Journal List > Clin Microbiol Rev > v.

12(4); Oct 1999

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Clin Microbiol Rev. 1999 October;
12(4)' ()4*(+2.
PMCID: PMC88925
Co,-ri./t 0 19991 A2erican 3ociet- 4or Microbiolo.-
Plant Products as Antimicrobial Agents
Mar5orie Mur,/- Co6an
7
$e,art2ent o4 Microbiolo.-1 Mia2i 8niversit-1 O"4or91 O/io
4(:()
7
Mailin. a99ress' $e,art2ent o4 Microbiolo.-1 Mia2i
8niversit-1 Mi99leto6n Ca2,us1 42:: ;ast 8niversit- <lv9.1
Mi99leto6n1 O= 4(:42. #/one' ((1>) %2%?>2>1. a"' ((1>)
%2%?>>)%. ;?2ail' co6an22@2uo/io.e9u.
!/is article /as been cite9 b- ot/er articles in #MC.
Ot/er 3ectionsA
A<3!RAC!
MAJOR BRO8#3 O
AC!DMDCRO<DAL COM#O8C$3 ROM #LAC!3
;E#;RDM;C!AL A##ROAC=;3
#LAC!3 FD!= ;DCACG
ABADC3! =8MAC DMM8CO$;DCD;CCG
HDR83
COMM;RCDAL AHADLA<DLD!G
AC$ 3A;!G O COM#O8C$3
COCCL83DOC3 AC$ 8!8R;
$DR;C!DOC3
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A<3!RAC!
!/e use o4 an9 searc/ 4or 9ru.s an9 9ietar-
su,,le2ents 9erive9 4ro2 ,lants /ave accelerate9 in
recent -ears. ;t/no,/ar2acolo.ists1 botanists1
2icrobiolo.ists1 an9 natural?,ro9ucts c/e2ists are
co2bin. t/e ;art/ 4or ,/-toc/e2icals an9 Ilea9sJ
6/ic/ coul9 be 9evelo,e9 4or treat2ent o4 in4ectious
9iseases. F/ile 2( to (:K o4 current ,/ar2aceuticals
PubMed articles by
these authors
Co6an1 M.
PubMed related
articles
Revie6 Recent stu9ies on
natural ,ro9ucts as anti?=DH
a.ents.
Curr Med Chem. 2000 Jun;
7(6):649-61.
LCurr Me9 C/e2. 2:::M
Revie6 LContrace,tive
,re,arations o4 ,lant ori.inM
Akush Ginekol (Mosk). 19!
"o#; (11):-10.
LANus/ BineNol (MosN). 19+>M
!/era,eutic #otential o4
#lants as Anti?2icrobials 4or
$ru. $iscover-.
$#id %&sed Com'lemen( Al(ern&(
Med. 200 Jun 24; . $'u) 200
Jun 24.
are 9erive9 4ro2 ,lants1 none are use9 as
anti2icrobials. !ra9itional /ealers /ave lon. use9
,lants to ,revent or cure in4ectious con9itions;
Festern 2e9icine is tr-in. to 9u,licate t/eir
successes. #lants are ric/ in a 6i9e variet- o4
secon9ar- 2etabolites1 suc/ as tannins1 ter,enoi9s1
alNaloi9s1 an9 4lavonoi9s1 6/ic/ /ave been 4oun9 in
vitro to /ave anti2icrobial ,ro,erties. !/is revie6
atte2,ts to su22ariOe t/e current status o4 botanical
screenin. e44orts1 as 6ell as in vivo stu9ies o4 t/eir
e44ectiveness an9 to"icit-. !/e structure an9
anti2icrobial ,ro,erties o4 ,/-toc/e2icals are also
a99resse9. 3ince 2an- o4 t/ese co2,oun9s are
currentl- available as unre.ulate9 botanical
,re,arations an9 t/eir use b- t/e ,ublic is increasin.
ra,i9l-1 clinicians nee9 to consi9er t/e consePuences
o4 ,atients sel4?2e9icatin. 6it/ t/ese ,re,arations.
Ot/er 3ectionsA
A<3!RAC!
MAJOR BRO8#3 O
AC!DMDCRO<DAL COM#O8C$3 ROM #LAC!3
;E#;RDM;C!AL A##ROAC=;3
#LAC!3 FD!= ;DCACG
ABADC3! =8MAC DMM8CO$;DCD;CCG
HDR83
COMM;RCDAL AHADLA<DLD!G
AC$ 3A;!G O COM#O8C$3
COCCL83DOC3 AC$ 8!8R;
$DR;C!DOC3
R;;R;CC;3

Eat leeks in March and wild garlic in May, and
all the year after the physicians may play.
!raditional "elsh rhyme #$%&'
An apple a day keeps the doctor away.
L;vi9 <ase9 Co2,le2ent
Alternat Me9. 2::+M
Revie6 Caturall- 9erive9
anti?=DH a.ents.
*h+(o(her ,es. 200- Jul;
19(7):--7-1.
L#/-tot/er Res. 2::(M
Revie6 Catural
anti2-cobacterial 2etabolites'
current status.
*h+(o.hemis(r+. 2004 A'r;
6-():1017-!2.
L#/-toc/e2istr-. 2::4M
Q 3ee revie6s... | Q 3ee
all...
(ecent Acti)ity
Clear !urn O44 !urn On
#lant #ro9ucts as
Anti2icrobial A.ents#lant
#ro9ucts as Anti2icrobial A.ents
n?) #ol-unsaturate9 att-
Aci9s ;n/ance t/e Activities o4
Ce4taOi9i2e an9 A2iNacin in
;",e...n?) #ol-unsaturate9 att-
Aci9s ;n/ance t/e Activities o4
Ce4taOi9i2e an9 A2iNacin in
;",eri2ental 3e,sis Cause9 b-
Multi9ru.?Resistant
#seu9o2onas aeru.inosa
<acteriostatic Activit- o4
3eru2 A.ainst
3ta,/-lococci<acteriostatic
!raditional American rhyme
in9in. /ealin. ,o6ers in ,lants is an ancient i9ea.
#eo,le on all continents /ave lon. a,,lie9 ,oultices
an9 i2bibe9 in4usions o4 /un9re9s1 i4 not t/ousan9s1
o4 in9i.enous ,lants1 9atin. bacN to ,re/istor-. !/ere
is evi9ence t/at Cean9ert/als livin. ):1::: -ears a.o
in ,resent?9a- DraP use9 ,lants suc/ as /oll-/ocN
(2111 224); t/ese ,lants are still 6i9el- use9 in
et/no2e9icine aroun9 t/e 6orl9. =istoricall-1
t/era,eutic results /ave been 2i"e9; Puite o4ten cures
or s-2,to2 relie4 resulte9. #oisonin.s occurre9 at a
/i./ rate1 also. Currentl-1 o4 t/e one?Puarter to one?
