonry.Concrete is
usually the most economical kind of masonry for retaining
walls, bridge piers, foundations, and tunnels. The facility
with which concrete is placed accounts to a large extent for its
extensive usage. Stone masonry is employed where special
architectural treatment is desired or where permanence is of
vital importance. In localities near stone quarries where
suitable material for stone masonry is available, the cost of
preparing and laying large blocks of stone is often less than the
cost of making and placing concrete. Brickwork is used
extensively for the walls of buildings and for special purposes,
such as the lining of large sewers. Concrete blocks and terra
cotta blocks are especially adapted to wall and floor construc
tion.
ELEMENTS OF MASONRY DESIGN 3
WORKING STRESSES FOR MASONRY
4. Introductory Remarks.In the design of any masonry
member, it is assumed that the masonry is monolithic; that is,
the entire member is treated as a single piece of homogeneous
material. The same general method of procedure is followed
for all classes of masonry without reinforcement. Except for
the explanations dealing with reinforced brick masonry at the
end of this text, the general principles that are here presented
apply to plain concrete, stone masonry, unreinforced brick
work, and concrete-block and terra-cotta masonry. Rein-
forced-concrete design is taken up in separate texts.
5. General Characteristics of Masonry.Masonry is fairly
strong in compression, but is weak in shear and has practically
no strength in tension. Nevertheless, masonry is sometimes
used in walls subjected to horizontal thrust and has to resist
shear, or it is employed to span an opening and is subjected to
both flexural and shearing stresses. When masonry is to
resist flexural stresses, it should be laid with special care. It
should not be subjected to direct tension.
The strength of masonry depends on the quality of the
materials used and on the workmanship, or the care with which
the materials are handled and placed. Ordinarily, the blocks in
masonryincluding the coarse aggregate in concretehave
more strength than the mortar, and therefore the strength of
the mortar and the adhesion between the blocks and the mortar
are important factors. The quality of concrete is generally
specified by its ultimate compressive strength at the age of 28
days. For example, concrete which has a crushing strength of
2,000 pounds per square inch at the age of 28 days is called
2,000-pound concrete.
6. Allowable Compressive Strength of Masonry.Average
values of the strength of masonry under various kinds of stress
are merely rough approximations and may differ considerably
from the values obtained in a test of a particular specimen.
In most of the larger cities in the United States, the allowable
pressures on masonry are specified by the local building laws,
4
the values differing widely in the various cities. When the
design is not governed by any law and there are no definite
specifications concerning the strength of the masonry to be
used, the working unit pressures given in Table I may be
employed. These values will be used in all problems in this
text.
TABLE I
WEIGHTS AND ALLOWABLE PRESSURES FOR MASONRY
Type of Masonry
Allowable Pressure, in Pounds
per Square Inch Weight
in
Pounds
per
Cubic
Foot
Portland-
Cement
Mortar
Cement-
Lime
Mortar
Lime
Mortar
Brickwork....................................... 175 140 75
120
Ashlar stonework:
Granite........................................ 800 640 400
168
Limestone................................... 500 400 250
168
Sandstone................................... 400 320 160
144
Rubble stonework:
Granite........................................ 140 100 156
Limestone................................... 140 100 156
Sandstone................................... 140 100 132
Hollow blocks or tiles:
Concrete...................................... 80 70 72
Terra-cotta................................. 80 70 . - . 60
Concrete, 2,000-pound at
28 days........................................ 500 144
7. Allowable Shearing and Tensile Strength of Masonry.
For shear without diagonal tension, the allowable shearing unit
stress in stone masonry may be assumed to be about one-
quarter of the allowable compressive unit stress. The safe
strength of concrete in shear is generally taken as about 6 per
cent of the ultimate compressive strength at the age of 28 days.
In determining the resistance to diagonal tension, the safe shear
ing strength of stone masonry may be assumed as about 30
pounds per square inch, and that of concrete as 2 per cent of
the ultimate 28-day compressive strength.
The tensile strength of stone masonry should not be taken
as more than 15 pounds per square inch when portland-cement
mortar is used nor more than 5 pounds when lime mortar is
employed. However, many engineers disregard entirely the
tensile strength of stone masonry, and use a solid block of
stone or concrete whenever transverse stresses are to be resisted,
as in spanning openings. The tensile strength of 2,000-pound
concrete may be taken as 40 pounds per square inch.
TABLE II
ALLOWABLE STRESSES IN STONE BLOCKS
Allowable Stresses, in Pounds per Square Inch
Material
Bearing Flexure Shear
Granite........... 1,000 150 200
Limestone___ 700 125 150
Sandstone.. . . 400 75 150
8. Allowable Stresses for Solid Blocks of Stone.A
masonry member that is subjected primarily to flexural stresses
generally consists of a single block of stone or concrete. In
some cases, the bearing strength of the block is also important.
Average values of the allowable stresses for single blocks of
stone are given in Table II; those for concrete have been
specified in the preceding articles.
MASONRY PIERS
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
9. Limitations of Masonry Piers.Brickwork, stone
masonry, plain concrete, or hollow-block masonry, or a com
bination of two or more of these materials, is frequently used
for the construction of short masonry piers that carry central
loads. When the load on a masonry pier has considerable
eccentricity or the height of the pier is comparatively great,
reinforced masonry should preferably be used.
Brick is the material that is generally used in buildings for
masonry piers where metal reinforcement is not required.
Concrete is just as satisfactory as brick from the standpoint of
service, but the cost of forms often makes the use of plain con
crete uneconomical for piers. It is commonly specified that
isolated piers in the interior of a building should not be built
of stone masonry, because of the tendency of natural stone to
Spall under great heat; and that in fireproof or semi-fireproof
construction isolated piers should not be built of hollow-block
masonry.
The provisions of the various codes in regard to the design
of masonry piers differ greatly, but the recommendations in the
following articles may be considered to represent good practice.
10. Causes of Failure of Masonry Piers.If a very short
block of plain concrete is subjected to sufficient pressure, it may
fail by crushing, but a plain-concrete pier whose height exceeds
its width usually fails by shearing along an inclined plane. A
brick pier generally fails by longitudinal splitting and sidewise
bulging of the masonry, as a result of failure of the individual
bricks either in tension or in flexure and the pulling apart of
the joints; neither the brick nor the mortar is crushed. For
best results, the mortar joints should be as thin as possible and
of uniform thickness. Also, the bricks should preferably be
laid on edge and the vertical joints should be continuous
through several courses instead of being staggered in each two
adjacent courses. No experimental data are available on the
crushing strength of stone masonry under the conditions
existing in an actual structure. However, the mortar is known
to be the weakest element in good ashlar masonry, and the
strongest stonework is obtained by using large blocks and thin
joints.
11. Brick Piers.A brick pier whose height is not more
than six times its least width may be considered a short post;
therefore, no reduction in the allowable compressive unit
stress, given in Table I, need be made because of the effect of
the height. For piers whose height exceeds six times the
width, the allowable unit stress should be reduced. A good
formula for determining the reduced unit stress is
f - f ' ( 125- T o V
in which / = allowable unit stress for high pier, in pounds per
square inch;
/ i = allowable unit stress for masonry, as given in
Table I, in pounds per square inch;
h = height of pier, in inches;
6= least width of pier, in inches.
The least width of a brick pier should never be less than
one-twelfth of the height; in the case of an isolated pier, it
should not be less than one-tenth
of the height. Also, no pier over
8 feet high should be less than
12 inches square in cross-section.
Standard bricks are 8 inches long
and 3f inches wide and the mortar
joints between bricks are generally
about \ inch thick, but the width
of brickwork varies somewhat. In
estimating the strength of brick
work, it is best to assume that the width is a multiple of 4 inches.
But, in considering the weight of brickwork or the space occu
pied by it, the actual width should be determined as closely
as possible.
Basemen? F l oor
Fi g . 1
Ex a mpl e .If a pier constructed of brick laid in portland-cement
mortar is to be 20 inches square in cross-section and is to have a height
of 12 feet, what allowable unit stress should be used?
h 12X12
So l u t i o n .The ratio of the height to the width is - = , = 7.2.
Since this is greater than 6, the allowable unit stress should be less than
the value 175 lb. per sq. in. given in Table I for this class of masonry.
Thus,
/ = / i ( l . 2 5 gg|) =175X ( l. 25^ X 7 . 2 ) =156 lb. per sq. in. Ans.
12. Plain-Concrete Piers.In Fig. 1 is illustrated a con
dition in building construction for which a plain-concrete pier
is commonly used. Here, the footing is some distance below
the basement floor, and the plain-concrete pier, or pedestal, p
is introduced between the footing and the reinforced-concrete
column that is above the floor. The least width of such a
pedestal should not be less than one-third of its depth or height,
because the pedestal transfers the total column load to the
footing and is therefore heavily loaded.
Where a plain-concrete pier is used for any other purpose,
the least width should not be less than one-quarter of the
height.
13. Stone Piers.Stone piers are satisfactory for the sup
port of heavy loads when good strong stone is laid in courses
covering the entire cross-section. The top and bottom courses
should be bedded true and even, the thickness of the joints
should not be more than inch, and the mortar should be kept
back 1 inch from the face of the pier to prevent spalling, or
breaking off, of the edges of the blocks.
The least width of a pier of ashlar masonry should not be
less than one-tenth of the height; and, where the height exceeds
six times the width, the allowable unit stress should be deter
mined by the formula of Art. 11. The width of a rubble pier
should be not less than one-fifth of its height nor less than 20
inches.
PIERS WITH CENTRAL LOADS
14. Unit Stress for Central Load.When the resultant load
on a pier is applied centrally, the stress in the pier is assumed
to be uniformly distributed over the area of the cross-section.
Thus, p
H r (I)
in which/=unit stress, in pounds per square inch;
P = resultant load on pier, in pounds;
A = cross-sectional area of pier, in square inches.
Piers of brick, stone, or hollow-block masonry are usually
square or rectangular in section, and plain-concrete piers are
square, rectangular, or circular. If the section of the pier is a
rectangle whose dimensions in inches are denoted by b and d,
the area is bd and p
When the actual unit stress in a pier is less than the allow
able value for the material, the pier is considered to be safe.
Ex a mpl e .A vertical load of 350,000 pounds, in addition to the
weight of the pier itself, is to be applied at the center of a 20" X24" rectan
gular pier 8 feet high that is built of granite ashlar laid in portland-cement
mortar. If the allowable unit stress is as given in Table I, is the pier
satisfactory?
So l u t i o n .The unit stress due to the load of 350,000 lb. is, by
formula 2,
* P 350,000 0 1U
20X24 = 729lb- perSq- m'
The unit stress, in lb. per sq. in., produced at the base of the pier by its
own weight is the weight of a prism of masonry 1 sq. in., or sq. ft., in
cross-section and 8 ft. high. This stress is
-j-gX8X168 = 9 lb. per sq. in.
and the total stress is 729+9 = 738 lb. per sq. in.
8X12
The ratio of the height to the least width is =4. 8, which is less
than 6, and the safe unit stress is as given in Table I, or 800 lb. per
sq. in. Since this is greater than the actual unit stress, the pier is satis
factory. Ans.
15. Safe Central Load on Pier.The total central load
that can be supported safely by a pier is equal to the product
of the allowable unit stress for the material and the cross-
sectional area of the pier. If / represents the allowable unit
stress, and the other letters have the same meanings as in the
preceding article,
P=fA (1)
or, for a rectangular section,
P=fbd (2)
Ex a mpl e .A pier built of brick laid in lime mortar is 16 inches square
and 10 feet high. What central load can the pier safely support, in
addition to its own weight, if the allowable stress for brickwork is as
specified in Table I?
h 10 VI2
So l u t i o n .The ratio of the height to the width is ^ =7.5,
and the allowable unit stress should be found by the formula of Art. 11.
From Table I, the value o f / i for brick in lime mortar is 75 lb. per sq. in.
Hence,
/ = / i ( 1 - 2 5 - ^ f ) =75X ( l . 2 6 - ^ X 7 . 5 ) =66 lb. per sq. in.
The unit stress produced by the weight of the pier itself is j ^ - X 10
X120 = 8 lb. per sq. in., and the remaining unit stress is 66 8 = 58 lb.
per sq. in.
In formula 2, / = 58 lb. per sq. in. and b = d16 in.; hence, the safe
superimposed load on the pier is
P = / M = 58X16X16 = 14,850 lb. Ans.
16. Design of Pier Carrying Central Load.The required
cross-sectional area of a pier carrying a central load is found by
dividing the load by the safe unit stress. Thus,
The ratio of the height to the least width of the pier must not
be excessive. Also, for a brick pier, the dimensions must be
multiples of 4 inches. In case the height of a brick or stone
pier is found to exceed six times its width, allowance must be
made for the reduced unit stress. Since the value of / in the
formula of Art. 11 depends on the width b, which is not known
until the required area is established, it is necessary first to
determine the area and dimensions on the assumption that the
ratio of the height to the width is less than 6. However, the
value of / used for the first trial should be taken as the differ
ence between the allowable unit stress for a short pier and the
unit stress produced by the weight of the pier itself. Then, if
h
the ratio 7- exceeds 6, the corrected total allowable unit stress
b
is computed by the formula of Art. 11, and this value is reduced
to allow for the weight of the pier. The area is then deter
mined for the net value thus established and, if necessary, the
section is redesigned. If the least width is changed, the cal
culations for the allowable unit stress / and the required
cross-sectional area A should be repeated.
E x a m p l e 1.A circular pier o f 2,000-pound concrete, 6 feet high, is
to carry a central load of 180,000 pounds. What is the required diameter,
to the next larger inch?
So l u t i o n .-From Table I, the allowable unit stress is 500 lb. per sq.
in., and the stress due to the weight of the pier is j p -X6X144 = 6 lb. per
sq. in. Then, the first trial area of the cross-section is taken as
, P 180,000
A = - r = - =364 sq. in.
/ 494 n
V
364
jjygg = 21.5, say 22 in. For this size, the
6X12
ratio of the height to the diameter is = 3.3, which is less than 4.
Therefore, the diameter of 22 in. is satisfactory. Ans.
Ex a mpl e 2.A pier of brick laid in portland-cement mortar is to
carry a central load of 32,000 pounds. If the height of the pier is to be
9 feet 6 inches and its cross-section is to be square or nearly square, what
should be the dimensions of the cross-section?
So l u t i o n .First, the approximate cross-sectional area is determined
by assuming that the allowable unit stress is 175 r r j X 9.5X120 = 175
8 = 167 lb. per sq. in. Then,
. P 32,000 lno
A = j = ~ - = lQ2 sq. in.
h 114
A 12"X16" pier has an area of 192 sq. in., but for this size -^= ^ - = 9.5
and, by the formula of Art. 11,
/ = / i ( l . 2 5 - i D =175X ( l . 2 5 - | j X 9 . 5 ) = 136 lb. per sq. in.
A more accurate value of the required area is
. 32,000
^=TM--ir250sq- in-
and a 12"X16" pier is too small. A 16"X16" pier will obviously be
h
satisfactory, as its area is 256 sq. in., and the ratio r will be reduced to
114
-jjr = 7.1 and the tequired area will be much less than 250 sq. in. Hence,
the pier should be 16 in. square. Ans.
EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE
1. A pedestal of 2,000-pound concrete that is 3 feet high and 24 inches
square in cross-section is required to support a central load of 280,000
pounds in addition to its own weight, (a) What unit stress is produced?
(5) Is the pier safe according to Table I? , f (a) 489 lb. per sq. in.