/al4 o4 all ,/ar2aceuticals 9is,ense9 in t/e 8nite9
3tates /avin. /i./er?,lant ori.ins1 ver- 4e6 are
inten9e9 4or use as anti2icrobials1 since 6e /ave
relie9 on bacterial an9 4un.al sources 4or t/ese
activities. 3ince t/e a9vent o4 antibiotics in t/e 19(:s1
t/e use o4 ,lant 9erivatives as anti2icrobials /as been
virtuall- none"istent.
Clinical 2icrobiolo.ists /ave t6o reasons to be
intereste9 in t/e to,ic o4 anti2icrobial ,lant e"tracts.
irst1 it is ver- liNel- t/at t/ese ,/-toc/e2icals 6ill
4in9 t/eir 6a- into t/e arsenal o4 anti2icrobial 9ru.s
,rescribe9 b- ,/-sicians; several are alrea9- bein.
teste9 in /u2ans (see belo6). Dt is re,orte9 t/at1 on
avera.e1 t6o or t/ree antibiotics 9erive9 4ro2
2icroor.anis2s are launc/e9 eac/ -ear (4>). A4ter a
9o6nturn in t/at ,ace in recent 9eca9es1 t/e ,ace is
a.ain PuicNenin. as scientists realiOe t/at t/e
e44ective li4e s,an o4 an- antibiotic is li2ite9.
Forl96i9e s,en9in. on 4in9in. ne6 anti?in4ective
Activit- o4 3eru2 A.ainst
3ta,/-lococci
Gour bro6sin. activit- is e2,t-.
Activit- recor9in. is turne9 o44.
!urn recor9in. bacN on
*inks
#ubMe9
3ubstance
!a"ono2-
!a"ono2- !ree
a.ents (inclu9in. vaccines) is e",ecte9 to increase
):K 4ro2 t/e s,en9in. levels in 199> (%). Ce6
sources1 es,eciall- ,lant sources1 are also bein.
investi.ate9. 3econ91 t/e ,ublic is beco2in.
increasin.l- a6are o4 ,roble2s 6it/ t/e
over,rescri,tion an9 2isuse o4 tra9itional antibiotics.
Dn a99ition1 2an- ,eo,le are intereste9 in /avin.
2ore autono2- over t/eir 2e9ical care. A 2ultitu9e
o4 ,lant co2,oun9s (o4ten o4 unreliable ,urit-) is
rea9il- available over?t/e?counter 4ro2 /erbal
su,,liers an9 natural?4oo9 stores1 an9 sel4?2e9ication
6it/ t/ese substances is co22on,lace. !/e use o4
,lant e"tracts1 as 6ell as ot/er alternative 4or2s o4
2e9ical treat2ents1 is en5o-in. .reat ,o,ularit- in t/e
late 199:s. ;arlier in t/is 9eca9e1 a,,ro"i2atel- one?
t/ir9 o4 ,eo,le surve-e9 in t/e 8nite9 3tates use9 at
least one IunconventionalJ t/era,- 9urin. t/e
,revious -ear ():). Dt 6as re,orte9 t/at in 199)1 sales
o4 botanical 2e9icines increase9 >%K over 199(
(11)). Dt is s,eculate9 t/at t/e A2erican ,ublic 2a-
be reactin. to over,rescri,tion o4 so2eti2es to"ic
9ru.s1 5ust as t/eir ,re9ecessors o4 t/e 19t/ centur-
(see belo6) reacte9 to t/e overuse o4 blee9in.1
,ur.in.1 an9 calo2el (24+).
<rie4 =istor-
Dt is esti2ate9 t/at t/ere are 2(:1::: to (::1:::
s,ecies o4 ,lants on ;art/ (2(). A relativel- s2all
,ercenta.e (1 to 1:K) o4 t/ese are use9 as 4oo9s b-
bot/ /u2ans an9 ot/er ani2al s,ecies. Dt is ,ossible
t/at even 2ore are use9 4or 2e9icinal ,ur,oses (14)).
=i,,ocrates (in t/e late 4i4t/ centur- <.C.) 2entione9
>:: to 4:: 2e9icinal ,lants (19(). Dn t/e 4irst centur-
A.$.1 $ioscori9es 6rote /e M&(eri& Medi.&1 a
2e9icinal ,lant catalo. 6/ic/ beca2e t/e ,rotot-,e
4or 2o9ern ,/ar2aco,oeias. !/e <ible o44ers
9escri,tions o4 a,,ro"i2atel- >: /ealin. ,lants.
Dn9ee91 4ranNincense an9 2-rr/ ,robabl- en5o-e9
t/eir status o4 .reat 6ort/ 9ue to t/eir 2e9icinal
,ro,erties. Re,orte9 to /ave antise,tic ,ro,erties1
t/e- 6ere even e2,lo-e9 as 2out/6as/es. !/e 4all
o4 ancient civiliOations 4orestalle9 Festern a9vances
in t/e un9erstan9in. o4 2e9icinal ,lants1 6it/ 2uc/
o4 t/e 9ocu2entation o4 ,lant ,/ar2aceuticals bein.
9estro-e9 or lost (211). $urin. t/e $arN A.es1 t/e
Arab 6orl9 continue9 to e"cavate t/eir o6n ol9er
6orNs an9 to buil9 u,on t/e2. O4 course1 Asian
cultures 6ere also bus- co2,ilin. t/eir o6n
,/ar2aco,oeia. Dn t/e Fest1 t/e Renaissance -ears
sa6 a revival o4 ancient 2e9icine1 6/ic/ 6as built
lar.el- on ,lant 2e9icinals.
Cort/ A2ericaRs /istor- o4 ,lant 2e9icinal use
4ollo6s t6o stran9sSt/eir use b- in9i.enous cultures
(Cative A2ericans)1 9atin. 4ro2 ,re/istor- (24>)1
an9 an IalternativeJ 2ove2ent a2on. A2ericans o4
;uro,ean ori.in1 be.innin. in t/e 19t/ centur-.
Cative A2erican use o4 ,lant 2e9icinals /as been
revie6e9 e"tensivel- in a series o4 articles b-
Moer2an (14)). =e re,orte9 t/at 6/ile 11)2( s,ecies
o4 ,lants /ave been use9 b- various Cative A2erican
.rou,s as 4oo91 21()4 /ave 4oun9 use as 9ru.s (11)).
Accor9in. to /is calculations1 t/is leaves
a,,ro"i2atel- 1+1::: s,ecies o4 ,lants 6/ic/ 6ere
use9 4or neit/er 4oo9 nor 9ru.s. 3,eculations as to
/o6 an9 6/- a selecte9 nu2ber o4 ,lant s,ecies ca2e
into use 4or eit/er 4oo9 or 9ru.s is 4ascinatin. but
outsi9e t/e sco,e o4 t/is revie6.
A2on. ;uro,eans livin. in t/e Ce6 Forl91 t/e use
o4 botanicals 6as a reaction a.ainst invasive or to"ic
2ainstrea2 2e9icinal ,ractices o4 t/e 9a-. Co less a
lu2inar- t/an Oliver Fen9ell =ol2es note9 t/at
2e9ical treat2ents in t/e 1+::s coul9 be 9an.erous
an9 ine44ective. ;"a2,les inclu9e t/e use o4 2ercur-
bat/s in Lon9on Ibarber s/o,sJ to treat s-,/ilis an9
9an.erous /allucino.ens as a tuberculosis Icure.J Dn
1+)1 =ol2es 6rote1 ID4 t/e 6/ole 2ateria 2e9ica as
no6 use9 coul9 be sunN to t/e botto2 o4 t/e sea1 it
6oul9 be all t/e better 4or 2anNin9San9 all t/e
6orse 4or t/e 4is/esJ (92). Dn 1++%1 alternative
,ractitioners co2,ile9 t/eir o6n catalo.s1 notabl- t/e
0omeo'&(hi. *h&rm&.o'oei& o1 (he 2ni(ed 3(&(es.
Mainstrea2 2e9icine is increasin.l- rece,tive to t/e
use o4 anti2icrobial an9 ot/er 9ru.s 9erive9 4ro2
,lants1 as tra9itional antibiotics (,ro9ucts o4
2icroor.anis2s or t/eir s-nt/esiOe9 9erivatives)
beco2e ine44ective an9 as ne61 ,articularl- viral1
9iseases re2ain intractable to t/is t-,e o4 9ru..
Anot/er 9rivin. 4actor 4or t/e rene6e9 interest in
,lant anti2icrobials in t/e ,ast 2: -ears /as been t/e
ra,i9 rate o4 (,lant) s,ecies e"tinction (1>1). !/ere is
a 4eelin. a2on. natural?,ro9ucts c/e2ists an9
2icrobiolo.ists aliNe t/at t/e 2ultitu9e o4 ,otentiall-
use4ul ,/-toc/e2ical structures 6/ic/ coul9 be
s-nt/esiOe9 c/e2icall- is at risN o4 bein. lost
irretrievabl- (2(). !/ere is a scienti4ic 9isci,line
Nno6n as et/nobotan- (or et/no,/ar2acolo.-)1
6/ose .oal is to utiliOe t/e i2,ressive arra- o4
Nno6le9.e asse2ble9 b- in9i.enous ,eo,les about
t/e ,lant an9 ani2al ,ro9ucts t/e- /ave use9 to
2aintain /ealt/ (%%1 1+21 2:>1 2>4). Lastl-1 t/e
ascen9anc- o4 t/e /u2an i22uno9e4icienc- virus
(=DH) /as s,urre9 intensive investi.ation into t/e
,lant 9erivatives 6/ic/ 2a- be e44ective1 es,eciall-
4or use in un9er9evelo,e9 nations 6it/ little access to
e",ensive Festern 2e9icines. (or a co2,re/ensive
revie6 o4 t/e searc/ 4or ne6 anti?=DH a.ents1 see
re4erence (1.)
!/is revie6 9escribes t/e current state o4 ,lant
anti2icrobials in t/e 8nite9 3tates1 ran.in. 4ro2
e"tracts co22onl- in use1 lar.el- b- t/e la-
co22unit-1 to substances bein. ,ros,ecte9 an9 teste9
b- researc/ers an9 clinicians. Also1 co2,oun9s
,otentiall- e44ective in treatin. =DH in4ections1 6/ic/
are bein. sou./t 4ar an9 6i9e 4or ,robable use in
Cort/ A2erica1 are also a99resse9. An atte2,t is also
2a9e to su22ariOe t/e current state o4 Nno6le9.e o4
relativel- un9e4ine9 /erbal ,ro9ucts1 since clinicians
in t/is countr- 6ill encounter t/eir use a2on.
,atients in t/e 8nite9 3tates. !/is revie6 9oes not
a99ress t/e 6orl96i9e use o4 ,lants as 2e9icinals1
but1 rat/er1 it 4ocuses on ,lants an9 t/eir e"tracts
currentl- in use in Cort/ A2erica. Onl-
,/-toc/e2icals re,orte9 to /ave anti?in4ective
,ro,erties are e"a2ine9. !/e 2an- ,lants use9 as
i22une s-ste2 boosters are outsi9e t/e ,urvie6 o4
t/is revie6. Fit/in t/ese boun9aries1 re,orts cite9 in
t/e ,eer?revie6e9 literature are .iven /eaviest
e2,/asis. $etaile9 9escri,tions o4 in9ivi9ual ,lant?
9erive9 2e9ications can be 4oun9 in t/e 4irst e9ition
o4 t/e *h+si.i&n4s /esk ,e1eren.e 1or 0er)&l
Medi.ines1 ,ublis/e9 b- Me9ical ;cono2ics
Co2,an- in 199+.
Ot/er 3ectionsA
A<3!RAC!
MAJOR BRO8#3 O
AC!DMDCRO<DAL COM#O8C$3 ROM #LAC!3
;E#;RDM;C!AL A##ROAC=;3
#LAC!3 FD!= ;DCACG
ABADC3! =8MAC DMM8CO$;DCD;CCG
HDR83
COMM;RCDAL AHADLA<DLD!G
AC$ 3A;!G O COM#O8C$3
COCCL83DOC3 AC$ 8!8R;
$DR;C!DOC3
R;;R;CC;3
MAJOR BRO8#3 O AC!DMDCRO<DAL
COM#O8C$3 ROM #LAC!3
#lants /ave an al2ost li2itless abilit- to s-nt/esiOe
aro2atic substances1 2ost o4 6/ic/ are ,/enols or
t/eir o"-.en?substitute9 9erivatives (%)). Most are
secon9ar- 2etabolites1 o4 6/ic/ at least 121::: /ave
been isolate91 a nu2ber esti2ate9 to be less t/an 1:K
o4 t/e total (19(). Dn 2an- cases1 t/ese substances
serve as ,lant 9e4ense 2ec/anis2s a.ainst ,re9ation
b- 2icroor.anis2s1 insects1 an9 /erbivores. 3o2e1
suc/ as ter,enoi9s1 .ive ,lants t/eir o9ors; ot/ers
(Puinones an9 tannins) are res,onsible 4or ,lant
,i.2ent. Man- co2,oun9s are res,onsible 4or ,lant
4lavor (e...1 t/e ter,enoi9 ca,saicin 4ro2 c/ili
,e,,ers)1 an9 so2e o4 t/e sa2e /erbs an9 s,ices use9
b- /u2ans to season 4oo9 -iel9 use4ul 2e9icinal
co2,oun9s (!able 1).
TABLE 1
Plants containing antimicrobial activity
a

8se4ul anti2icrobial ,/-toc/e2icals can be 9ivi9e9
into several cate.ories1 9escribe9 belo6 an9
su22ariOe9 in !able 2.