1(6) Yes
2. What superimposed central load can safely be placed on a 20-inch
square pier of limestone ashlar laid in portland-cement mortar, if the
height of the pier is 12 feet? Ans. 172,400 lb.
3. A rectangular pier of 2,000-pound concrete is to be 8 feet high and
30 inches wide. What should be its other dimension if it has to support
a central load of 500,000 pounds? Ans. 34 in.
4. A square pier built of brick laid in cement-lime mortar is to carry
a central load of 15,000 pounds. If the height of the pier is to be 8 feet
8 inches, what should be the dimensions of its cross-section?
Ans. 12 in. X 12 in.
PIERS WITH ECCENTRIC VERTICAL LOADS
17. Investigation for Unit Stress.A masonry pier is some
times subjected to an eccentric load, and the stress on the pier
is then not uniform. In Fig. 2 (a) is shown a part elevation,
and in view (b) a cross-section, of a rectangular pier subjected
to a load P that is eccentric in only one direction. As indi
cated in view (b), the load acts along the center line that is
parallel to the face AB of the
pier but has an eccentricity e
with respect to the center line
parallel to AD. The stress
produced in the pier by such
loading is the same that would
be produced by an imaginary
central load P and a bending
moment Pe.
a
a
2 ,
a
2
Fi g . 2
If the dimensions of the pier section are b and d, respectively,
the compressive unit stress due to the imaginary central load
p
would be This stress would be uniformly distributed over
the section, as represented by the area mnop in view (a). The
assumed bending moment Pe would produce flexural unit
stresses varying at a uniform rate from a maximum compres
sive unit stress at the edge BC to a maximum tensile unit stress
at the edge AD of the cross-section. These flexural unit
stresses are represented by the triangles fgo and hgp in view (a).
Since the section modulus of a rectangle is fed2, the flexural
unit stresses at the edges BC and AD are each equal to Pe-r-
6 Pb
A bd2=-nf- The total unit stress at any point in the section
far
P
is the resultant of the uniformly distributed stress and the
flexural unit stress at that point. Hence, the eccentric load
P produces at the edge BC, which is nearer to the load, a maxi-
Similarly, the minimum resultant stress which occurs at the
edge AD farther from the load, is
In these formulas/ = maximum unit stress, in pounds per
square inch, at edge of pier that is
nearer the load and perpendicular to
the direction of eccentricity;
P = eccentric load, in pounds;
b = dimension of pier section, in inches,
measured at right angles to eccentricity
of load;
d = dimension of pier section, in inches,
measured in direction of eccentricity;
e = eccentricity of load, in inches;
/ ' = minimum unit stress, in pounds per
square inch, at edge of pier that is
farther from the load and perpendicular
to the direction of eccentricity.
If the value of / ' for a particular loading is positive, the stress
throughout the pier is compressive, and only the stress / is of
interest in considering the strength of the pier. However, if
f is negative, the resultant stress at the edge of the section
farther from the load is tensile and, since masonry is much
stronger in compression than in tension, the stresses at both
edges of the section are important.
E x a m p l e .A masonry pier that is 20 in. X 24 in. in cross-section
supports a total resultant load, including its own weight, of 160,000
pounds, which acts midway between the 24-inch faces and at a distance of
9 inches from one of the 20-inch faces, or with an eccentricity of 3 inches
measured in the direction of the 24-inch dimension. Compute the maxi
mum and minimum unit stresses in the pier.
So l u t i o n .Since the eccentricity is parallel to the 24-inch dimension,
d = 24 in. and 6 = 20 in. Also, P = 160,000 lb. and e = 3 in. Then, by for
mula 1, the maximum unit stress is
, P / , . Ge\ 160,000^ / , . 6X3\ _00., .
f = Vd { 1 + d) = 20X24 X ( 1 + i r ) = 583 lb- per 0nly Sq- m-
By formula 2, the minimum unit stress is
160,000 / 6 X3\
20 X24 X { 24 )
= 83 lb. per sq. in.
Ans.
Ans.
In this case, the value of f is positive and, therefore, the minimum unit
Stress is compressive.
Fi g . 3
18. Under some conditions, the load on a pier may be
eccentric in both directions, as indicated in Fig. 3 (a), where
the rectangle ABCD represents the cross-section of a pier and
the load P has an eccentricity e\with respect to the center line
parallel to the edge AD and an eccentricity e2 with respect to
the center line parallel to AB. The loading in this case is
equivalent to a central load P, a bending moment Pe 1with
respect to the center line parallel to the face AD of the pier, and
a bending moment Pez with respect to the perpendicular center
line.
The central load would cause a uniformly distributed com-
P
pressive unit stress equal to . Because of the bending
moment Pei, there is a compressive unit stress of -r-jr- at the
bal
edge BC and a tensile unit stress of equal amount at the edge
AD. Similarly, the bending moment Pe2produces a compres-
sive unit stress of ,,2at the edge AB and a tensile unit stress
dtr
of like amount at the edge CD. The maximum resultant unit
stress in the section evidently occurs at the comer B, where
the stresses due to both bending moments are compressive.
The value of this resultant unit stress is or
in which / = maximum unit stress, in pounds per square inch,
at corner of pier that is nearest to load;
P = eccentric load, in pounds;
5 = one dimension of pier cross-section, in inches;
d = other dimension of pier cross-section, in inches;
ei = eccentricity of load, in inches, measured in direc
tion of dimension d;
ei = eccentricity of load, in inches, measured in direc
tion of dimension b.
The minimum resultant unit stress f occurs at the corner
A, where both bending moments produce tension, and this
stress may be computed by the formula
E x a m p l e .A 30-inch square pier supports a total load of 200,000
pounds applied 9 inches from one face and 14 inches from an adjacent
face. Determine the maximum and minimum unit stresses in the pier.
(1)
(2)
So l u t i o n .In formulas 1 and 2, P is 200,000 lb. and b and d are each
30 in. The distance from any face of the pier to the parallel center line
of the cross-section is 15 in., and the eccentricities of the load in directions
parallel to the faces of the pier are el = 15 9 = 6 in. and es=15 14 = 1
in. Therefore, the maximum unit stress is
The minimum unit stress is
P / 1_ 6 e , _ 6 f ?\ 200,000 / 6X6 6X1\
1 bd \ d b ) 30X30 X \ 30 30 /
= 89 lb. per sq. in.
and this stress is 89 lb. per sq. in., tension. Ans.
19. Principle of Middle Third.Whenever the eccentricity
e in formula 2, Art. 17, is less than the value of is less than
o a
unity and the minimum unit stress f is then positive. Con
versely, when e is greater than the value of ^ is greater than
unity and f is negative. Thus, where the load on a pier is
eccentric in only one direction, the pier will be entirely in com
pression if the eccentricity is less than and will be partly in
d
tension if the eccentricity is greater than A point that is at
d ^
a distance of 7-. from the center line of the cross-section is at the
o
edge of the middle third of the section, and the principle just
developed may be expressed as follows:
When a load on a rectangular pier is eccentric in only one
direction and lies within the middle third of the cross-section, the
stresses are entirely compressive; if the load is applied outside the
middle third, there is tension near the face of the pier that is
farther from the load and perpendicular to the direction of the
eccentricity.
= 533 lb. per sq. in., compression. Ans.
20. Kern.In case the load on a pier is eccentric in both
directions, there will be no tension in the pier if the load lies
within the so-called kern of the section, which is a certain area
near the axis. For the rectangular section A BCD in Fig. 3
(6), the kern is the shaded rhombus EFGH, whose vertexes E
and G are at the ends of the middle third of the center line that
is parallel to the face AB, and whose vertexes F and H are at
the ends of the middle third of the perpendicular center line.
If the load acting on the section is applied at any point within
the kern, the entire section will be in compression; but, if the
load is applied outside the kern, there will be tension in some
parts of the section.
21. Limitation of Tensile Stress.The tensile strength of
the masonry is usually neglected in the design of masonry
members, such as piers, that are intended primarily to resist
compressive stresses. Therefore, it is usually considered good
practice to have the resultant load on a masonry pier lie within
the kern of the cross-section.
In the case of a rectangular pier carrying a load that is
eccentric in only one direction, the load should preferably be
applied within the middle third of the cross-section. When
such a load is applied exactly at the edge of the middle third,
the eccentricity e is equal to J d. If this value for e is substi
tuted in formula 2, Art. 17, it is found that the minimum unit
stress / ' is equal to zero; also, from formula 1, Art. 17, the
maximum unit stress is
Hence, the maximum unit stress for a load acting at the edge
of the middle third is just twice as great as the stress ior an
equal central load.
22. Design of Eccentrically Loaded Pier.The usual pro
cedure in the design of a masonry pier that is to carry an eccen
tric load is to assume a probable section and then to investigate
its suitability and, if necessary, to make the required changes
in the assumed dimensions. If it is desired to avoid tension in
the pier, the load should lie within the middle third of the
section, and the dimension that is in the direction of the eccen
tricity should not be less than six times the eccentricity. Experi
ence in masonry design and familiarity with designs used under
similar conditions are valuable aids in selecting the first section
to be investigated. However, when information is not avail
able as a guide, it is best to compute first the required area
for a central load and to assume for the first investigation a
section of somewhat larger area, as illustrated in the following
examples.
Ex a mpl e 1.A square pier of limestone ashlar laid in portland-
cement mortar is 12 feet high and is to support a superimposed load of
200,000 pounds applied 4 inches from the axis of the pier and on a center
line perpendicular to one face of the pier. Determine the required width,
so that there will be no tension in the masonry.
So l u t i o n .As stated in Art. 13, the width of an ashlar pier should
not be less than one-tenth of the height, or ~ X 1 2 = 1.2 ft., say 15 in.
Also, to avoid tension in the masonry, the width should not be less than
six times the eccentricity, or 6X4 = 24 in.
The allowable unit stress, exclusive of that due to the weight of the
pier, is 500^j j X 12X168 = 480 lb. per sq. in. and the required area
for a central load of 200,000 lb. is
A
P
f
200,000
486
= 412 sq. in.
For a load applied at the edge of the middle third of the section, the
maximum unit stress is twice the average value; therefore, in the limiting
case for no tension in the pier, the required area is 2X412 = 824 sq. in.,
which can be provided by a 29"X29" section. As the 29-in. width of this
section is somewhat greater than the width of 24 in., for which the load
would be applied at the edge of the middle third, the required area will
be a little less than 824 sq. in. and a 28"X28" pier will be tried. From
formula 1, Art. 17, the maximum unit stress for this section would be
, f 6e\ 200,000 / 1 . 6X4\
f ~bd ( 1 + j ) = T8X28 X ( 1 + ^ 8 - ) = 474 lb< per Sq- m-
h 12X12
Also, -r=jrs = 5.1, which is less than 6, and no reduction in the allow-
b 28
able unit stress of 486 lb. per sq. in. need be made. It will be found that
a pier with a section 27 in. square is too small, and a 28-in. square pier
would be used. Ans.
Ex a mpl e 2.A pier of brick laid in cement-lime mortar is to be 16
feet high and 32 inches wide. If it is to carry a vertical load of 60,000
pounds applied 2 inches from its axis, the eccentricity being measured at
right angles to the 32-inch dimension, what should be the other dimension,
or thickness, of the pier?
So l u t i o n .The reduced allowable unit stress in this case is 140r^
X16X120 = 14013 = 127 lb. per sq. in. For a central load of 60,000 lb.
and a pier for which ^ is less than 6, the required cross-sectional area of
the pier would be p
A = 7 = ' X27~ = 472 sq. in.
If 50 per cent is added as an allowance for the eccentricity of the load
and the probable reduction in the allowable unit stress because the height
may exceed six times the least width, the estimated area would be 1.5X472
= 708 sq. in. The thickness corresponding to this area is 708-^32=22.1,
and a tentative dimension of 24 in. will be tried. For this dimension,
h 16X12
^ = =8, or more than 6; hence, the allowable unit stress should be
reduced in accordance with the formula of Art. 11. Thus,
/ = / , ( l . 2 5 - i 0 =140X ( l . 2 5 - ^ X 8 ) =119 lb. per sq. in.
and the safe unit stress, exclusive of the stress due to the weight of the
pier, is 11913 = 106 lb. per sq. in. Also, by formula 1, Art. 17, in which
P = 60,000 lb., 6 = 32 in., d = 24 in., and e=2 in., the actual unit stress due
to the superimposed load is
, F / . , 6 e \ _60,000^ / , , 6 X 2 \
* bd \1 + d ) 32X24X ( 1 + 24 / 117 lb- Per s<3-ln-
Since this stress exceeds the allowable value of 106 lb., a larger pier
is needed. A 32"X28" section will obviously be satisfactory. Ans.
1. Find (a) the maximum and (6) the minimum resultant unit stresses
in a 16"X20" rectangular masonry pier which supports a total load of
67,500 pounds applied midway between the 20-inch faces and 7 inches
from one of the 16-inch faces.
A f (a) 369 lb. per sq. in., comp.
nS' \ (6) 53 lb. per sq. in., comp.
2. The height of a square pier of brick laid in portland-cement mortar
is to be 7 feet 6 inches. What width of pier is required to carry a super
imposed load of 50,000 pounds applied 3 inches from the axis and on a
center line perpendicular to one face of the pier? Ans. 24 in.
3. A square pier 12 feet high, built of granite ashlar laid in portland-
cement mortar, is to carry a superimposed load of 140,000 pounds whose
line of action is 1 inches from the axis of the pier and on a center line
perpendicular to one face of the pier. Determine the required width of
the pier to the next larger even inch, Ans. 18 in.
MASONRY WALLS
WALLS OF UNIFORM CROSS-SECTION
MINIMUM ALLOWABLE THICKNESSES OF BUILDING WALLS
23. Introduction.The thickness of a masonry wall
should in any case be sufficient to resist safely the stresses due
to the dead and live loads on the structure. The exterior
walls of buildings must also provide resistance to fire and must
not be too thin in proportion to the height. Minimum allow
able thicknesses of masonry walls under various conditions are
specified by the building codes of cities and of organizations
such as the United States Department of Commerce and the
National Board of Fire Underwriters. The requirements of
the various codes are fairly similar, although there are some
notable differences. Under ordinary circumstances, the mini
mum allowable thickness of a wall can be adopted with safety,
but it may sometimes be necessary to use a greater thickness
in order to bring the unit stresses below the permissible limits.
The recommendations in the following articles are based
largely on a report of the Building Code Committee of the
Department of Commerce entitled Recommended Minimum
Requirements for Masonry Wall Construction.
24. Exterior and Party Walls in Skeleton Construction.
From an engineering standpoint, buildings may be divided into
two types, known as the skeleton type and the wall-bearing type.
In skeleton construction, the columns and the floors and roof
form a self-sustaining framework, or skeleton, the floors and
the roof being supported by the columns; and the walls and
other parts of the structure are supported by the skeleton.
Thus, the outside walls serve merely to enclose the building,
and are supported at each floor by beams running between
columns. Where there is a party wall, which is a wall between
two buildings and adapted for the joint use of both, it is like
wise supported by beams and columns that are common to the
two buildings. Exterior and party walls are generally of solid
brickwork but, in buildings with reinforced-concrete skeletons,
the enclosure walls are sometimes of reinforced concrete.
Exterior walls of unreinforced masonry in skeleton construc
tion should be at least 8 inches thick. In the case of a party
wall, the minimum thickness should be 12 inches.
25. Bearing and Non-Bearing Walls in Wall-Bearing Con
struction.In wall-bearing construction, the walls rest on
suitable foundations, and the floors and roof are supported
either entirely by the walls or by the walls and interior columns.