TABLE 2
Major classes of antimicrobial compounds
from plants
#/enolics an9 #ol-,/enols
+imple phenols and phenolic acids.
3o2e o4 t/e si2,lest bioactive ,/-toc/e2icals
consist o4 a sin.le substitute9 ,/enolic rin.. Cinna2ic
an9 ca44eic aci9s are co22on re,resentatives o4 a
6i9e .rou, o4 ,/en-l,ro,ane?9erive9 co2,oun9s
6/ic/ are in t/e /i./est o"i9ation state (i.. (i..1).1
).
FIG. 1
tructures of common antimicrobial plant
c!emicals"
!/e co22on /erbs tarra.on an9 t/-2e bot/ contain
ca44eic aci91 6/ic/ is e44ective a.ainst viruses (24()1
bacteria (>11 224)1 an9 4un.i ((+).
Catec/ol an9 ,-ro.allol bot/ are /-9ro"-late9
,/enols1 s/o6n to be to"ic to 2icroor.anis2s.
Catec/ol /as t6o TO= .rou,s1 an9 ,-ro.allol /as
t/ree. !/e site(s) an9 nu2ber o4 /-9ro"-l .rou,s on
t/e ,/enol .rou, are t/ou./t to be relate9 to t/eir
relative to"icit- to 2icroor.anis2s1 6it/ evi9ence
t/at increase9 /-9ro"-lation results in increase9
to"icit- (%)). Dn a99ition1 so2e aut/ors /ave 4oun9
t/at 2ore /i./l- o"i9iOe9 ,/enols are 2ore in/ibitor-
(1921 2>1). !/e 2ec/anis2s t/ou./t to be
res,onsible 4or ,/enolic to"icit- to 2icroor.anis2s
inclu9e enO-2e in/ibition b- t/e o"i9iOe9
co2,oun9s1 ,ossibl- t/rou./ reaction 6it/ sul4/-9r-l
.rou,s or t/rou./ 2ore nons,eci4ic interactions 6it/
t/e ,roteins (1>%).
#/enolic co2,oun9s ,ossessin. a C> si9e c/ain at a
lo6er level o4 o"i9ation an9 containin. no o"-.en are
classi4ie9 as essential oils an9 o4ten cite9 as
anti2icrobial as 6ell. ;u.enol is a 6ell?c/aracteriOe9
re,resentative 4oun9 in clove oil (i.. (i..1).1
). ;u.enol is consi9ere9 bacteriostatic
a.ainst bot/ 4un.i ((+) an9 bacteria (224).
,uinones.
Uuinones are aro2atic rin.s 6it/ t6o Netone
substitutions (i.. (i..1).1 ). !/e- are
ubiPuitous in nature an9 are c/aracteristicall- /i./l-
reactive. !/ese co2,oun9s1 bein. colore91 are
res,onsible 4or t/e bro6nin. reaction in cut or in5ure9
4ruits an9 ve.etables an9 are an inter2e9iate in t/e
2elanin s-nt/esis ,at/6a- in /u2an sNin (194).
!/eir ,resence in /enna .ives t/at 2aterial its 9-ein.
,ro,erties ()9). !/e s6itc/ bet6een 9i,/enol (or
/-9roPuinone) an9 9iNetone (or Puinone) occurs
easil- t/rou./ o"i9ation an9 re9uction reactions. !/e
in9ivi9ual re9o" ,otential o4 t/e ,articular Puinone?
/-9roPuinone ,air is ver- i2,ortant in 2an-
biolo.ical s-ste2s; 6itness t/e role o4 ubiPuinone
(coenO-2e U) in 2a22alian electron trans,ort
s-ste2s. Hita2in & is a co2,le" na,/t/oPuinone. Dts
anti/e2orr/a.ic activit- 2a- be relate9 to its ease o4
o"i9ation in bo9- tissues (+(). =-9ro"-late9 a2ino
aci9s 2a- be 2a9e into Puinones in t/e ,resence o4
suitable enO-2es1 suc/ as a ,ol-,/enolo"i9ase (2>>).
!/e reaction 4or t/e conversion o4 t-rosine to Puinone
is s/o6n in i.. i..2.2 .
FIG. 2
#eaction for t!e conversion of tyrosine to
$uinone"
Dn a99ition to ,rovi9in. a source o4 stable 4ree
ra9icals1 Puinones are Nno6n to co2,le" irreversibl-
6it/ nucleo,/ilic a2ino aci9s in ,roteins (21:)1 o4ten
lea9in. to inactivation o4 t/e ,rotein an9 loss o4
4unction. or t/at reason1 t/e ,otential ran.e o4
Puinone anti2icrobial e44ects is .reat. #robable
tar.ets in t/e 2icrobial cell are sur4ace?e",ose9
a9/esins1 cell 6all ,ol-,e,ti9es1 an9 2e2brane?
boun9 enO-2es. Uuinones 2a- also ren9er substrates
unavailable to t/e 2icroor.anis2. As 6it/ all ,lant?
9erive9 anti2icrobials1 t/e ,ossible to"ic e44ects o4
Puinones 2ust be t/orou./l- e"a2ine9.
&aO2i et al. (112) 9escribe9 an ant/raPuinone 4ro2
C&ssi& i(&li.&1 a #aNistani tree1 6/ic/ 6as
bacteriostatic 4or %&.illus &n(hr&.is1
Cor+ne)&.(erium 'seudodi'h(heri.um1 an9
*seudomon&s &eru5inos& an9 bacterici9al 4or
*seudomon&s 'seudom&lli&e. =-,ericin1 an
ant/raPuinone 4ro2 3t. Jo/nRs 6ort (0+'eri.um
'er1or&(um)1 /as receive9 2uc/ attention in t/e
,o,ular ,ress latel- as an anti9e,ressant1 an9 $uNe
re,orte9 in 19+( t/at it /a9 .eneral anti2icrobial
,ro,erties ((+).
Fla)ones, fla)onoids, and fla)onols.
lavones are ,/enolic structures containin. one
carbon-l .rou, (as o,,ose9 to t/e t6o carbon-ls in
Puinones) (i.. (i..1).1 ). !/e
a99ition o4 a >?/-9ro"-l .rou, -iel9s a 4lavonol ()9).
lavonoi9s are also /-9ro"-late9 ,/enolic substances
but occur as a C)?C> unit linNe9 to an aro2atic rin..
3ince t/e- are Nno6n to be s-nt/esiOe9 b- ,lants in
res,onse to 2icrobial in4ection (())1 it s/oul9 not be
sur,risin. t/at t/e- /ave been 4oun9 in vitro to be
e44ective anti2icrobial substances a.ainst a 6i9e
arra- o4 2icroor.anis2s. !/eir activit- is ,robabl-
9ue to t/eir abilit- to co2,le" 6it/ e"tracellular an9
soluble ,roteins an9 to co2,le" 6it/ bacterial cell
6alls1 as 9escribe9 above 4or Puinones. More
li,o,/ilic 4lavonoi9s 2a- also 9isru,t 2icrobial
2e2branes (229).
Catec/ins1 t/e 2ost re9uce9 4or2 o4 t/e C> unit in
4lavonoi9 co2,oun9s1 9eserve s,ecial 2ention. !/ese
4lavonoi9s /ave been e"tensivel- researc/e9 9ue to
t/eir occurrence in oolon. .reen teas. Dt 6as notice9
so2e ti2e a.o t/at teas e"erte9 anti2icrobial activit-
(22%) an9 t/at t/e- contain a 2i"ture o4 catec/in
co2,oun9s. !/ese co2,oun9s in/ibite9 in vitro
6i)rio .holer&e O1 (2()1 3(re'(o.o..us mu(&ns (2>1
1+(1 1+)1 22+)1 3hi5ell& (2>()1 an9 ot/er bacteria an9
2icroor.anis2s (1+)1 224). !/e catec/ins inactivate9
c/olera to"in in 6i)rio (2() an9 in/ibite9 isolate9
bacterial .lucos-ltrans4erases in 3. mu(&ns (1(1)1
,ossibl- 9ue to co2,le"in. activities 9escribe9 4or
Puinones above. !/is latter activit- 6as borne out in
in vivo tests o4 conventional rats. F/en t/e rats 6ere
4e9 a 9iet containin. :.1K tea catec/ins1 4issure caries
(cause9 b- 3. mu(&ns) 6as re9uce9 b- 4:K (1))).
lavonoi9 co2,oun9s e"/ibit in/ibitor- e44ects
a.ainst 2ulti,le viruses. Cu2erous stu9ies /ave
9ocu2ente9 t/e e44ectiveness o4 4lavonoi9s suc/ as
s6erti4ranc/esi9e (1%2)1 .l-c-rr/iOin (4ro2 licorice)
(242)1 an9 c/r-sin (4+) a.ainst =DH. More t/an one
stu9- /as 4oun9 t/at 4lavone 9erivatives are in/ibitor-
to res,irator- s-nc-tial virus (R3H) (211 111). &aul et
al. (111) ,rovi9e a su22ar- o4 t/e activities an9
2o9es o4 action o4 Puercetin1 narin.in1 /es,eretin1
an9 catec/in in in vitro cell culture 2onola-ers.
F/ile narin.in 6as not in/ibitor- to /er,es si2,le"
virus t-,e 1 (=3H?1)1 ,oliovirus t-,e 11 ,arain4luenOa
virus t-,e >1 or R3H1 t/e ot/er t/ree 4lavonoi9s 6ere
e44ective in various 6a-s. =es,eretin re9uce9
intracellular re,lication o4 all 4our viruses; catec/in
in/ibite9 in4ectivit- but not intracellular re,lication o4
R3H an9 =3H?1; an9 Puercetin 6as universall-
e44ective in re9ucin. in4ectivit-. !/e aut/ors ,ro,ose
t/at s2all structural 9i44erences in t/e co2,oun9s are
critical to t/eir activit- an9 ,ointe9 out anot/er
a9vanta.e o4 2an- ,lant 9erivatives' t/eir lo6 to"ic
,otential. !/e avera.e Festern 9ail- 9iet contains
a,,ro"i2atel- 1 . o4 2i"e9 4lavonoi9s (124);
,/ar2acolo.icall- active concentrations are not liNel-
to be /ar24ul to /u2an /osts.
An iso4lavone 4oun9 in a Fest A4rican le.u2e1
al,inu2iso4lavone1 ,revents sc/istoso2al in4ection
6/en a,,lie9 to,icall- (1%(). #/loretin1 4oun9 in
certain serovars o4 a,,les1 2a- /ave activit- a.ainst a
variet- o4 2icroor.anis2s (1:1). Balan.in (>1(1%?
tri/-9ro"-4lavone)1 9erive9 4ro2 t/e ,erennial /erb
0eli.hr+sum &ureoni(ens1 see2s to be a ,articularl-
use4ul co2,oun91 since it /as s/o6n activit- a.ainst
a 6i9e ran.e o4 .ra2?,ositive bacteria as 6ell as
4un.i (2) an9 viruses1 in ,articular =3H?1 an9
co"sacNie < virus t-,e 1 (14().
$elineation o4 t/e ,ossible 2ec/anis2 o4 action o4
4lavones an9 4lavonoi9s is /a2,ere9 b- con4lictin.
4in9in.s. lavonoi9s lacNin. /-9ro"-l .rou,s on t/eir
V?rin.s are 2ore active a.ainst 2icroor.anis2s t/an
are t/ose 6it/ t/e TO= .rou,s (>+); t/is 4in9in.
su,,orts t/e i9ea t/at t/eir 2icrobial tar.et is t/e
2e2brane. Li,o,/ilic co2,oun9s 6oul9 be 2ore
9isru,tive o4 t/is structure. =o6ever1 several aut/ors
/ave also 4oun9 t/e o,,osite e44ect; i.e.1 t/e 2ore
/-9ro"-lation1 t/e .reater t/e anti2icrobial activit-
(1+9). !/is latter 4in9in. re4lects t/e si2ilar result 4or
si2,le ,/enolics (see above). Dt is sa4e to sa- t/at
t/ere is no clear ,re9ictabilit- 4or t/e 9e.ree o4
/-9ro"-lation an9 to"icit- to 2icroor.anis2s.
!annins.
I!anninJ is a .eneral 9escri,tive na2e 4or a .rou, o4
,ol-2eric ,/enolic substances ca,able o4 tannin.
leat/er or ,reci,itatin. .elatin 4ro2 solution1 a
,ro,ert- Nno6n as astrin.enc-. !/eir 2olecular
6ei./ts ran.e 4ro2 (:: to >1::: (+%)1 an9 t/e- are
4oun9 in al2ost ever- ,lant ,art' barN1 6oo91 leaves1
4ruits1 an9 roots (192). !/e- are 9ivi9e9 into t6o
.rou,s1 /-9rol-Oable an9 con9ense9 tannins.
=-9rol-Oable tannins are base9 on .allic aci91 usuall-
as 2ulti,le esters 6it/ $?.lucose1 6/ile t/e 2ore
nu2erous con9ense9 tannins (o4ten calle9
,roant/oc-ani9ins) are 9erive9 4ro2 4lavonoi9
2ono2ers (i.. (i..1).1 ). !annins
2a- be 4or2e9 b- con9ensations o4 4lavan 9erivatives
6/ic/ /ave been trans,orte9 to 6oo9- tissues o4
,lants. Alternativel-1 tannins 2a- be 4or2e9 b-
,ol-2eriOation o4 Puinone units (%)). !/is .rou, o4
co2,oun9s /as receive9 a .reat 9eal o4 attention in
recent -ears1 since it 6as su..este9 t/at t/e
consu2,tion o4 tannin?containin. bevera.es1
es,eciall- .reen teas an9 re9 6ines1 can cure or
,revent a variet- o4 ills (19+).