The walls are usually of brick, but in buildings that are only
one or two stories high, hollow blocks are often used in the
walls. Party walls of brick masonry should be laid in cement
mortar or cement-lime mortar. Wall-bearing construction is
not recommended for buildings of more than ten or twelve
stories.
Even in wall-bearing construction, a distinction must be
made between so-called bearing walls and non-bearing walls.
A bearing wall is one that supports a vertical load in addition
to its own weight. Thus, in dwellings, the floor and roof loads
are generally carried to the side walls by closely-spaced wooden
joists. Also, in structures such as armories and gymnasiums,
the walls frequently support balconies and roof trusses. Non
bearing walls, which support only their own weight, are used
along the ends of buildings. These walls run parallel to the
floor joists and do not receive any load from the joists.
26. Thickness of Exterior and Party Walls in Wall-Bearing
Construction.Recommended minimum thicknesses for high
exterior and party walls of masonry in buildings of the wall
bearing type are indicated in Fig. 4. In view (a) is represented
an outside bearing wall; in view (b), a party wall; and in view
(c), an outside non-bearing wall. As shown in the illustration,
the thickness of a bearing walleither outside or party
should be not less than 12 inches for the uppermost 35 feet of
its height and should be increased by 4 inches for each successive
35 feet or fraction thereof measured downwards from the top
of the wall. For a non-bearing wall, the thickness may be 4
inches less than the minimum recommended value for a bearing
wall, provided that it is not less than 12 inches.
The thickness of a masonry wall should not be less than one-
twentieth of the height between successive floors or other
substantial lateral supports, unless the wall is reinforced by
Fi g . 4
cross-walls, piers, or buttresses at intervals not exceeding
twenty times the thickness. Where an exterior bearing wall
or a party wall is stiffened, at intervals of not more than 12
feet, by cross-walls or by projections at least 2 feet deep, the
thickness need be only 12 inches for the uppermost 70 feet of
the height and should be increased by 4 inches for each succes
sive 70 feet or fraction thereof.
The preceding recommendations apply to most walls of solid
masonry and, in general, also to walls of hollow masonry.
However, the height of a hollow wall above the top of the
foundation wall should never exceed 50 feet, and the thickness
of such a wall should not be less than one-eighteenth of the
vertical or horizontal distance between substantial lateral sup
ports. Also, walls of rubble masonry should be 4 inches
thicker than similar walls of other classes of solid masonry and
should never be less than 16 inches thick.
Each change in the thickness of a wall should be made at a
floor level and not between floors. Where a change in wall
thickness would theoretically occur between floor levels, the
greater thickness should be continued to the higher floor.
27. Exterior bearing and non-bearing walls or party walls
in wall-bearing construction may be only 8 inches thick under
the following conditions: (1) When they are in the top story
of a building not exceeding three stories or 40 feet in height or
in a one-story commercial or industrial building, provided the
unsupported height of the 8-inch wall does not exceed 12 feet
and the roof beams are horizontal. (2) When they are in a
one- or two-family dwelling and are either solid walls not more
than 30 feet high or hollow walls not more than 20 feet high.
If such a dwelling has a gable wall, which comes to a point at
the roof, the portion within 5 feet of the peak need not be
included in determining the height.
28. Foundation Walls.The foundation walls support the
vertical loads from the structure resting on them and usually
also resist lateral earth pressure. Thus, they generally act as
both bearing and retaining walls. They must, therefore,
possess adequate strength and stability and must be at least as
thick as the walls they support.
Foundation walls are usually of plain or reinforced concrete,
stone, or brick, but sometimes they are of hollow masonry. A
foundation wall of rubble stone should be not less than 18
inches thick. If the wall is of concrete, brick, coursed stone,
or hollow masonry, its thickness should be not less than 12
inches. However, where the foundation walls are built in
trenches and the material enclosed by them is not excavated
to provide a basement, a minimum thickness of 8 inches may
be used if the entire wall including the foundation wall is
not over 30 feet high for solid masonry or 20 feet high for hollow
masonry. Foundation walls of masonry should be laid in
cement mortar. Also, all foundation walls should extend
below the level of frost action.
29. Fire Walls and Partitions.A fire wall is a wall that
subdivides a building in order to restrict the spread of fire and
that extends continuously from the foundation to and above
the roof. Such walls should preferably be of solid brick
masonry, laid in cement mortar or cement-lime mortar, or of
reinforced concrete. When a fire wall is constructed of brick,
the requirements in regard to minimum thickness are the same
as those for party walls in wall-bearing construction, except
that in residential buildings a brick fire wall may be 8 inches
thick for the uppermost 20 feet of its height. Fire walls of
hollow masonry, other than hollow brick walls, should be not
less than 16 inches thick in any part, but a minimum thickness
of 12 inches may be used for all such walls in a residential
building or for hollow walls of brick in all buildings.
Partitions may be used in the various stories of a building
merely to subdivide the floor space. Often they are provided
to restrict the spread of fire, and are then called fire partitions
or fire division walls. The thickness of fire partitions of solid
brick should not be less than 8 inches. If such partitions are
of hollow masonry, they should never be less than 12 inches
thick. In buildings used for heavy manufacturing, the mini
mum thickness of fire partitions should be 12 inches if of hollow
brick construction and 16 inches if of other types of hollow
masonry.
A partition that serves as a bearing wall, but not as a fire
division wall, should have a thickness of at least one-eighteenth
of the height between floors or floor beams. Non-bearing
partitions that do not serve as fire division walls are usually
made of hollow masonry. The thickness, exclusive of plaster,
should be not less than 2 inches for an unsupported height up
to 8 feet, 3 inches for a height of 12 feet, 4 inches for a height
of 15 feet, 6 inches for a height of 20 feet, and 8 inches for a
height of 25 feet.
ELEMENTS OP MASONRY DESIGN 25
30. Parapets.Exterior walls, party walls, and fire walls
of masonry should be carried above the roof wherever the roof
is not of fireproof construction and the building is within about
50 feet of other buildings. The portion of the wall projecting
above the roof is known as a parapet. In buildings in which
8-inch walls are permitted, the parapet should be at least 8
inches thick and 2 feet high. In other buildings, the parapet
should be not less than 12 inches thick and 3 feet high.
INVESTIGATION AND DESIGN
Roof
400
600
600% jeL
600* - j / g f
6,080
600^-c
3,ZOO
31. Walls of Uniform Section With Uniform Vertical Loads.
If masonry walls are built in conformity with the minimum
requirements specified in
the preceding articles, the
maximum compressive unit
stresses produced by the
actual loads will usually be
well within the allowable
limits. However, in some
cases, it may be necessary
to investigate the stresses
developed in a wall or to
design a wall to withstand
a certain loading.
The simplest type of wall
is one that is of uniform
cross-section and carries
uniformly-distributed loads.
Since all portions of the
wall are then alike, a foot
length of the wall is usually
considered in investigation
or design. In solving a
particular problem, it is first
necessary to determine the amount and position of the resultant
load and then to proceed as described for a pier.
In order that a wall may be considered safe, the unit stress
at any point must not exceed the allowable value for the kind
t
!6
0>)
Fi g . 5
of masonry used in the wall. Also, if tension in the masonry
is not permitted, the resultant of the loads must lie within the
middle third of the wall. For the purpose of investigation or
design, the load from closely spaced joists may be assumed
to be uniformly distributed.
Ex a mpl e .In Fig. 5 (a) is shown a proposed section of an outside
bearing wall of a dwelling. The wall is to be of brick laid in portland-
cement'mortar and is to support its own weight and joists from five floors
and a roof; the basement floor is to rest directly on the soil. The load
per linear foot from each floor, which may be considered uniform for the
entire length of the wall, is 600 pounds, and from the roof 400 pounds.
Each of these loads is applied 4 inches from the inside face of the wall.
If the wind and earth pressures are disregarded, is the wall thick enough
just above the footing?
So l u t i o n .In this case, a linear foot of wall is considered. It is
necessary first to find the weight of the various parts of the wall and then
to determine the amount and the line of action of the resultant of all the
loads. Since the brickwork weighs 120 lb. per cu. ft., the weights of the
parts of the wall per lin. ft. are as follows;
19
12" wall, 2 7 X^X 12 0 = 3,240 lb.
16" wall, 38Xj ^ X 120 = 6,080 lb
20" wall, 16xf^X120 = 3,200 lb.
The positions of the loads acting on the wall are shown in Fig. 5 (6).
The resultant load and its distance from the outside face of the 20-in. wall
are computed in the following manner:
Load
Weight, Arm, Moment,
in Lb. in In. in In.-Lb.
Roof..................................... 400 8 3,200
5th floor.............................. 600 8 4,800
12" wall............................... 3,240 6 19,440
4th, 3d, 2d floors.............. 1,800 12 21,600
16" wall.............................. 6,080 8 48,640
1st floor.............................. 600 16 9,600
20" w a l l ............................. 3,200 10 32,000
Total........................... 15,920 139,280
Hence, the resultant load, which amounts to 15,920 lb., acts at a distance
from the outside face of the wall equal to 139,280+15,920 = 8.75 in. The
20
eccentricity of the load is 8.75 = 1.25 in. and by formula 1, Art. 17,
the maximum unit pressure is
15,920 / 6X1.25\
12X20* \ + 20 )
= 91.2 lb. per sq. in.
This is well below the allowable value of 175 lb. per sq. in., but the thick
nesses of the wall cannot be reduced because they are the smallest that
are permitted by the requirements in Fig. 4 (a).
32. Effect of Lateral Thrust.When a wall is subjected
to lateral thrust, as from wind or earth pressure, the resultant
load on the wall is inclined. In this case, it is most convenient
to determine first the amount and the line of action of the
resultant of the vertical loads only and
then to combine this resultant with
the horizontal or inclined force repre
senting the lateral pressure. The
resultant of the vertical forces is usu
ally found most easily by calculation,
but the graphic method is convenient
for locating the point where the resul
tant of all the forces cuts the base of
the wall. However, the horizontal
distance from any point on the base
to the resultant may also be found by
dividing the algebraic sum of the
moments of all the forces about that point by the vertical
component of the resultant.
When the resultant force acting on a wall is inclined, the
horizontal component tends to overturn the wall and to cause
the upper part of the wall to slide on the lower part, whereas
the vertical component resists overturning and sliding. The
conditions are indicated diagrammatically in Fig. 6, in which
Pv represents the vertical component of the resultant and Ph
represents the horizontal component. The overturning moment
about the edge a of the base of the wall is PhXab, and the
resisting moment is PvXac. If the resisting moment is greater
than the overturning moment, the wall is stable against over
turning; on the other hand, if the overturning moment exceeds
Fi g . 6
the resisting moment, the wall is unstable. However, the
factor of safety against overturning should preferably be at
least 2; that is, the quotient obtained by dividing the resisting
moment by the overturning moment should not be less than 2.
33. If a building wall were designed so that the vertical
loads acting on it would provide sufficient resistance to over
turning by wind and earth pressure, an excessive thickness of
wall would be required because the arm of the horizontal wind
pressure about the base of the wall is much greater than the
arm of the vertical load about the outer edge of the base.
However, considerable lateral resistance to wind pressure is
furnished by the floors of the building, and it is customary to
make allowance for this resistance in designing the wall. Since
it is not possible to estimate even roughly the amount of the
resistance supplied by a particular floor, the required thickness
of the wall must be based on experience and empirical rules.
It may be taken for granted that exterior walls built in accord
ance with the requirements in Arts. 23 to 28, inclusive, will be
stable against overturning by external lateral pressure.
34. A wall will not slide if the ratio of the horizontal com
ponent of the resultant force acting on the wall to the vertical
component does not exceed the coefficient of friction for two
blocks of the material of which the wall is composed. The
value of this coefficient for any kind of masonry used in a wall
may be taken as 0.65. However, the factor of safety against
sliding should be about 1.5. Thus, if the product of the verti
cal component of the resultant force and the coefficient of
friction is divided by the horizontal component of the resultant,
the quotient should be at least 1.5. Even if the lateral resist
ance of the floors is neglected, a building wall that meets the
minimum requirements for stability against overturning will
be amply safe against sliding.
35. Distribution of Concentrated Loads.Loads are often
carried to walls by beams, girders, or trusses spaced relatively
far apart. Such loads are gradually distributed over the
masonry below, but the pressure directly under them is much
greater than elsewhere. Where the portion of the bottom of
the beam or trass which bears on the wall is so small that the
unit pressure on the masonry would exceed the safe strength
of the material, a steel bearing plate must be provided under
the member to spread the load over a larger area of masonry.
In the investigation or design of a wall of
uniform cross-section that carries concen
trated loads, it is necessary to consider a
length of wall equal to the distance between
loads, but otherwise the procedure is similar
to that explained for uniform loads.
Ex a mpl e .A section through a proposed brick
wall for a storage warehouse is shown in Pig. 7.
The floor beams and roof beams are spaced 6 feet
apart horizontally; the load from each roof beam is
4,800 pounds and is assumed to be applied at a dis
tance of 3 inches from the inside face of the wall;
the load from each beam of the sixth, fifth, fourth,
third, and second floors is 18,000 pounds and is
applied 4 inches from the inside face of the wall;
and the load from each first-floor beam is 20,000
pounds and is applied 4 inches from the inside face
of the wall. What is the maximum unit pressure in
the wall just above the footing, for the vertical
loads alone?
So l u t i o n .The calculations for determining
the resultant load for a 6-ft. length of wall and its '<o
distance from the outside face of the wall may be
arranged as follows:
Fi g . 7
Load
Roof ......
6th floor
Weight, in Lb.
. 12.
Arm,
in In.
4,800
18,000
12" wall............................... 30 X 6 X ^ X 1 2 0 = 21,600
5th, 4th floors.
16" wall...........
3d, 2d floors...
.16.
36,000
2 6 X 6 X ^ X 1 2 0 = 24,960
. 20.
36,000
20" wall............................... 2 8 X 6 X ^ X 1 2 0 = 33,600
1st floor
.24.
20,000
24" wall............................... 6X6X^2X120 = 8,640
9
8
6
12
8
16
10
20
12
Total. 203,600
Moment,
in In.-Lb.
43,200
144.000
129,600
432.000
199.700
576.000
336.000
400.000
103.700
2,364,200
The distance from the outside face of the 24-in. wall to the line of action of
the resultant load is 2,364,200-5-203,600 = 11.6 in., and the distance from
24
the center of the base of that wall to the resultant load is -jp 11.6 = 0.4
in. Hence, by formula 1, Art. 17, the maximum unit pressure is
203,600 w / 6X0.4\
72 X24 X l + 24 )
= 130 lb. per sq. in. Ans.
This is well below the usual allowable value of 175 lb. per sq. in.
1. An exterior bearing wall in an apartment house is of brickwork
and has a cross-section similar to the upper 121 feet of the wall shown in
Fig. 4 (a). The 12-inch, 16-inch, and 20-inch thicknesses each extend
for a height of 35 feet, as in the illustration, and the height of the 24-inch
portion is 16 feet. The load from the top tier of joists is treated as a
uniform load of 500 pounds per linear foot, and that from each of the lower
tiers of joists is a uniform load of 800 pounds per linear foot. The loads
from the three upper tiers of joists are applied 4 inches from the inside
face of the 12-inch portion of the wall; the loads from the next three tiers
are applied 4 inches from the inside face of the 16-inch portion; the loads
from the next three tiers, 4 inches from the inside face of the 20-inch
portion; and the load from one tier, 4 inches from the inside face of the
24-inch portion. What is the distance from the outside face of the wall
to the line of action of the resultant of the vertical loads acting on the
wall above the base of the 24-inch portion? Ans. 10.1 in.