Man- /u2an ,/-siolo.ical activities1 suc/ as
sti2ulation o4 ,/a.oc-tic cells1 /ost?2e9iate9 tu2or
activit-1 an9 a 6i9e ran.e o4 anti?in4ective actions1
/ave been assi.ne9 to tannins (+%). One o4 t/eir
2olecular actions is to co2,le" 6it/ ,roteins t/rou./
so?calle9 nons,eci4ic 4orces suc/ as /-9ro.en
bon9in. an9 /-9ro,/obic e44ects1 as 6ell as b-
covalent bon9 4or2ation (+%1 21:). !/us1 t/eir 2o9e
o4 anti2icrobial action1 as 9escribe9 in t/e section on
Puinones (see above)1 2a- be relate9 to t/eir abilit-
to inactivate 2icrobial a9/esins1 enO-2es1 cell
envelo,e trans,ort ,roteins1 etc. !/e- also co2,le"
6it/ ,ol-sacc/ari9e (24%). !/e anti2icrobial
si.ni4icance o4 t/is ,articular activit- /as not been
e",lore9. !/ere is also evi9ence 4or 9irect
inactivation o4 2icroor.anis2s' lo6 tannin
concentrations 2o9i4- t/e 2or,/olo.- o4 .er2 tubes
o4 Crini'ellis 'erni.ios& (>>). !annins in ,lants
in/ibit insect .ro6t/ (19)) an9 9isru,t 9i.estive
events in ru2inal ani2als (>().
3calbert (192) revie6e9 t/e anti2icrobial ,ro,erties
o4 tannins in 1991. =e liste9 >> stu9ies 6/ic/ /a9
9ocu2ente9 t/e in/ibitor- activities o4 tannins u, to
t/at ,oint. Accor9in. to t/ese stu9ies1 tannins can be
to"ic to 4ila2entous 4un.i1 -easts1 an9 bacteria.
Con9ense9 tannins /ave been 9eter2ine9 to bin9 cell
6alls o4 ru2inal bacteria1 ,reventin. .ro6t/ an9
,rotease activit- (1:(). Alt/ou./ t/is is still
s,eculative1 tannins are consi9ere9 at least ,artiall-
res,onsible 4or t/e antibiotic activit- o4 2et/anolic
e"tracts o4 t/e barN o4 7ermin&li& &l&(& 4oun9 in
Ce,al (221). !/is activit- 6as en/ance9 b- 8H li./t
activation (>2: to 4:: n2 at ( FW2
2
4or 2 /). At least
t6o stu9ies /ave s/o6n tannins to be in/ibitor- to
viral reverse transcri,tases (1111 1(().
-oumarins.
Cou2arins are ,/enolic substances 2a9e o4 4use9
benOene an9 X?,-rone rin.s (1)1). !/e- are
res,onsible 4or t/e c/aracteristic o9or o4 /a-. As o4
199)1 at least 11>:: /a9 been i9enti4ie9 (9(). !/eir
4a2e /as co2e 2ainl- 4ro2 t/eir antit/ro2botic
(22>)1 anti?in4la22ator- (1%%)1 an9 vaso9ilator-
(1(2) activities. Far4arin is a ,articularl- 6ell?Nno6n
cou2arin 6/ic/ is use9 bot/ as an oral anticoa.ulant
an91 interestin.l-1 as a ro9entici9e (11>). Dt 2a- also
/ave antiviral e44ects (24). Cou2arins are Nno6n to
be /i./l- to"ic in ro9ents (2>2) an9 t/ere4ore are
treate9 6it/ caution b- t/e 2e9ical co22unit-.
=o6ever1 recent stu9ies /ave s/o6n a I,ronounce9
s,ecies?9e,en9ent 2etabolis2J (244)1 so t/at 2an-
in vivo ani2al stu9ies cannot be e"tra,olate9 to
/u2ans. Dt a,,ears t/at to"ic cou2arin 9erivatives
2a- be sa4el- e"crete9 in t/e urine in /u2ans (244).
3everal ot/er cou2arins /ave anti2icrobial
,ro,erties. R. $. !/ornes1 6orNin. at t/e <oston
L-in.?Dn =os,ital in 19(41 sou./t an a.ent to treat
va.inal can9i9iasis in /is ,re.nant ,atients. Cou2arin
6as 4oun9 in vitro to in/ibit C&ndid& &l)i.&ns.
($urin. subsePuent in vivo tests on rabbits1 t/e
cou2arin?s,iNe9 6ater su,,l- 6as ina9vertentl-
.iven to all t/e ani2als in t/e researc/ 4acilit- an9
6as 9iscovere9 to be a ,otent contrace,tive a.ent
6/en bree9in. ,ro.ra2s starte9 to 4ail L22(M.) Dts
estro.enic e44ects 6ere later 9escribe9 (2:)).
As a .rou,1 cou2arins /ave been 4oun9 to sti2ulate
2acro,/a.es (>%)1 6/ic/ coul9 /ave an in9irect
ne.ative e44ect on in4ections. More s,eci4icall-1
cou2arin /as been use9 to ,revent recurrences o4
col9 sores cause9 b- =3H?1 in /u2ans (24) but 6as
4oun9 ine44ective a.ainst le,ros- (22().
=-9ro"-cinna2ic aci9s1 relate9 to cou2arins1 see2
to be in/ibitor- to .ra2?,ositive bacteria ())). Also1
,/-toale"ins1 6/ic/ are /-9ro"-late9 9erivatives o4
cou2arins1 are ,ro9uce9 in carrots in res,onse to
4un.al in4ection an9 can be ,resu2e9 to /ave
anti4un.al activit- (9(). Beneral anti2icrobial activit-
6as 9ocu2ente9 in 6oo9ru44 (G&lium odor&(um)
e"tracts (224). All in all1 9ata about s,eci4ic antibiotic
,ro,erties o4 cou2arins are scarce1 alt/ou./ 2an-
re,orts .ive reason to believe t/at so2e utilit- 2a-
resi9e in t/ese ,/-toc/e2icals (2)1 +>1 19>). urt/er
researc/ is 6arrante9.
!er,enoi9s an9 ;ssential Oils
!/e 4ra.rance o4 ,lants is carrie9 in t/e so calle9
Puinta essentia1 or essential oil 4raction. !/ese oils are
secon9ar- 2etabolites t/at are /i./l- enric/e9 in
co2,oun9s base9 on an iso,rene structure (i..