2. Compute the maximum unit pressure in the wall of the preceding
example at the base of the 24-inch portion. Ans. 145 lb. per sq. in.
WALLS WITH PROJECTIONS
TYPES OF PROJECTIONS
36. Pilasters.When a concentrated load is applied to a
masonry wall, the thickness of the wall is often increased for
a short distance on each side of the load, as shown in the plan
in Fig. 8 at a. If the load is vertical, the purpose of the addi
tional masonry is merely to increase the bearing area of the
wall directly under the load. These projections, which are
called pilasters, may be placed on the inside of the wall, on the
outside, or on both the inside and outside of the wall at each
load. Brick or stone pilasters should be well bonded to the
wall so that all the masonry will act as a unit in supporting the
31
load. The width b of a pilaster should be between one-sixth
and one-third of its length c.
A pilaster and the part of the wall opposite the pilaster are
assumed to act together in supporting the concen
trated load. Thus, in the illustration, the pilaster a
and the portion of the wall between the dotted lines
are treated as a unit in computing the unit stress
produced by a given load or in determining the
dimensions b and c that are required for the support
of a certain load. The method of procedure in
either investigation or design is similar to that for a
masonry pier.
37. Buttresses.When a wall is required to sustain a
horizontal or an inclined load, such as the reaction of a roof
truss exposed to the wind, a heavy masonry projection is
provided to help prevent the wall from overturning. Such a
projection is usually located on the side of the wall toward
which the horizontal component of the load acts. The pro
jection is then subjected to compressive stress and is known as
a buttress. In order that buttresses will act in unison with the
rest of the wall, they must be well bonded into the wall.
38. Counterforts.When a projection that is provided to
help resist a horizontal or an inclined load is placed on the side
of the wall away from which the horizontal component of the
load acts, the masonry in the projection is subjected to tension.
The projection is then called a counterfort. Since plain
masonry is very weak in tension, masonry counterforts must
be reinforced with steel.
STABILITY OF BUTTRESSED WALLS
39. Loads on Buttressed Walls.In Fig. 9 is shown a verti
cal section through a gymnasium, in which the steel roof
trusses rest upon masonry walls. Opposite each truss the
walls a and b are provided with buttresses c and <1. The end
e of each truss is supported on rollers and, therefore, the pres
sure transmitted to the wall b by the truss is always vertical.
The end / of each truss is fastened to the wall a, and the wall
is subjected to a vertical load from the truss and also to a
horizontal thrust from the wind load on the truss. The wind
also exerts a horizontal pressure on the walls, acting on the
wall a when it is blowing from the left and on the wall b when
it is blowing from the right. Each buttress carries, in addition
to its own weight and the roof load, a vertical load from the
spectators gallery and from each floor.
In order to determine the stability of the walls and but
tresses, it is necessary to consider several conditions. As the
wind may blow against either side, two independent sets of com
putations must be made. First, it should be assumed that
the wind blows from the right-hand side. The reactions from
both the dead loads and the vertical live loads on the floors
tend to resist overturning, but the live loads do not always
act and are disregarded in determining the location of the
resultant of all loads acting on the wall and buttress. How
ever, in determining the maximum compressive unit stress at
the bottom of the buttress, the reactions from the maximum
live loads are included. After both walls a and b have been
investigated with the wind blowing from the right, other sets
of computations are made on the assumption that the wind is
blowing from the left.
40. Investigation of Walls With Buttresses.In the investi
gation of the stability of a buttressed wall, it is customary to
assume that the buttress and the portion of the wall directly
opposite the buttress act as a unit, and to neglect entirely any
resistance to overturning, sliding, or stress that may be fur
nished by the remainder of the wall. The problem may be
solved entirely by calculation, but it is usually convenient to
adopt the following method, which is partly graphic.
First, a cross-section of the wall and a buttress is drawn to
a convenient scale, the weight of the masonry resisting over
turning is calculated, and the center of gravity of that mass of
masonry is located. On the cross-section are located accu
rately the lines of action of the weight of the masonry, the
reaction from the roof truss, and any other forces that act on
the portion of the masonry under consideration. The position,
in the cross-section, of the line of action of the resultant force
acting on the masonry is then determined by any suitable
graphic method. If this resultant passes well within the base
of the section, the structure will be safe against overturning.
However, in order to avoid tension in the masonry, the resultant
force should cut the base of the section inside the middle third.
The resistance to sliding and to crushing of the masonry
should also be investigated. To determine the factor of safety
against sliding, the product of the vertical component of the
resultant force and the coefficient of friction for the masonry
is divided by the horizontal component of the resultant force.
For safety against crushing, the maximum pressure, as deter
mined by formula 1, Art. 17, must not be greater than the
allowable value for the masonry.
Where the buttress and wall increase in thickness toward the
bottom, and the floor loads are applied at various heights, it
is often necessary to investigate the safety of the wall at each
change in thickness, as well as at the bottom. In investigating
the safety of the wall at any level, only the forces applied to
the wall above that level are considered.
Ex a mpl e .-In Fig. 10 (a) is shown an enlarged section through the
wall a and a buttress c in Fig. 9. The wall and buttress are of limestone
ashlar, and the width of the buttress, measured parallel to the wall, is
Fig . 10
4 feet below point p, Fig. 10 (a), and 3 feet above that point. The wind
is assumed to be blowing from the right, and the truss reaction for the
combined dead and wind loads has a vertical component of 54,000 pounds
and a horizontal component of 5,500 pounds. The dead load from the
gallery is carried almost entirely by the. truss, and the amount transmitted
directly to the wall may be neglected. The wall carries a dead load of
19,000 pounds from the first floor and an equal load from the locker-room
floor, each of these loads being applied 8 inches from the inside face of the
wall. The load on the basement floor is carried directly by the soil. Find
the distance from the outside face of the buttress to the point where the
resultant load cuts (a) the top of the footing and (6) the section x-x at the
first-floor line.
So l u t i o n . (a) In order to determine the weight of the masonry and
the position of the center of gravity, the cross-section may be imagined
to be made up of the divisions numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 in Fig.
10 (a). In this case, the width of the masonry under consideration is not
uniform for the entire height of the buttress, this width being 4 ft. below
point p and 3 ft. above that point. Therefore, in locating the center of
gravity, it is necessary to use the volumes of masonry in the divisions and
not the areas. These volumes, their respective arms from the inside face
of the lower portion of the wall, and the moments about that face are as
follows:
Division Volume, in Cu. Ft. Arm, in Ft. Moment
1 1.5X6.75X3 = 30.4
2
61
2 1X2.25X3.5X3 = 11.8 3.5 41
3 0.25X2X3 1.5 2.63 4
4 2X7.5X3 45.0 1.5 68
5 2.5X8X3 60.0 3.75 225
6 2.5X13X3 97.5 1.25 122
7 4X10.5X3 126.0 4.5 567
8 6.5X2X3 39.0 3.25 127
9 7X23.5X4 658.0 3.5 2,303
1,069.2, say 3,518, say
1,070 3,520
If the masonry is assumed to weigh 168 lb. per cu. ft., the total weight
of the masonry is 1,070X168 = 179,800 lb. The distance from the inside
face of the wall to the center of gravity of the wall and buttress is 3,520-f-
1,070 = 3.28 ft., or 3 ft. 3 in.
The forces acting on the buttress above the footing are shown in Fig.
10 (a). In order to present clearly the graphic method of locating the line
of action of the resultant of these loads, the outline of the cross-section
is here redrawn in view (5), but in practice it would not be necessary to
redraw the section. The first step is to locate the point a. where the
reaction from the truss is applied, and to establish graphically the line of
action ab of the resultant of the two components of that reaction. This
is done by laying off, to some convenient scale, the length ac vertically
downwards to represent 54,000 lb. and the length cb horizontally toward
the left to represent 5,500 lb., and then joining a and b by a straight line.
The next step is to locate the line of action of the resultant de of the truss
reaction and the vertical loads at the first floor and the locker-room floor.
The line ab is prolonged upwards to intersect at d the vertical line repre
senting the common line of action of the two floor loads. The required
line of action de is determined by laying off from d the vertical distance
df to represent the total load of 38,000 lb. from the two floors, making the
inclined distance fe parallel and equal to ab, and connecting d and e by a
straight line. The last step is to draw a vertical line at a distance of 3.28
ft. from the face of the wall to represent the line of action of the entire
weight of the masonry, which is 179,800 lb., and to extend the line de
until it intersects this vertical line of action at g. The final resultant gh
of all the forces is determined by making the vertical distance gi equal to
179,800 lb., making ill equal and parallel to de, and then drawing the line
from g to h. The resultant gh cuts the base of the buttress at a distance
of 3 ft. 4J in. from the outside face of the buttress, whereas the edge of
the middle third is 1 x 7 ' 0 " = 2 ft. 4 in. from that face. Ans.
(b) In the investigation for the section x-x, Fig. 10 (a), only divisions
1 to 7, inclusive, of the cross-section are included in determining the weight
of masonry that resists the truss reaction. The volume of this part of
the wall is 372.2, or say 372, cu. ft. and the sum of the moments about the
inside face of the wall is 1,088. Hence, the weight of the masonry
is 372X168 = 62,500 lb., and the distance from the inside face of the wall
to the center of gravity is 1,088-r-372 = 2.92 ft., or 2 ft. 11 in.
The resultant of the truss reaction and the weight of the masonry,
which are the only forces acting above the first floor, is then located as in
Fig. 10 (c). The resultant ab of the components of the truss reaction is
determined as in view (b). It is then prolonged to intersect the vertical
line of action of the weight of the masonry at j ; and the resultant jk of
the weight of the masonry and the truss reaction is determined by laying
off j l to represent the weight of 62,500 lb., making Ik parallel and equal
to ab, and joining the points j and k. This final resultant cuts the section
x-x at m. The distance from the outside face of the buttress to the inter
section point m is 2 ft. 11|in., whereas the edge of the middle third is at
a distance of JX6' 6" = 2 ft. 2 in. from that outside face. Ans.
41. Design of Buttressed Walls.The procedure in design
ing a buttressed wall consists in assuming a cross-section for
the wall and buttress, and investigating its stability against
overturning and sliding. Usually, it will be unnecessary to
compute the crushing stress, but under heavy loads that stress
must also be investigated. In the selection of the trial section,
the required architectural effect will usually govern, but past
experience and good judgment are frequently helpful. If the
trial section is not thick enough, as indicated by the fact that
the resultant of the forces acting on the wall passes outside the
middle third of the base or the maximum unit pressure exceeds
the allowable value, the wall or buttress should be made
heavier and the new section should be investigated. In case
the resultant lies quite near the center of the wall, and the unit
pressure is much lower than the allowable value, it is advis
able to reduce the size of the wall in order to lower the cost.
Several sections may have to be tried and investigated before
the final design is adopted. Thus, in the case of the section
shown in Fig. 10 (a) and investigated in the example of the
preceding article, it is found that the resultant of the forces
acting on the masonry cuts the base of the section very close
to the center, and a smaller buttress would be tried.
EXAMPLE FOR PRACTICE
The buttress shown in section in Fig. 10 (a) and considered in the
example of Art. 40 is altered in the following manner: The thickness of
division 7 is reduced to 3 feet, the thickness of division 8 is made 5 feet 6
inches, and the thickness of division 9 is made 6 feet. Determine the
distance from the outside face of the buttress to the point where the
resultant of all the forces cuts the top of the footing of the new section.
Ans. 2 ft. 7%in.
WALLS WITH OPENINGS
42. Distribution of Pressure.When a wall contains an
opening, as for a window or a door, the weight of the masonry
over the opening and any concentrated or uniform load which
may be applied to that masonry must be carried by the part
of the wall on each side of the opening. Usually, the load
from the masonry over an opening is transmitted to the masonry
alongside the opening by a beam, called a lintel, or by an
arch. Hence, when a wall contains openings, the unit pressure
at a certain level in a portion of the wall alongside an opening
is greater than the pressure at a similar level in a solid wall of
the same material and thickness.
The masonry alongside an opening may be treated as a pier.
The load on such a pier consists of the weight of the masonry
directly above it, the weight of the masonry above half of each
adjacent opening, and any concentrated or uniform loads that
may be applied to the masonry whose weight comes on the pier.
(b)
Fi g . XI
Ex a mpl e .In Fig. 11 (a) and (b) is shown part of the front wall of a
factory building which is built of brick laid in portland-cement mortar.
The wall supports, in addition to its own weight, a uniform load of 1,000
pounds per linear foot from each floor and 300 pounds per linear foot from
the roof. What is the maximum unit pressure on the masonry?
So l u t i o n .It is evident that the greatest unit pressure is produced
in any pier between two windows and at the level z-z, which is at the bot
toms of the windows in the first story. The load on one of these piers
may be taken as the sum of the weight of the masonry between the sections
x-x and y-y, which weight may be assumed to be centrally applied, and
the roof and floor loads between the same sections. The volume of the
masonry above the level z-z is as follows:
If the brickwork is assumed to weigh 120 lb. per cu. ft., the weight of the
masonry between the sections x-x and y-y is 491.3X120 = 58,960 lb.
Since the roof load is 300 lb. per lin. ft. of wall, the total roof load
between sections x-x and y-y is 300 X8.5 = 2,550 lb. Also, the total load
from the fifth, fourth, third, and second floors is 1,000 X8.5 X 4 = 34,000
]b. The total load on the pier at the level z-z is
As this load is assumed to be centrally applied to the pier, the maximum
unit pressure may be found by formula 2, Art. 14. In this case, P = 95,510
lb., 6 = 4.5 ft. or 54 in., and d = 20 in., and the required pressure is
43. Arrangement of Openings.When many openings are
to be provided in a masonry wall, their relative positions
should be determined by taking into consideration not only
convenience and appearance, but also the effect of the openings
on the strength of the wall. Walls with openings are more
likely to be cracked than solid walls, because of the fact that
the unit pressure on the mortar is not uniform at all points at
the same level. Therefore, special precautions should be
taken to have the parts of the wall well bonded. Also, when
the combined width of the openings exceeds one-third of the
total length of the wall, the thickness of the wall between
openings is increased by means of pilasters or buttresses.
Whenever possible, the window openings in the different
stories should be placed directly over one another. If it is
absolutely necessary to place an opening under a pier, rigidity
should be attained by the use of a heavy steel beam over the
opening; the beam helps greatly to prevent the masonry from
cracking just above the opening.
Total................... 491.3 cu. ft.
58,960+2,550+34,000 = 95,510 lb.
P 95,510
J bd 54X20
= 88.4 lb. per sq. in. Ans.
MASONRY BEAMS
GENERAL FORMULAS
44. Usual Types of Masonry Beams.A masonry beam is
practically always either a single block of stone or a plain-
concrete member. Since neither stone nor plain concrete is
able to resist shocks, masonry beams should not be used for
supporting live loads. In fact,
the use of masonry beams is
usually confined to the construc
tion of corbels and lintels. A
corbel is a short cantilever beam
that is partly embedded in a wall
and projects beyond the face of
the wall below to provide support
for an eccentric load, such as the
load from an overhanging wall
for a bay window or from the
end of a beam, girder, truss, or
arch. In Fig. 12, the stone
corbel a supports the end of the
beam b. A masonry lintel may
be used over an opening where the span is short and the load
is light. A stone lintel over a window is shown in Fig. 13.
Masonry beams are almost always rectangular in cross-
section. However, the exposed end of a corbel is frequently
made ornamental for the sake of appearance. When a beam
is of stratified stone, it should be set with the layers vertical
or on edge, as indicated in Fig. 13 at a.
45. Formulas for Investigation of Rectangular Beams.
For the usual masonry beams, which are rectangular in cross-
section at the points of maximum shear and maximum bending
moment, it is simply necessary to apply the fundamental
formulas for rectangular beams. Thus, if b denotes the width
and d the depth of the cross-section, both expressed in inches,
bd?
the section modulus, in inches3, is S = . Also, if / i represents
the allowable flexural unit stress, in pounds per square inch,
the resisting moment Mi of the section, in inch-pounds, may
be found by the flexure formula Mx=fiS or
Mi =
(1)
When it is required to find the load that can be carried
safely by a given masonry beam, the first step is to compute
the allowable bending moment Mi by applying formula 1.
Then the expression for the bending moment in terms of the
unknown load is equated to the allowable bending moment,
and the allowable load is calculated by solving that equation.
The shearing unit stress for the loading that develops the
safe resisting moment of the beam will generally be well below
the allowable value. However, in case there is doubt con
cerning the shearing strength of the beam, the maximum
shearing unit stress should be calculated by the formula
3 V
V 2 bd
(2)
in which v = shearing unit stress, in pounds per square inch;
V=maximum shear, in pounds.
When the value of v that is found by formula 2 is less than
the allowable shearing unit stress vu the load determined by
the bending moment is satisfactory. However, if that value
of v is greater than the safe stress vu the safe load is calculated
as follows: First, the allowable total shear Fi is found by the
formula
Fi = vibd (3)
Then, the expression for the shear in terms of the unknown
load is equated to the allowable shear, and the required load
is determined by solving the equation thus obtained.
Ex a mpl e .What uniformly distributed load, in addition to its own
weight, can be safely carried by a granite beam that is 8 inches wide and
11 inches deep and is simply supported on a span of S feet?
So l u t i o n .From Table II, the allowable flexural unit stress fi is 150
lb. per sq. in. Then, by formula 1, the allowable bending moment is
= 1)0X|X.11L24,200 in.-lb.
6 6
The bending moment due to a uniform load of to lb. per ft. on a span l of
5 ft. is
wP t oX52 25 to,, ,, . ,,
M=-g - = g= g - ft.-lb., or 37.5 to m.-lb.
Then, 37.5 to = 24,200
and to = 645 lb. per ft.
From Table I, granite weighs 168 lb. per cu. ft. Hence, the weight
8X 11
of the beam itself is X 168 = 103 lb. per ft., and the allowable super
imposed load is 645 103 = 542 lb. per ft.
The maximum shear is V=\wl = JX645X5 = 1,613 lb. and the shear
ing unit stress is, by formula 2,
3 V 3 1,613
v~2 M= 2X 8 x n =27'5 lb- per Sq- ln
which is much below the allowable value of 200 lb. per sq. in. Hence,
the safe superimposed load is 542 lb. per ft. Ans.
46. Sometimes, it is desired to determine whether a given
beam of width b and depth d can safely support a specified
loading. In such a case, the first step is to compute the maxi-
mum bending moment M and the maximum shear V that will
be produced by the load. Then, the maximum flexural unit
stress / may be found by the formula
and the maximum shearing unit stress v may be calculated by
formula 2 of the preceding article. The beam is safe if the
values of / and v thus obtained are less than the allowable unit
stresses in flexure and shear, respectively.
47. Formulas for Design of Rectangular Beams.In
designing a beam to carry a specified load, the first step is to
compute the maximum bending moment M. When a masonry
beam is used, the width b is generally fixed by the type of con
struction, and the allowable flexural unit stress / i is specified.
Then, the required depth d may be found by the formula
When the shearing strength of the beam is in doubt, it
should be investigated by computing the maximum shear V,
substituting the computed value in formula 2, Art. 45, and
comparing the shearing unit stress v thus found with the
allowable shearing unit stress ?>i. If v is less than vu the pre
viously computed value of d may be adopted. On the other
hand, if v exceeds vu a larger beam is needed. The required
depth may then be found by the formula
Ex a mpl e .A sandstone beam 12 inches wide is to be subjected to a
bending moment of 5,000 inch-pounds. What depth is required to resist
this bending moment?
So l u t i o n .Here, M=5,000 in.-lb., / i = 75 lb. per sq. in., and 6 = 12
in. Then, by formula 1,
(1)
CORBELS
48. Forces Acting on Corbel.The corbel a, in Fig. 12,
serves to support the load P from the beam b. The overturn
ing of the corbel is prevented by the weight W of the masonry
above it. Ordinarily, this weight may be assumed to be con
centrated at the center of the wall. The downward forces P
and W are balanced by the upward reaction R, which is equal
and opposite to the resultant of P and W. In order to avoid
tension in the bed joint between the under surface of the cor
bel and the wall, the load W should be such that the reaction
R will lie within the middle third of the joint. Since the face
of the wall is liable to spall directly beneath the corbel, it is
customary to assume that the effective edge of the joint is \
inch from the face of the wall, as indicated in the illustration
by the dotted line from the point c.
The positions, on the corbel, of the points of application of
the downward weight W and the upward reaction R depend on
the length of embedment of the corbel and the height of the
wall above the corbel. The weight of masonry that is required
to resist overturning will be a minimum when the reaction R
is applied at the edge, nearer to the face of the wall, of the
middle third of the effective bed joint, and the weight W is
applied at the farther edge of the middle third of the joint
between the upper surface of the corbel and the wall. Thus,
if l represents the effective length eg of the bed joint, the
distance from the point c to the reaction R should preferably
be l. Also, if i denotes the length mn of the upper joint, the
weight W should preferably be at a distance of i from the
face of the wall or I i from the end ng of the corbel. Since the
weight of the wall above the corbel is assumed to be concen
trated at its center, the force W will act at a distance of f t from
the face of the wall when that distance is equal to one-half of
the wall thickness, or when the length i of embedment of the
corbel is equal to three-quarters of the wall thickness. How
ever, in the case of a brick wall, the difference between the
thickness of the wall, and the length of embedment is a multiple
of 4 inches, and it may therefore be necessary to make the
length of embedment slightly more than three-quarters of the
wall thickness.
The weight W that is required to prevent rotation of the
corbel under the action of the load P is computed by taking
moments about the line of action of the reaction R. Thus,
if dx and d2 represent, respectively, the distances from the line
of action of R to the load P and the weight W, the equation
for equilibrium is PXd1 WXd2 = 0 and
W = P X ^ (1)
a 2
Then, the reaction R can be found by the relation
R = P + W (2)
Ex a mpl e .A corbel which projects 8 inches from the face of a 16-
inch wall and is embedded in the wall for a distance of 12 inches, as shown
in Fig. 14, carries on its projection a uni
formly distributed load of 3,000 pounds.
If $ inch is allowed at the edge of the bed
joint for spalling and the upward reaction
is assumed to be applied at the edge of
the middle third of the effective bed, what
downward weight of wall is required to
keep the corbel from rotating?
So l u t io n.-The uniformly distributed
load of 3,000 lb. may be assumed to be
concentrated at the center of the projec
tion, or 4 in. from the nearer face of the
wall. Since the effective length of the bed
joint is 12 j = 11.5 in., the distance from
that face of the wall to the edge of the
middle third of the joint, or to the reac
tion R, is j + f X l l . 5 = 4.33 in. Also,the
distance from the face of the wall to the downwaid weight W is one-half
the thickness of the wall, or 8 in.
The arm of the 3,000-lb. load about the line of action of the reaction
R is d\ = 4+4.33 = 8.33 in., and the arm of the required weight W is da =
84.33 =3.67 in. Hence, by formula 1,
J F =P X ^=3,000x|f ^
o2 3.67
: 6,810 lb. Ans.
49. Weight of Masonry on Corbel.The area of the masonry
in the face of a wall that is generally considered effective in
46
preventing rotation of a corbel is indicated in Fig. 15. From
the top corners a and b of each corbel, diverging lines are
drawn upwards at an angle of 60 with the horizontal until
they intersect the top of the wall, as in view (a); the lines from
the corners of adjacent corbels, as in view (b); or the end of the
wall. Where the diverging lines cut the top of the wall, as in
view (a), the weight of masonry acting on each corbel is that
corresponding to the shaded area abed, above the corbel. In
Fi g . 15
case the inclined lines from the comers of adjacent corbels
meet, as in view (6), the weight of the masonry on each corbel
is that included in the shaded area abefgh between the inclined
lines and also between the vertical lines drawn above each
intersection. The distance he between the vertical lines is
obviously equal to the distance s between the centers of
adjacent corbels.
Even though the corbel is not embedded for the full thick
ness of the wall, that entire thickness may be considered
effective in computing the weight of the masonry that resists
rotation of the corbel. The height of the wall above the
corbel and the width of the corbel in the direction parallel to
the wall must be sufficient to provide the required weight of
masonry above the corbel. The width of a corbel in a brick
wall should preferably be a multiple of 4 inches.
50. Dimensions of Corbel.As previously explained, the
minimum length of embedment of a corbel in a wall is deter
mined by the consideration that the line of action of the force
representing the weight of the wall above the corbel should
not be outside the middle third of the embedded length. The
width of the corbel is determined by the required bearing area
under it and, where the height of the wall above the corbel is
limited, also by the required weight on the corbel. The bear
ing area of the corbel must be such that the maximum unit
pressure on the bed joint due to the upward reaction will not
exceed the allowable value for the masonry.
Since the reaction is assumed to be applied at the edge of the
middle third, the unit pressure on the bed joint eg, Fig. 12,
varies, as indicated by the triangle cgh, from a minimum value
of zero at the effective edge c to a maximum value at the other
edge g. The maximum unit pressure / can be found by the
2^
relation / =_^r> in which b is the width of the corbel along the
wall. From this relation it is obvious that, for the conditions
here given, the required width of the corbel may be found by
the formula
6 =
2R
n
(1)
in which b=required width of corbel, in inches;
R= upward reaction on corbel, in pounds;
/ = allowable bearing unit stress on masonry of wall,
in pounds per square inch;
1= effective length of bed joint of corbel, in inches.
The thickness, or depth, of a corbel should be sufficient to
resist the shear and bending moment on it. The thickness
required by shear is
t J - Z .
2 Vib
(2)
in which t = thickness of corbel, in inches;
V=maximum shear, in pounds;
V\= allowable shearing unit stress, in pounds per
square inch;
b = adopted width of corbel, in inches.
For bending moment, the required thickness is
in which M=maximum bending moment, in inch-pounds;
/ i = allowable flexural unit stress, in pounds per
square inch;
t and b have the same meanings as in formula 2.
The depth of a corbel in a brick wall should preferably be a
multiple of 2\ inches, so that the corbel will occupy a whole
number of courses of brick.
Ex a mpl e .If, in Pig. 14, the weight W of the masonry is 6,800 pounds,
the wall is built of brick laid in portland-cement mortar, and the corbels
are of granite and are spaced 6 feet center to center, determine (a) the
required width of the corbel, (6) the required height of the wall above the
corbel, and (c) the required depth of the corbel.
So l u t i o n .(a) The upward reaction is
R = P-\-W= 3,000+6,800 = 9,800 lb.
Also, since in this case the weight W is such that R is applied exactly at
the edge of the middle third of the bed joint, the required width of the
corbel is found by formula 1, in which R 9,800 lb., / = 175 lb. per sq. in.,
and 1= 11.5 in. Hence, the required width of the corbel is
, _ 2 R _ 2X9,800
Jl 175X11.5
=9.7 in.
and the adopted width, which is a multiple of 4 in., is 12 in. Ans.
(b) The total weight of the wall above the corbel must be 6,800 lb.
The trapezoidal area, as abeh in Fig. 15 (6), is 1 ft. wide at the bottom and
6 ft. wide at the top, and therefore will have a height of t an 60
=4.33 ft. The weight of the masonry in that area is X4.33Xj^
X 120 = 2,420 lb. Hence, the rectangular portion of the wall must weigh
6,800 2,420 = 4,380 lb. and its height h may be found from the equation
6XfeX^X120 = 4,380
49
Thus,
h =4.56 ft.
The total required height of wall is
4.33+4.56 = 8.89 or say 9 ft. Ans.
(c) The maximum shear on the corbel is equal to the load on the
projection, or 3,000 lb.; and, from Table II, the allowable shearing unit
stress Vi for granite is 200 lb. per sq. in. Then, by formula 2, the depth
required to resist the shear is
1=
3 V 3 3,000
2 vj) 2 X200X 12
= 1.88 in.
The maximum bending moment, which occurs at the edge of the effec
tive length of the bed joint, is 3,000 X 4.5 = 13,500 in.-lb. Also, from
Table II, the allowable flexural unit stress/i is 150 lb. per sq. in. Hence,
from formula 3, the depth required for bending is
f _ l / ^ _ J6X13500
\ fib \ 150X12
= 6.7 in.
and a depth of 7\ in. will be adopted, as the corbel will then occupy three
courses of bricks. Ans.
51. Effect of Horizontal Thrust.When a corbel supports
an inclined load, as from a truss or an arch, the vertical com
ponent of the load tends to rotate the corbel in the manner
previously explained for a vertical load, and the horizontal
component tends to cause sliding of the corbel along the bed.
In order to investigate the stability of the corbel against sliding,
the product of the vertical component of the reaction and the
coefficient of friction should be
divided by the horizontal compo
nent, and the quotient should be
compared with the desired factor
of safety. The effect of the hor
izontal component in causing or
resisting rotation is usually neg
lected in the design.
52. Corbels of Brickwork.When
a beam frames into a brick wall,
the brickwork is sometimes corbeled out for a few courses
below the beam, as shown in Fig. 16. This is done to provide
sufficient bearing area without weakening the wall too much
and also to prevent fire from passing through the air space
that is usually left around the end of the beam. Such a
corbel does not require a mathematical analysis. The con
struction may be considered satisfactory if no brick projects
more than one-half of its depth beyond the brick immediately
below.
1. A corbel is to carry a load of 4,800 pounds uniformly distributed
over the projection, which is to be 10 inches long. If the corbel is embed
ded in a 20-inch wall for a length of 16 inches and J inch is allowed for
spalling at the edge of the lower joint, what is the minimum weight of
brickwork that should be provided above the corbel to prevent rotation?
Ans. 11,830 lb.
2. Determine the required width of the corbel in the preceding
example, if the wall is of brick laid in cement-lime mortar, and the weight
of masonry above the corbel is made equal to 11,830 pounds.
Ans. 16 in.
3. How thick should the corbel in the preceding examples be, if it is
made of limestone? Ans. 8.9, say 10 in.
LINTELS
LOAD ON LINTEL
53. Corbeling Action of Masonry.In constructing a brick-
masonry wall, the joints are broken so that each brick projects
partly beyond either one below it, as shown in Fig. 13, and is
prevented from rotating by the
material surrounding it. There
fore, the portion of a brick wall
that lies directly above a lintel
is at least partly self-support
ing. When the wall above a
lintel is high enough and con
tains no openings, the portion
of the brickwork carried by
the lintel may be assumed to
have a triangular area whose
altitude is two-thirds of the span of the lintel. Thus, the lintel
in Fig. 17, whose span is l, normally would be required to
support the brickwork included within the triangle abc, in
which the altitude bd is equal to f l. However, where the
Fi g . 17
51
workmanship and materials are of the best quality, the height
of the triangle may be as low as one-third of the span.