(i..1).1 ). !/e- are calle9 ter,enes1
t/eir .eneral c/e2ical structure is C1:=1)1 an9 t/e-
occur as 9iter,enes1 triter,enes1 an9 tetrater,enes (C2:1
C>:1 an9 C4:)1 as 6ell as /e2iter,enes (C() an9
sesPuiter,enes (C1(). F/en t/e co2,oun9s contain
a99itional ele2ents1 usuall- o"-.en1 t/e- are ter2e9
ter,enoi9s.
!er,enoi9s are s-nt/esiOe9 4ro2 acetate units1 an9 as
suc/ t/e- s/are t/eir ori.ins 6it/ 4att- aci9s. !/e-
9i44er 4ro2 4att- aci9s in t/at t/e- contain e"tensive
branc/in. an9 are c-cliOe9. ;"a2,les o4 co22on
ter,enoi9s are 2et/anol an9 ca2,/or (2onoter,enes)
an9 4arnesol an9 arte2isin (sesPuiter,enoi9s).
Arte2isin an9 its 9erivative X?arteet/er1 also Nno6n
b- t/e na2e Pin./aosu1 4in9 current use as
anti2alarials (2>%). Dn 19+(1 t/e steerin. co22ittee
o4 t/e scienti4ic 6orNin. .rou, o4 t/e Forl9 =ealt/
Or.aniOation 9eci9e9 to 9evelo, t/e latter 9ru. as a
treat2ent 4or cerebral 2alaria.
!er,enenes or ter,enoi9s are active a.ainst bacteria
(41 +1 221 +21 9:1 1211 1441 19%1 22:1 221)1 4un.i (1+1
+41 1221 1%91 1+:1 21>1 221)1 viruses (%41 +)1 1%>1
2121 24))1 an9 ,rotoOoa (%+1 2>%). Dn 19%%1 it 6as
re,orte9 t/at ):K o4 essential oil 9erivatives
e"a2ine9 to 9ate 6ere in/ibitor- to 4un.i 6/ile >:K
in/ibite9 bacteria (>9). !/e triter,enoi9 betulinic aci9
is 5ust one o4 several ter,enoi9s (see belo6) 6/ic/
/ave been s/o6n to in/ibit =DH. !/e 2ec/anis2 o4
action o4 ter,enes is not 4ull- un9erstoo9 but is
s,eculate9 to involve 2e2brane 9isru,tion b- t/e
li,o,/ilic co2,oun9s. Accor9in.l-1 Men9oOa et al.
(144) 4oun9 t/at increasin. t/e /-9ro,/ilicit- o4
Naurene 9iter,enoi9s b- a99ition o4 a 2et/-l .rou,
9rasticall- re9uce9 t/eir anti2icrobial activit-. oo9
scientists /ave 4oun9 t/e ter,enoi9s ,resent in
essential oils o4 ,lants to be use4ul in t/e control o4
8is(eri& mono.+(o5enes (1)). Oil o4 basil1 a
co22erciall- available /erbal1 6as 4oun9 to be as
e44ective as 12( ,,2 c/lorine in 9isin4ectin. lettuce
leaves (241).
C/ile ,e,,ers are a 4oo9 ite2 4oun9 nearl-
ubiPuitousl- in 2an- Mesoa2erican cultures (44).
!/eir use 2a- re4lect 2ore t/an a 9esire to 4lavor
4oo9s. Man- essential nutrients1 suc/ as vita2in C1
,rovita2ins A an9 ;1 an9 several < vita2ins1 are
4oun9 in c/iles (2%). A ter,enoi9 constituent1
ca,saicin1 /as a 6i9e ran.e o4 biolo.ical activities in
/u2ans1 a44ectin. t/e nervous1 car9iovascular1 an9
9i.estive s-ste2s (2>)) as 6ell as 4in9in. use as an
anal.esic (4%). !/e evi9ence 4or its anti2icrobial
activit- is 2i"e9. Recentl-1 Cic/e6icO an9 !/or,e
(42) 4oun9 t/at ca,saicin 2i./t en/ance t/e .ro6t/ o4
C&ndid& &l)i.&ns but t/at it clearl- in/ibite9 various
bacteria to 9i44erin. e"tents. Alt/ou./ ,ossibl-
9etri2ental to t/e /u2an .astric 2ucosa1 ca,saicin is
also bacterici9al to 0eli.o)&.(er '+lori (1:)).
Anot/er /ot?tastin. 9iter,ene1 a4ra2o9ial1 4ro2 a
Ca2eroonian s,ice1 is a broa9?s,ectru2 anti4un.al
(1+).
!/e et/anol?soluble 4raction o4 ,ur,le ,rairie clover
-iel9s a ter,enoi9 calle9 ,etaloste2u2ol1 6/ic/
s/o6e9 e"cellent activit- a.ainst %&.illus su)(ilis an9
3(&'h+lo.o..us &ureus an9 lesser activit- a.ainst
.ra2?ne.ative bacteria as 6ell as C&ndid& &l)i.&ns
(1::). !6o 9iter,enes isolate9 b- <atista et al. (2>)
6ere 4oun9 to be 2ore 9e2ocratic; t/e- 6orNe9 6ell
a.ainst 3(&'h+lo.o..us &ureus1 6. .holer&e1 *.
&eru5inos&1 an9 C&ndid& s,,. F/en it 6as observe9
t/at resi9ents o4 Mali use9 t/e barN o4 a tree calle9
*(elo'sis su)eros& 4or t/e treat2ent o4 .astric ulcers1
investi.ators teste9 ter,enoi9?containin. 4ractions in
1: rats be4ore an9 a4ter t/e rats /a9 ulcers c/e2icall-
in9uce9. !/e- 4oun9 t/at t/e ter,enoi9s ,revente9 t/e
4or2ation o4 ulcers an9 9i2inis/e9 t/e severit- o4
e"istent ulcers. F/et/er t/is activit- 6as 9ue to
anti2icrobial action or to ,rotection o4 t/e .astric
2ucosa is not clear ((>). &a9ota et al. (1:+) 4oun9
t/at tric/orab9al A1 a 9iter,ene 4ro2 a Ja,anese /erb1
coul9 9irectl- in/ibit 0. '+lori.
AlNaloi9s
=eteroc-clic nitro.en co2,oun9s are calle9
alNaloi9s. !/e 4irst 2e9icall- use4ul e"a2,le o4 an
alNaloi9 6as 2or,/ine1 isolate9 in 1+:( 4ro2 t/e
o,iu2 ,o,,- *&'&#er somni1erum ()9); t/e na2e
2or,/ine co2es 4ro2 t/e BreeN Mor,/eus1 .o9 o4
9rea2s. Co9eine an9 /eroin are bot/ 9erivatives o4
2or,/ine. $iter,enoi9 alNaloi9s1 co22onl- isolate9
4ro2 t/e ,lants o4 t/e Ranunculaceae1 or buttercu,
(1:%) 4a2il- (1()1 are co22onl- 4oun9 to /ave
anti2icrobial ,ro,erties (1)>). 3ola2ar.ine1 a
.l-coalNaloi9 4ro2 t/e berries o4 3ol&num
kh&si&num1 an9 ot/er alNaloi9s 2a- be use4ul a.ainst
=DH in4ection (1421 2::) as 6ell as intestinal
in4ections associate9 6it/ AD$3 (14:). F/ile
alNaloi9s /ave been 4oun9 to /ave 2icrobioci9al
e44ects (inclu9in. a.ainst Gi&rdi& an9 $n(&moe)&
s,ecies L%+M)1 t/e 2a5or anti9iarr/eal e44ect is
,robabl- 9ue to t/eir e44ects on transit ti2e in t/e
s2all intestine.