The corbeling action of stone masonry over openings is
similar to that of brickwork. The angle of corbeling depends
on the shape of the stones and the manner in which they are
laid, but the altitude of the triangular portion of a stone wall
carried by a lintel is usually assumed to be two-thirds of the
span of the lintel, as in the case of brickwork.
54. Load From Wall With Openings.When the wall
above a lintel contains
window openings, as in
Fig. 18, the assumed load
on the lintel is deter
mined by the conditions
in the particular case.
In view (a), the portion
of the wall carried by
the lintel would be that
represented by the trap
ezoidal portion shown
shaded. In view (b), it
is reasonable to assume
that the lintel will carry that portion of the wall represented
by the irregular shaded portion.
55. Low Walls.In case the height of a wall over an open
ing is less than two-thirds of the span of the lintel, it is assumed
that the lintel carries the
weight of the rectangular por
tion of masonry directly above
the opening. For example,
the load on the lintel in Fig. 19
should be taken as the weight
of the portion abed of the wall
above it. There will probably
be some corbeling action, as along the lines ae and bf\ but, since
the superimposed weight on each brick may not be sufficient
to prevent rotation, the corbeling effect should be neglected.
Fi g . 19
DESIGN OF LINTELS
56. The first step in designing a lintel is to determine its
span and the distribution of the load it has to carry. The
span is equal to the distance between the centers of the bearing
areas, and is usually 4 or 6 inches greater than the clear dis
tance between supports. The distance that a lintel is embed
ded in the wall will seldom exceed 6 inches.
The width of a masonry lintel is generally made the same
as the thickness of the wall. After the load, including the
assumed weight of the lintel itself, has been estimated, the
next step is to determine the maximum bending moment on the
lintel and then to compute the required depth by formula 1,
Art. 47.
As in the case of a corbel, the depth of a lintel in a brick wall
should be a multiple of 2| inches. The shearing unit stress is
always very small and need not be investigated. Finally, the
actual weight of the lintel should be calculated and compared
with the assumed value. If the difference is great, the lintel
should be redesigned.
t
Ex a mpl e .A limestone lintel in a 12-inch wall that is built of brick
laid in portland-cement mortar is to support an unbroken portion of the
wall over an opening having a clear width of 0 feet. What should be the
depth of the lintel?
So l u t i o n .The span of the lintel will be taken as C ft. 4 in., or 6.33
ft., and the altitude of the triangular portion of brickwork supported by
the lintel will be assumed as 1X6.33 = 4.22 ft. The area of brickwork
carried by the lintel is }X6.33X4.22 = 13.36 sq. ft., its volume is 13.36
X ^ = 13.36 cu. ft., and its weight is 13.36X120 = 1,600 lb. If the lintel
itself is assumed to weigh 150 lb. per ft., the total weight for the span is
150X6.33 = 950 lb.
The maximum bending moment due to each part of the load occurs
Wl Wl
at the center of the span, and its value is for the brickwork and - 5-
D O
for the lintel. Hence, the greatest bending moment is
1,600X6.33,950X6.33
M = ----3 ----- 1--------- 3------=2,440 ft.-lb., or 29,300 in.-lb.
O o
Then, from formula 1, Art. 47, the required depth is
, l6M / 6 X29,300
i = V 7 J = \ ^ ^ - =ia8in-
125X12
and the next larger multiple of 2} in., or 12} in., will be adopted.
Iq c in
The actual weight per ft. of the lintel is jjj-X 168 = 175 lb., which
is somewhat higher than the assumed value, but a depth of 12J in. is
obviously ample. Ans.
EXAMPLES FOE PRACTICE
1. A lintel in an 8-inch wall built of brick laid in portland-cement
mortar has a span of 4 feet 4 inches. What weight of brickwork should
be assumed to be carried by the lintel? Ans. 500 lb.
2. What should be the depth of the lintel in example 1, if it is made
of granite? Ans. 7J in.
MASONRY FOOTINGS '
PRESSURES ON FOOTINGS
PROPORTIONING OF FOOTING AREAS
57. Use of Footings.In designing a building, bridge, or
other structure, it is of prime importance to provide for the
structure adequate support on the foundation bed. This is
accomplished by proportioning the parts of the structure that
rest on the soil so that the unit pressure transmitted by them
will not exceed the safe bearing capacity of the soil. In the
usual construction, the columns, piers,
or walls of the structure rest on pro
jecting courses, called footings, the
purpose of which is to distribute the
loads over a sufficiently large area of
the soil. A concrete footing for a wall
of brick or stone masonry is shown
in Fig. 20.
58. Minimum Bearing Area.When
the resultant load on a footing passes
through the center of gravity of the
bearing area of the footing, uniform
distribution of the pressure on the soil may be assumed. This
pressure should not exceed the safe bearing capacity of the soil.
Therefore, the bearing area of each centrally loaded footing
should be not less than the quotient obtained by dividing
the maximum load on the footing by the safe load on the soil.
In the case of footings for walls, it is usually convenient to
consider a strip of wall 1 foot long and to provide for it a foot
ing sufficiently wide to support safely the load on that strip
of wall. For a centrally loaded footing the required minimum
bearing area for a given total load, including the weight of
the footing, can be found by the following formula:
in which A = minimum bearing area of footing, in square feet;
P =total central load on footing, in pounds;
p=safe bearing capacity of soil, in pounds per square
foot.
TABLE III
SAFE LOADS ON EARTH FOUNDATION BEDS
Kinds of Material
Loads in Tons
per Square Foot
Hard rock........................................
Medium rock...................................
Hardpan...........................................
Soft rock..........................................
Gravel...............................................
Sand, firm and coarse....................
Clay, hard and dry........................
Sand, fine and dry..........................
Ordinary firm clay.........................
Sand and clay, mixed or in layers
Sand, wet.........................................
Clay, soft.........................................
40
15
10
8
6
4
4
3
2
2
2
1
As the safe bearing capacity is different for various soils and
even varies for soils of the same general type, the value to be
used in designing the foundation of an important structure
should be determined by tests. However, when such tests are
not practicable, the safe bearing capacity of the foundation bed
may be taken from a table, such as Table III.
Ex a mpl e .If the total estimated load on a footing, including its own
weight, is 40,000 pounds and the soil is ordinary firm clay, what is the
required minimum bearing area?
So l u t i o n .Here P = 40,000 lb. and, as given in Table III, p = 2 tons
= 4,000 lb. Hence,
40.000
4.000
-10 sq. ft. Ans.
59. Ideal Condition in Proportioning Footings.When the
footings of a structure rest on a compressible soil, it is desir
able to proportion them so that for any condition of loading
the unit pressure on the foundation bed, and therefore the
settlement, would be the same under all footings. Such a
design would avoid the high stresses and the consequent ugly
cracks that are often produced in the various parts of a struc
ture when the settlement is not uniform. However, in order to
obtain uniform settlement throughout the structure at all
times, each footing should always receive the same proportion
of the total load on the structure. Obviously, such an ideal
condition can hardly ever be attained in structures that are
subjected to variable live loads, but it should be approached as
nearly as practical considerations will permit.
60. Loads on Footings.The loads that are transferred by
the footings of a structure to the foundation bed may be classi
fied as follows:
(a) Dead load, or the weight of the structure and all per
manent fixtures in it.
(b) Live load, or the movable load that is carried by the
structure.
(c) Wind load, or the pressure exerted by the wind when
it is blowing against the structure.
The dead load is always present and, therefore, is most effec
tive in causing settlement. Furthermore, the actual amount of
the dead load and its distribution among the various footings
can be predetermined quite accurately. On the other hand,
the live and wind loads that are used in designing a structure
are usually assumed according to the provisions of the building
code or specifications that govern the design, and the actual
values of these loads are different at different times or in the
various parts of the structure. Thus, any part of the floor or
the roof of a building may at some time be required to sustain
the full assumed live load, but it is hardly probable that the
entire building will ever be fully loaded at one time. The
pressure exerted by the wind against any side of a building is
usually assumed to be a horizontal load of 20 to 30 pounds per
square foot of the vertical projection of the side. It is also
assumed that the wind blows in one direction at a time.
Actually, the force exerted by the wind continually varies, and
it acts with the assumed maximum intensity at rare intervals
and for short periods of time.
Since the actual live loads vary considerably, it is obvious
that, if each footing of a building were proportioned for the
dead load and the entire assumed live load, the unit pressure
would seldom be the same under all footings. As an illustra
tion, let it be assumed that the footing of each interior column
of a building is designed for a dead load of 75 tons and a maxi
mum live load of 50 tons, and the footing of each exterior
column for a dead load of 125 tons and a live load of 25 tons.
If the footings are proportioned for the dead and entire live load
and the safe bearing value of the soil is assumed to be 6 tons
per square foot, the area of the footing for an interior column
would be 125 H- 6 = 20.8 square feet and for an exterior column
150 = 6 = 25 square feet. When the building carries no live
load, as is likely to happen, the soil pressure under the interior
column would be 75-7-20.8 = 3.6 tons per square foot, while that
under the exterior column would be 125-7-25 = 5 tons per square
foot.
61. Methods of Proportioning Bearing Areas of Footings.
Since the dead load is most effective in causing settlement, some
designers proportion the footings of a building so as to obtain
a uniform unit pressure under all footings when the dead load
alone is present. However, the more usual practice is to assume
that the full dead load and a part of the live load are effective
in causing settlement: but there is a difference of opinion as to
what fraction of the live load should be considered. Also,
some authorities recommend that different fractions of the live
load should be assumed for different types of buildings, a larger
percentage being specified for warehouses than for office build
ings. A good general method is to take one-third or one-half
of the live load. The procedure in proportioning the footing
area is then as follows:
The dead load and the maximum live load for each footing
are first determined. The footing that has the largest ratio
of live to dead load is then chosen as an index footing and its
minimum bearing area is computed by dividing the combined
dead and live load on it by the allowable soil pressure. The
reduced working unit pressure is then found by dividing the
sum of the entire dead load and the assumed fraction of the
live load on the index footing by the bearing area. Finally,
the bearing area of any other footing is found by dividing the
sum of the full dead load and the assumed fraction of the live
load on that footing by the reduced working unit pressure.
Ex a mpl e .A building is so loaded that the footing of each corner
column carries a dead load of 170,000 pounds and a live load of 35,500
pounds, the footing of each intermediate exterior column carries a dead
load of 220,000 pounds and a live load of 71,000 pounds, and the footing
of each interior column carries a dead load of 200,000 pounds and a live
load of 142,000 pounds, (a) Determine the minimum bearing area for
each footing if the allowable pressure on the soil is 3 tons per square
foot. (b) What are the required bearing areas if proportioned for uni
form settlement under dead load and one-third of the live load?
So l u t i o n .(a) The total load on each footing for a corner column
is 170,000+35,500 = 205,500 lb., and the minimum bearing area is
D,UuO
= 34.3 sq. ft. Ans.
For the footing of each intermediate exterior column the total load
is 220,000+71,000=291,000 lb., and the minimum bearing area is ^ qqq^
= 48.5 sq. ft. Ans.
In the case of the footing of an interior column, the total load is
200,000+142,000 = 342,000 lb., and the minimum bearing area is
= 57 sq. ft. Ans.
(6) The ratio of live to dead load is = 0.21 for the footing of a
corner column, 22^ ^ ) = 0-32 for that of an intermediate exterior column,
and 20^055= 071 ^or ^ a^ an interior column. As the ratio of live to
dead load is largest for the footing of an interior column, that footing
will be chosen as the index footing and the minimum bearing area of 57
sq. ft. will be retained for it. Ans.
The sum of the dead load and one-third of the live load on the footing
of an interior column is 200,000+|X 142,000 = 247,300 lb., and the reduced
247 300
working unit pressure is ^ = 4,340 lb. per sq. ft. For the footing
of an intermediate exterior column, the sum of the dead load and one-
third of the live load is 220,000+^X71,000 = 243,700 lb., and the required
o
, . . 243,700 Kfl0 . .
bearing area is 56. 2 sq. ft. Ans.
4,o4U
For the footing of a corner column, the sum of the dead load and one-
third of the live load is 170,000+^X35,500 = 181,800 lb., and the required
bearing area i s --^-^ = 41.9 sq. ft. Ans.
62. Weight of Footing.As the weight of a footing is a
large per cent of the load on the foundation bed, this weight
must be considered in determining the required bearing area
of the footing. However, since the exact weight cannot be
found until the footing has been designed, it is necessary first
to assume the weight of the footing. The assumption is based
on past experience with similar footings, loads, and soil con
ditions. For the usual designs it is found that the weight of
the footing is from 5 to 20 per cent of the sum of the dead load
and the maximum live load on the column, the percentage
depending on the type of footing, the column load, and the
bearing capacity of the soil.
1. The dead loads on the footings of three columns A, B, and C,
where A is a corner column, B is an intermediate exterior column, and
C is an interior column, are, respectively, 265,000 pounds, 320,000 pounds,
and 282,000 pounds, and the live loads are, respectively, 68,000 pounds,
136,000 pounds, and 272,000 pounds. What are the minimum bearing
areas of these footings on a soil of 3 tons bearing capacity?
Ans.
Area A =55.5 sq. ft.
Area B = 76.0 sq. ft.
Area C = 92.3 sq. ft.
2. What are the bearing areas of the footings in the preceding example
if proportioned for uniform settlement under dead load and one-third of
the live load? { Area A = 71.2 sq. ft.
Ans. i Area B = 90.4 sq. ft.
I Area C=92.3 sq. ft.
DETERMINATION OF UNIT PRESSURE
63. Distribution of Pressure on Foundation.Whenever
possible, the center of pressure of a footing, or the point where
the resultant load on the footing cuts the base, should coincide
with the center of gravity of the bearing area. The pressure
will then be uniformly distributed over the foundation. How
ever, the position of the resultant
may vary as the condition of
loading changes, so that under a
certain loading the resultant will
not pass through the center of
gravity of the bearing area. For
example, in Fig. 21, which rep
resents the lower part of a high
wall, the resultant load on the
footing acts along the line yy,
which is nearer to the outside
face of the wall. In order that
the center of gravity of the foot
ing may lie on this line, the footing
is offset; also, to reduce the pro
jection of the footing, the bottom of the wall is stepped. When
the wall is subjected to wind pressure, the resultant force will
no longer act along the line yy and the load on the founda
tion will then be eccentric.
64. Unit Pressure for Central Loading.When the result
ant load on the footing is central, the unit pressure on the
foundation bed may be found by the formula
P
f ~ A
in which = unit soil pressure, in pounds per square foot;
P = central load on footing, in pounds;
A = bearing area of footing, in square feet.
When the resultant load on a footing is inclined, only its ver
tical component is effective in producing pressure on the soil.
If the inclined resultant passes through the center of gravity
of the bearing area of the footing, the loading on the footing
is considered central, and the
unit pressure on the soil is then
found by substituting the value
of the vertical component for
P in the preceding formula.
65. Unit Pressures for
Eccentric Loading. The re
sultant load on a footing is
sometimes eccentric, that is,
its line of action does not pass
through the center of gravity
of the bearing area. Thus,
the footing shown in Fig. 22
is subjected to an eccentric load Rv, which may be either a
vertical load or the vertical component of an inclined load R.
When the resultant load on the footing base is eccentric, the
pressure on the soil varies from a maximum value at the edge
nearer to the load to a minimum value at the farther edge. The
maximum and minimum unit pressures under an eccentrically
loaded rectangular footing may be found by the following
formulas:
pl=
R |
=bd': > + ? )
(1)
pi.-
Rv |
" bd ' P 7 )
(2)
in which pi =maximum unit pressure on soil, in pounds per
square foot;
Rv vertical component of resultant load, in pounds;
b = dimension of footing at right angles to direction
of eccentricity, in feet;
ddimension of footing in direction of eccentricity,
in feet;
e = eccentricity of load, in feet;
p2 = minimum unit pressure on soil, in pounds per
, square foot.
When the resultant load passes through the edge of the
middle third of the base of the footing, the eccentricity e is
equal to and the minimum pressure p2is found to be zero.
For greater eccentricities, or when the resultant load cuts the
base outside its middle third, the minimum pressure p2 is
found to be negative; that is, there is an uplift at the edge of
the footing farther from the load. In order to avoid such
uplift, p2 should be positive, or the resultant load should cut
the base of the footing within the middle third.
Ex a mpl e .The vertical component of the resultant load per linear
foot of a wall footing is 15,000 pounds. If the footing is 4 feet wide and
the load on it is applied 18 inches from one edge, what are the maximum
and minimum pressures on the soil?
So l u t i o n . Here I i, =15,000lb., 6 = l f t . , d = 4ft., ande=\ 1.5 = 0.5ft.
Z
Then, by formula 1, the maximum pressure is
. - K A, 6 e \ 15,000_ , 6X0.5 \ ^ ,
^1= m\1+T) =TxTx 4~ ) = 6,56 lb' per sq-ft- Ans-
Also, by formula 2, the minimum pressure is
. R, U 6e\ 15,000 / , 6 X0.5\ oc) _ r.
^2= bd ( 1 <T/ = _ l X 4 r X \ ------ 4 / say lb. per sq. ft. Ans.
DESIGN OF PLAIN-CONCRETE FOOTINGS
66. Use of Plain-Concrete Footings.On comparatively
weak soils, plain-concrete footings are suitable only for light
walls and columns such as occur in residences. They may also
be advantageously used for walls and columns carrying heavy
loads when the soil has a high bearing capacity or when con
ditions are such that a deep footing is not objectionable.
Column footings for tall buildings resting on a compressible
soil are usually constructed of reinforced concrete and some
times of steel beams encased in concrete. The wall footings
for such structures are generally of reinforced concrete. If
plain-concrete footings were used for tall buildings, the footings
would be of such great depth
as to make the cost of mate
rials and excavation very high.
Furthermore, their weight
would add considerably to the
already heavy loads transferred
to the foundation soil from the
columns.
Stone and brick masonry are
seldom used for footings in
modem construction, as plain
concrete is usually preferable.
67. Types of Plain-Concrete
Footings. When the depth
of a plain-concrete footing for a wall or column is not great, it
may consist of a slab of uniform thickness, as in Fig. 20. How
ever, comparatively deep concrete footings are usually stepped,
as shown in Fig. 23, in order to reduce the weight and cost of the
concrete. The volume of concrete can also be reduced by
sloping the sides of the footing, but stepping is usually preferred
because it avoids the difficulty of holding the inclined forms in
place during construction.
68. Design of Column Footings.The first step in the
design of a plain-concrete footing for a column is to assume the
weight of the footing as a per cent of the total column load and
to add it to the total dead load. The per cent that is to be
assumed depends on prevailing conditions, being higher for the
lower bearing capacities of the soil and lower for the greater
Z-OSq.
-*j3-6
y--------5-0"Sq.------- :
-------------6'-6"Sq.------------^
VO
-I
4
_L
-8 -6 Sq.
Fi g . 23
column loads. For moderate loads and bearing capacities of
2 to 3 tons per square foot, the weight may be assumed to be
20 to 10 per cent of the total column load. After the weight
is assumed, the next step is to proportion the footing by the
methods previously described. In the case of an interior foot
ing, the approximate bearing area is found by dividing the
total load by the allowable bearing capacity of the soil. For
other footings, the area is found by dividing the sum of the
dead load and a fraction of the live load by a reduced working
uqit pressure. Trial dimensions of the base are then selected
to provide the required area. The next step is to determine the
depth of the footing. For a plain-concrete footing, it is custo
mary to make this depth equal to twice the length of the
longer projection beyond the edge of the column base. Finally,
the dimensions of the steps are established and the actual
weight of the footing is computed. If this weight differs
materially from the assumed value, the footing is redesigned.
The height of the steps should be not less than 12 inches; also,
since the lower edge of each step should lie outside of the
inclined line, ab or cd in Fig. 23, joining the edge of the column
base and the edge of the footing base, the length of the pro
jection of any step should not be greater than half its depth.
Ex a mpl e .The base of an interior column carrying a central load of
300,000 pounds is 24 inches square. Design a plain-concrete footing to
support the column on a soil whose safe bearing capacity is 2 tons per
square foot.
So l u t i o n .If the weight of the footing is assumed to be 15 per cent
of the column load or 0.15X300,000 = 45,000 lb., the total load on the soil
is 300,000+45,000 = 345,000 lb. The corresponding footing area is 345,000
-1- 5,000 = 69 sq. ft., and a footing 8 ft. 6 in. square will be tried.
The length of the projection of the footing beyond the edge of the
g g_2
column base is =3.25 ft., and the required depth of the footing is
2X3.25 = 6.5 ft. or 6 ft. 6in. If the footing is designed as showninFig.
23, its volume is 8.52X2+6.52X1.5+52X1.5+3.52X1.5 = 264 cu. ft.; and,
if concrete is assumed to weigh 150 lb. per cu. ft., the actual weight of the
footing is 264 X 150 = 39,600 lb. This is less than the assumed weight but
the difference is not enough to require a new design. Hence, the dimen
sions previously established are adopted.
69. Design of Wall Footings.The procedure in the design
of a footing for a wall is essentially the same as for a column
footing. It is usually convenient to consider a portion of the
wall 1 foot long.
Ex a mpl e .A wall that is 30 inches thick carries a load of 24,000
pounds per linear foot, which is assumed to be centrally applied. Design
a footing for the wall if the soil has a bearing capacity of 2 tons per square
foot.
So l u t i o n .If the weight of the footing is taken as 15 per cent of the
load, or 0.15X24,000 = 3,600 lb., the total load on the soil is 27,600 lb. per
lin. ft. The required width of the footing is 27,600-5-4,000 = 6.9, or say
7_2.5
7 ft., and the projection on each side of the wall is =2. 25 ft. Hence,
the depth of the footing should be 2X2.25 = 4.5 ft. The footing will be
made in three steps, each 1.5 ft. or 18 in. deep and projecting 9 in. beyond
the course above.
The volume of the footing per lin. ft. is 7 X l . 5 + 5 .5 X l .5 + 4 X 1 . 5 =
24.75 cu. ft. and its weight is 24.75X150=3,710 lb. This is but slightly
greater than the assumed weight and the trial design is adopted.
1. A 20-inch square pier carries a central load of 180,000 pounds. It
is to be supported by a plain-concrete footing whose width is limited by
construction features to 5 feet. If the safe bearing capacity of the soil
is 3 tons per square foot, what should be the length of the footing? Assume
the weight of the footing to be 8 per cent of the column load.
Ans. 6 ft. 6 in.
2. What should be the depth of the footing in the preceding example?
Ans. 4 ft. 10 in.
3. If the footing in examples 1 and 2 is built in four steps of equal
height and the projection in each direction is equally divided among the
four steps, find the weight of the footing. Ans. 13,670 lb.
4. A 20-inch wall carrying a central load of 16,000 pounds per linear
foot is to be supported by means of a plain-concrete footing on a soil
whose safe bearing capacity is 2 tons per square foot. Determine (a)
the width of the footing and (f>) its depth. The weight of the footing may
be taken as 10 per cent of the load on the wall.
Ac f (a) 4.4 ft., say 4 ft. 6 in.
' \{b) 2 ft. 10 in.
REINFORCED BRICK MASONRY
GENERAL CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
70. Early and Modem Applications.Brick masonry con
taining metal reinforcement for the purpose of increasing its
strength was first used in the year 1825 for the walls of a
caisson built on the bank of the Thames River in England and
later sunk to serve as a starting point for the construction of
the first Thames tunnel. This structure, which was made 50
feet in diameter and 42 feet high, remained the outstanding
example of reinforced brick masonry until about 1904, at which
time the walls and some of the columns of the Church of St.
Jean de Montmarte, in Paris, were constructed of brickwork
reinforced with steel wires. The walls of this church are 115
feet in height, and only 4| inches thick.
In the United States, very little consideration was given to
reinforced brickwork until 1924, at which time several experi
mental beams and slabs were tested. However, few practical
applications were made until about 1931, when this form of
construction was employed successfully in a number of struc
tures of various types, such as an arch highway bridge, two
sand-storage bins, a water-tower enclosure, and railroad-
trestle bents. Considerable research work has been done
since then and, as a result, tentative design and construction
procedures have been recommended. The soundness of these
recommendations has been demonstrated in many actual
structures erected since 1931.
71. Comparison of Reinforced Brickwork and Reinforced
Concrete.It has been found by various tests on beams and
columns that the design of reinforced brickwork may be carried
out by principles similar to those underlying reinforced con
crete. The choice between these two materials depends on
many factors, the most important of which are the cost of
materials and labor, the equipment available, and the type of
the member or structure under consideration. In most parts
of the United States, materials and equipment for both types
of construction are easily procured, but in some countries,
such as India, brick is more readily obtainable than suitable
aggregates for concrete.
As compared with reinforced concrete, the two main advan
tages of reinforced brickwork are as follows: First, the use of
brick for exterior surfaces and trim is generally preferred when
ever architectural appearances must be considered; and, if
reinforced brick is used, this trim may be made an integral
part of the structure. Second, a wall or a column may be
constructed of reinforced brickwork without the use of forms
and, in the case of a beam, rough boards for the soffit and a
little falsework are sufficient; hence, considerable saving is
effected by dispensing with most of the form work that would
be necessary in reinforced-concrete construction. Also, rein
forced brickwork weighs less per cubic foot than reinforced
concrete, and therefore the dead loads may be decreased by the
use of reinforced brickwork.
An important disadvantage of reinforced brickwork is that
it must be placed entirely by hand and by highly skilled labor,
whereas the placing of reinforced concrete is a comparatively
simple process that is facilitated by mechanical devices. Also,
the arrangement of the steel is not so convenient in reinforced
brickwork as in reinforced concrete, because the positions of
the various joints in brickwork are practically fixed and the
reinforcement must be placed in the joints.
72. Materials for Construction.A good grade of hard-
burned common brick should be used for reinforced brick con
struction. All loose dirt and dust should be removed from the
surfaces of the bricks, and they should be thoroughly wetted
before they are laid in the structure. The mortar should be of
good quality. For ordinary construction, the proportions by
volume measurement should be 1 part of approved portland
cement and \ part of lime putty or hydrated lime to 4| parts
of clean, well-graded sand. Where high strength is desired,
the mortar should be made of 1 part of portland cement, | part
of lime putty or hydrated lime, and 3 parts of sand, by volume.
The main reinforcement should consist of deformed bars of an
approved type, manufactured from new billet steel of either
intermediate or structural grade.
73. Typical Beam and Slab Sections.Three typical
sections for reinforced brick beams are shown in Fig. 24. In
each of these beams, the bricks must be so arranged as to fur
nish continuous transverse mortar joints, which pass com
pletely through the beam, in order to allow for the placing of
the vertical stirrups. Unless half-bricks are used longitudi
nally, the spacing of the stirrups must be equal to a multiple
of the length of a whole brick, or 8 inches. If no stirrups are
required for web reinforcement, however, the joints can, and
should, be staggered in the longitudinal direction, in order to
avoid continuous vertical transverse joints that tend to decrease
the shearing resistance of the beam. Also, most of the bricks
in the compression area of a beam or slab should preferably be
laid so that the face of the brick, which develops the greatest
compressive strength, is placed normal to the line of compres
sive stress; the bricks a and half-bricks b in Fig. 24 (a) are so
laid. This requirement, however, should not be considered
absolutely essential, because the ultimate strength of the
masonry is usually governed by the strength of the mortar rather
than by the strength of the bricks.
Fi g . 24
Tests have demonstrated that the bond resistance of the
horizontal reinforcement is higher when the bars are placed in
vertical joints than when located in horizontal joints, and
wherever possible the former method of placing the steel
should be adopted. Thus, the bars c in Fig. 24 are located
more effectively in views (a) and (6) than in view (c). How
ever, many tests have also shown that, even if the reinforcing
bars are placed as in view (c), the bottom bricks will not fall
out when the beam is loaded. It is advisable to make the
joints containing reinforcement wide enough to provide at
least i inch of mortar between the reinforcing bars and the
bricks. The bars should never be allowed to come in contact
with the bricks, as the bond resistance would then be reduced
materially. In case the bars are too large to fit conveniently
in the normal joints, rows of bricks may be omitted in order to
provide room for the reinforcement. The spaces between the
steel bars and the bricks should be thoroughly filled with mor
tar as the work progresses.
A typical thin slab of reinforced brick masonry is shown in
cross-section in Fig. 25. No web reinforcement is used, and
the bricks are laid with their greatest dimensions lengthwise of
the span and with the transverse joints in the adjacent rows
staggered.
Fi g . 25
74. One arrangement of the reinforcement in beam-and-
slab construction is illustrated in Fig. 26. As shown in view
(a), which represents a section that is perpendicular to the span
of a beam, the main tensile reinforcement in the beam a con
sists of horizontal bars b and c near the bottom and top. In this
case, both the bottom bars b and the top bars c are continuous,
but sometimes the top bars are inserted only over the supports.
Web reinforcement in . the beam is provided by the vertical
stirrups d. The slab, which is shown in longitudinal section
in view (a) and in cross-section in view (b), is reinforced at the
bottom with continuous bars e and at the top with short bars
/ placed near the ends of the span. Stirrups g, which may be
either wires or small-sized bars, are also introduced at proper
intervals along the span and across the width of the slab. All
the horizontal steel is placed in horizontal joints, and the verti
cal stirrups are set in transverse vertical joints.
(a )
Section A -A
(b)
Fi g . 26
75. Typical Wall Sections.In Figs. 27 and 28 are shown
two methods of arranging the bricks and vertical reinforce
ment in a bearing wall of reinforced brick masonry; the view
(a) or (b) in each illustration represents a horizontal section
through a course of brick. The construction illustrated in
Fig. 27 is for common bond where most of the courses consist
entirely of stretchers, as in view (a), and a header course, such
as is shown in view (b), is introduced at regular intervals. For
satisfactory bonding, at least every fourth course should be a
header course. The arrangement illustrated in Fig. 28 is for
modified Flemish bond, where each course consists of 'alter-
nating stretchers and headers. The courses shown in views
(a) and (b) are alternated in building the wall.
The vertical reinforcing bars are continuous for the full
height of the wall. In the common-bond wall, the longitudinal
spacing of these bars must be a multiple of 4-| inches. Then
every rod will come opposite a transverse joint in each stretcher
course. In the header course, the number of whole bricks
between pairs of half-bricks is varied with the spacing of the
steel bars. For the spacing in Fig. 27, two whole headers can
be employed. In the Flemish-bond wall, the spacing of the
reinforcing bars must be in multiples of 6| inches. For the
spacing shown in Fig. 28, there are two headers between bars,
and the bars are spaced 12f inches on centers, but they may be
located at intervals of any desired number of headers. Occasion
ally, horizontal bars are also provided, being placed in the
horizontal joints between courses.
In Fig. 29 is shown a vertical cross-section through a typical
parapet wall of reinforced brickwork that is required to resist
lateral forces. Since the vertical reinforcement is subjected to
tensile stress, deformed bars are used, and their ends must be
adequately anchored in the masonry. The wall shown is laid
in common bond, each fourth course being a header course, and
the vertical bars a may be arranged as indicated in Fig. 27.
It is'also advisable to provide horizontal reinforcement con
71
sisting of continuous bars, as bars b and c in Fig. 29, placed
near the top of the parapet and at the roof level.
76. Typical Column Sections.The construction of a
typical column of reinforced brick masonry is shown in Fig. 30,
in plan in view (a) and in elevation in view (b). The bricks
are laid flat in each course, and the courses are well bonded by
the arrangement of the bricks. In this column, the main
longitudinal reinforcement consists of the four bars a. It is
advisable to provide also lateral ties b, which are usually
placed in every third or fourth horizontal joint. These ties are
not in contact with the longitudinal reinforcement, as they are
intended to help hold the
bricks in place rather than
to prevent buckling of the
vertical bars.
(a)
( b)
Fi g . 29 Fi g . 30
DESIGN OF MEMBERS OF REINFORCED BRICK MASONRY
77. Formulas for Design.It has been demonstrated by
many tests that the general assumptions and formulas used in
the design of reinforced-concrete slabs, beams, and columns can
be applied without modification to the design of similar mem
bers of reinforced brick masonry. The same notation may be
conveniently used for both classes of construction, with the
exception that the subscript c employed in the formulas for
concrete is replaced by the subscript b in the formulas for
brickwork. Thus, fb denotes the unit stress in brickwork, and
Ab the area of brickwork.
78. Allowable Unit Stresses.For properly constructed
members of reinforced brick masonry, built with satisfactory
materials, the design unit stresses, in pounds per square inch,
may be assumed as follows:
Compressive unit stress in extreme fibers due to bending:
1 : :4| cement-lime mortar........................................ 500
1 :| :3 cement-lime mortar.......................................... 750
Shearing unit stress as a measure of diagonal tension
in beams or slabs without web reinforcement:
Staggered mortar joints in plane of shear.............. 30
Continuous mortar joints in plane of shear............ 20
Shearing unit stress as a measure of diagonal tension
in beams or slabs with adequate web reinforcement:
Staggered mortar joints in plane of shear................ 80
Continuous mortar joints in plane of shear.............. 70
Unit bond stress for deformed bars:
Thickness of mortar between brick and steel not
less than half of diameter of bar.......................... 80
Thickness of mortar between brick and steel less
than half of diameter of bar................................. 60
Direct compressive unit stress on masonry in piers
with vertical reinforcement only:
1 :4| cement-lime mortar........................................ 300
1 :3 cement-lime mortar........................................ 400
Direct compressive unit stress on masonry in piers
with vertical reinforcement and lateral ties:
1 : cement-lime mortar........................................ 400
1 3 cement-lime mortar........................................ 500
ELEMENTS OP MASONRY DESIGN 73
Tensile unit stress in reinforcing steel:
Structural grade......................................................... 16,000
Intermediate grade..................................................... 18,000
Modulus of elasticity of steel........................................ 30,000,000
Modulus of elasticity of masonry.......... 1,000,000 to 1,500,000
Ratio of moduli of elasticity of steel and masonry.. . 25
If stresses caused by lateral forces, such as wind and earth
quakes, are added to the stresses due to vertical loads, and the
member is designed for the combined stresses, the preceding
values of working unit stresses may be increased by 331 per
cent. In no case, however, should the dimensions of a member
be less than those required to withstand the vertical-load
stresses alone.
79. Illustrative Examples.The following examples illus
trate the methods generally employed in the design of a beam
and a column of reinforced brick masonry. These methods
are practically identical with those used in designing similar
structural elements of reinforced concrete.
Ex a mpl e 1.It is required to design a rectangular beam of rein
forced brick masonry which is to be simply supported on 18-inch square
columns spaced 21 feet on centers, and is to carry a concentrated load of
20,000 pounds at each third-point of the span, as indicated in Fig. 31 (a).
The allowable unit stresses are fi = 750, f , = 18,000, /* = 12,000, and = 30
pounds per square inch, n = 25, and the web reinforcement is to consist of
vertical stirrups only.
So l u t i o n .Since the weight of the beam is not known, a preliminary
design based on the maximum bending moment due to the two concen
trated loads alone will first be made. That bending moment is
M = 20,000X 7 = 140,000 ft.-lb., or 1,680,000 in.-lb.
For the given values of ji, f s, and n, the ratio h is found from the relation
h
n 25
=0.510
and
j
k _ 0.510
3 3
=0.830
M2=
2 M
hkj
2X1,080,000
750X0.51X0.83
= 10,580 in.3 Then
74
20, 000*
20,000*
7 - 0
7-0
(it)
0^
CM
I I I I
4
(b )
l '- 4 "\ 4- SpS. ( S> l '-5 = 5 '- 8"\ _________7 '- 0 " _________ I 4 S p s. @ l '-5 - 5-8 U - 4
'p
Ip
I I I
| 0 Stirrups
7
' l&- Bars
(<l>
Fig 31
75
This is provided by a 164"X 26" beam, which will have an over-all depth
of 26+3 = 29 in. and a weight of about X 120 = 400 lb. per ft.
The weight of the beam as finally designed may be assumed to be about
10 per cent more, or 440 lb. per ft.
The revised bending moment is
44 =140,000+4X440X212=164.300 ft.-lb., or 1,972,000 in.-lb.
and
bd'-w.jxmm,=12,420in.3
f bkj 750X0.51X0.83
which can be provided by a 164"X 28" beam. The over-all depth of this
i A l \ xqi
beam is 31 in., and its weight is ~ X 120 = 430 lb. per ft. If the
144
actual weight of 430 lb. per ft. is used, M =1,964,000 in.-lb., and the
required steel area is
1,964,000 , M
Aa=-r-n =-, : = 4.70 sq. in.
f j d 18,000X0.83X28"
which can be supplied by eight |-in. round bars.
The maximum shear at points a and d, Pig. 31 (a), is
F=20,000+4X430X21 =24,500 lb.
and the corresponding shearing unit stress is
V 24,500
V~ bjd =16 5 X 0.83 X28 ~ ^3'9 lb per Sq' ln*
At points band c the shear changes from 24,500430 X 7 = 21,500 lb. to
21,500
21,500 20,000 = 1,500 lb., and the shearing unit stress from
1,500
= 56.1 lb. per sq. in. to 1(i 5x083><28
shear diagram is as shown in view (6).
16.5X0.83X28
= 3.9 lb. per sq. in. The unit-
In each half of the span, the total shear V, carried by the stirrups is
that corresponding to the area of the unshaded trapezoid in view (6).
Hence,
V, = i X (33.9+26.1) X 84 X 16.5 = 41,600 lb.
If 4-in. round bars bent in the shape of a double U, as shown in the enlarged
cross-section in view (c), are assumed, /1 = 4 X0.196 = 0.784 sq. in. and
the required number of stirrups is
41,600___
12,000X 0.784
= 4.4, say 5
The spacing of the stirrups at the supports should be not more than
f vA. 12,000X0.784
(pvt)b 33.9X16.5
; = 16.8 in.
The stirrups may be placed as shown in view (d), the spacing being such
as to have them come in the transverse vertical joints.
76
Ex a mpl e 2.A square brick-masonry column, that is to support a
total concentric load of 100,000 pounds, is to be reinforced with longitudi
nal bars and lateral ties. If the allowable compressive unit stress in the
masonry is 500 pounds per square inch and the cross-sectional area of the
longitudinal reinforcement is to be about 1per cent of that of the column,
what should be (a) the width of each side of the column and (b) the num
ber and size of the vertical steel bars?
So l u t i o n .(a) The cross-sectional area of the column that is required
to support a central load of 100,000 pounds may be computed by means
of the formula
P 100,000
^ "/6[1 + ( - l ) p r 500 X [1 + (25 - 1 ) X 0.01]
= 161.3 sq. in.
A column 12| in. square, whose area is 162.6 sq. in., may be used. Ans.
(6) The required area of the vertical reinforcement is
=0.01 X 162.6 = 1.63 sq. in.
which is furnished by four f-in. round bars. Ans.
The details of construction of the column are shown in Pig. 30. Since
the vertical mortar joints will have a thickness of about 1 in. and each
vertical bar is placed at the intersection of two joints that are at right
angles to each other, there will be adequate space for the reinforcement.
Lateral ties consisting of 1-in, round bars bent into 8-in. squares should
be placed in every third horizontal joint.
1. Find the required dimensions for the cross-section of a reinforced
brick beam that is to be simply supported on 13-inch square columns
spaced 16 feet center to center and is to carry a superimposed uniform
load of 1,750 pounds per linear foot. The allowable unit stresses are
/ = 18,000 and fb = 750 pounds per square inch, re = 25, and 3 inches of
masonry is to be provided below the center of the main reinforcement.
Ans. 12i"X23"
2. A reinforced brick column that is to support a total central load
of 195,000 pounds is to have a square cross-section and is to be provided
with longitudinal bars and lateral ties. If ft, is 500 pounds per square
inch and the cross-sectional area of the longitudinal reinforcement may
be 2 per cent of that of the column, what should be the width of each side
of the column? Ans. 161 in.
Notice to Students.Study the Instruction Paper thoroughly before
you attempt to answer these questions. Read each question carefully and
be sure you understand it; then write the best answer you can. When your
answers are completed, examine them closely, correct all the errors you can
find, and see that every question is answered; then mail your work to us.
(1) A pier built of brick laid in cement-lime mortar is 16
inches square in cross-section and 13 feet 4 inches high. Com
pute the total central load, including the weight of the pier
itself, that can be safely supported by the pier. The allowable
unit stress is based on Table I of the text. Ans. 26,900 lb.
(2) A square pier of 2,000-pound concrete is to have a
height of 5 feet and is to support a superimposed central load
of 325,000 pounds. Determine the width of each side of the
pier to the next larger inch. Ans. 26 in.
(3) (a) A corbel is embedded in a 24-inch wall for a length
of 20 inches and projects beyond the face of the wall for a dis
tance of 8 inches. If the projection is to carry a total uniform
load of 7,000 pounds and inch is to be allowed for spalling at
the edge of the lower bearing surface, what minimum weight
of masonry must be provided in the wall above the corbel in
order to prevent rotation of the corbel? (b) If the wall is of
brick laid in portland-cement mortar, and the weight of masonry
above the corbel is to be made equal to 15,400 pounds, what
should be the width of the corbel, this width being a multiple
Serial 3404
Edition 1
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
of 4 inches?
Ans.
f(o)
m
15,400 lb.
16 in.
(4) What depth is required for a sandstone lintel in a 12-
inch wall that is to be built of brick laid in lime mortar, if the
(5) A rectangular concrete pier that is 24"X28" in cross-
section supports a total load of 175,000 pounds, which is
applied midway between the two 24-inch faces and at a dis
tance of 10 inches from one of the 28-inch faces. Determine (a)
the maximum and (b) the minimum resultant unit stresses in
(6) An exterior bearing wall of brick in a warehouse has a
cross-section similar to the upper 90 feet of the wall illustrated
in Fig. 4 (a) of the text. The 12-inch portion and the 16-inch
portion each extend for a height of 35 feet, and carry three
tiers of joists; and the 20-inch portion has a height of 20 feet
and carries two tiers of joists. The loads from the various
tiers of joists are assumed to be uniformly distributed over the
length of the wall; and the amounts of these loads are 400
pounds per linear foot of wall for the roof, or top, tier and
1,000 pounds per linear foot for each of the other tiers. Also,
the load from each tier of joists is applied 3 inches from the
inside face of the wall on which the tier rests. Determine the
distance from the outside face of the wall to the line of action
of the resultant of the vertical loads acting on the wall above
the base of the 20-inch portion. Ans. 9.65 in.
(7) A reinforced brick beam, that is simply supported on a
span of 18 feet, is to carry a superimposed uniform load of
2,800 pounds per linear foot. The width of the beam is to be
16J inches; the allowable flexural unit stresses are / = 16,000
and fb = 750 pounds per square inch; and w=25. If 3 inches
of masonry is to be provided below the center of the main
reinforcement, what should be the total depth of the beam to
the next larger inch? Ans. 27 in.
lintel is to have a span of 5 feet 6 inches?
Ans. 12| in.
the pier.
(8) An interior column carrying a central load of 400,000
pounds has a base that is 30 inches square. The column is to
be supported, by means of a square plain-concrete footing, on
a soil for which the allowable bearing capacity is 6 tons per
square foot. If the weight of the footing may be taken as 5
per cent of the column load, what should be (a) the width of
each side of the footing, and (b) the depth of the footing?
(9) The buttressed wall that is shown in cross-section in
Fig. 10 (a) of the text and is investigated in the example of
Art. 40 is altered in the following manner: The thickness of
each of the divisions 7, 8, and 9 is reduced by 6 inches; and the
width of the buttress, measured parallel to the length of the
wall, is made 3 feet 6 inches throughout its entire height.
Determine (a) the total weight of the masonry above the top
of the footing and (b) the distance from the inside face of the
wall to the center of gravity of the section for the wall and
(10) Determine the distance from the outside face of the
buttress to the point where the resultant of all the forces acting
on the buttressed wall in the preceding question cuts the top
Mail your work on this lesson as soon as you have finished it and
looked it over carefully. DO NOT HOLD IT until another lesson
is ready.
buttress.
Ans.
f (a)
1(6)
166,700 lb.
3.04 ft.
of the footing. Ans. 3 ft. 0 in.
SUPPLIES FOR STUDENTS
You will need student supplies with which to do the work of your course and you
may purchase them wherever most convenient and satisfactory to you. In order
that you may be sure of obtaining supplies of good quality at reasonable prices
we have arranged to have information sent to you about supplies that we know
to be good. Meanwhile, if you wish to purchase them in your own locality,
some of the things needed by most students are listed below.
ANSWER PAPERYour answers to examination questions should be
written with pen and ink, or better yet typewritten, on sheets 8 i ' ' X l l " .
The paper should be of light weight to save postage and it should be of
a quality such that what is written on one side does not show through
on the other side. It should also have a printed heading on each sheet.
Samples of the paper we recommend are enclosed in each package of
first work.
DRAWING PAPERCold-pressed paper in sheets 15"X20" will be
needed for drawings. A buff-colored paper is preferred, because it is
easy on the eyes and the paper should be tough and capable of taking
a clean clear ink line.
>%>
TRACING CLOTHTracing cloth should be highly transparent,
strong, and free from imperfections such as knots and air bubbles.
Sheets 15"X20" are desirable.
BINDERSIf you do good work on your examinations and drawings
you will wish to preserve them and we recommend that you purchase
suitable binders for that purpose.
DRAWING INKYour drawing ink should be of good quality capa
ble of flowing smoothly and evenly so as to make clear, sharp lines
of uniform intensity free from cracks and bubbles.
RUBBER STAMPSA rubber hand stamp with your name, address,
and class letters and number will be very convenient for identifying
all your papers in connection with your course.
DRAWING OUTFITIf your course includes mechanical drawing
you should buy a good drawing outfit, one that will be useful not only
for the work of your course, but also for your work in a drawing
office where you may later be employed.
DRAWING TABLEAn adjustable table made purposely for draw
ing is a great convenience for students whose courses include drawing.
In fact, it is almost essential. It should be rigid and well balanced.
MISCELLANEOUSYou will need pens, ink, pencils, paper, erasers,
and possibly a good fountain pen. If you are studying an engineering
course you may need a slide rule, an engineer s scale, etc.
Complete information about these and other student supplies will reach
you soon.
INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS
S669Z

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