<erberine is an i2,ortant re,resentative o4 t/e
alNaloi9 .rou,. Dt is ,otentiall- e44ective a.ainst
tr-,anoso2es (%>) an9 ,las2o9ia (1)>). !/e
2ec/anis2 o4 action o4 /i./l- aro2atic ,lanar
Puaternar- alNaloi9s suc/ as berberine an9 /ar2ane
(9>) is attribute9 to t/eir abilit- to intercalate 6it/
$CA (1%)).
Lectins an9 #ol-,e,ti9es
#e,ti9es 6/ic/ are in/ibitor- to 2icroor.anis2s 6ere
4irst re,orte9 in 1942 (19). !/e- are o4ten ,ositivel-
c/ar.e9 an9 contain 9isul4i9e bon9s (2(>). !/eir
2ec/anis2 o4 action 2a- be t/e 4or2ation o4 ion
c/annels in t/e 2icrobial 2e2brane (2221 2(>) or
co2,etitive in/ibition o4 a9/esion o4 2icrobial
,roteins to /ost ,ol-sacc/ari9e rece,tors (2:2).
Recent interest /as been 4ocuse9 2ostl- on stu9-in.
anti?=DH ,e,ti9es an9 lectins1 but t/e in/ibition o4
bacteria an9 4un.i b- t/ese 2acro2olecules1 suc/ as
t/at 4ro2 t/e /erbaceous Am&r&n(hus1 /as lon. been
Nno6n ((:).
!/ionins are ,e,ti9es co22onl- 4oun9 in barle- an9
6/eat an9 consist o4 4% a2ino aci9 resi9ues (4(1
14>). !/e- are to"ic to -easts an9 .ra2?ne.ative an9
.ra2?,ositive bacteria ()(). !/ionins AE1 an9 AE2
4ro2 su.ar beet are active a.ainst 4un.i but not
bacteria (11+). abatin1 a ne6l- i9enti4ie9 4%?resi9ue
,e,ti9e 4ro2 4ava beans1 a,,ears to be structurall-
relate9 to Y?t/ionins 4ro2 .rains an9 in/ibits $. .oli1
*. &eru5inos&1 an9 $n(ero.o..us hir&e but not
C&ndid& or 3&..h&rom+.es (2(>).
!/e lar.er lectin 2olecules1 6/ic/ inclu9e 2annose?
s,eci4ic lectins 4ro2 several ,lants (2:)1 MA#>: 4ro2
bitter 2elon (12+)1 BA#>1 4ro2 Gelonium
mul(i1lorum (2+)1 an9 5acalin ()4)1 are in/ibitor- to
viral ,roli4eration (=DH1 c-to2e.alovirus)1 ,robabl-
b- in/ibitin. viral interaction 6it/ critical /ost cell
co2,onents. Dt is 6ort/ e2,/asiOin. t/at 2olecules
an9 co2,oun9s suc/ as t/ese 6/ose 2o9e o4 action
2a- be to in/ibit a9/esion 6ill not be 9etecte9 b-
usin. 2ost .eneral ,lant anti2icrobial screenin.
,rotocols1 even 6it/ t/e bioassa-?.ui9e9 4ractionation
,roce9ures (1>11 1+1) use9 b- natural?,ro9ucts
c/e2ists (see belo6). Dt is an area o4
et/no,/ar2acolo.- 6/ic/ 9eserves attention1 so t/at
initial screens o4 ,otentiall- ,/ar2acolo.icall- active
,lants (9escribe9 in re4erences 2(1 4>1 an9 2>+) 2a-
be 2a9e 2ore use4ul.
Mi"tures
!/e c/e6in. sticN is 6i9el- use9 in A4rican countries
as an oral /-.iene ai9 (in ,lace o4 a toot/brus/)
(1()). C/e6in. sticNs co2e 4ro2 9i44erent s,ecies o4
,lants1 an9 6it/in one sticN t/e c/e2icall- active
co2,onent 2a- be /etero.eneous ((). Cru9e e"tracts
o4 one s,ecies use9 4or t/is ,ur,ose1 3erindei&
9erne.kei1 in/ibite9 t/e ,erio9ontal ,at/o.ens
*or'h+romon&s 5in5i#&lis an9 %&.(eroides
mel&nino5eni.us in vitro (1+>). !/e active
co2,onent o4 t/e Ci.erian c/e6in. sticN (:&5&r&
;&n(ho<+loides) 6as 4oun9 to consist o4 various
alNaloi9s (1(%). F/et/er t/ese co2,oun9s1 lon.
utiliOe9 in 9evelo,in. countries1 2i./t 4in9 use in t/e
Festern 6orl9 is not -et Nno6n.
#a,a-a (C&ri.& '&'&+&) -iel9s a 2ilN- sa,1 o4ten
calle9 a late"1 6/ic/ is a co2,le" 2i"ture o4
c/e2icals. C/ie4 a2on. t/e2 is ,a,ain1 a 6ell?
Nno6n ,roteol-tic enO-2e (1)2). An alNaloi91
car,aine1 is also ,resent (>4). !er,enoi9s are also
,resent an9 2a- contribute to its anti2icrobial
,ro,erties (224). Osato et al. (1)+) 4oun9 t/e late" to
be bacteriostatic to %. su)(ilis1 $n(ero)&.(er .lo&.&e1
$. .oli1 3&lmonell& (+'hi1 3(&'h+lo.o..us &ureus1 an9
*ro(eus #ul5&ris.
A-urve9a is a t-,e o4 /ealin. cra4t ,ractice9 in Dn9ia
but not unNno6n in t/e 8nite9 3tates. A-urve9ic
,ractitioners rel- on ,lant e"tracts1 bot/ I,ureJ
sin.le?,lant ,re,arations an9 2i"e9 4or2ulations.
!/e ,re,arations /ave l-rical na2es1 suc/ as
As/6a.an9/a (=i(h&ni& somni1er& root) ((4)1
Cauver- 1:: (a 2i"ture) (1>>)1 an9 Livo?vet (12().
!/ese ,re,arations are use9 to treat ani2als as 6ell as
/u2ans (12(). Dn a99ition to t/eir anti2icrobial
activities1 t/e- /ave been 4oun9 to /ave anti9iarr/eal
(1>4)1 i22uno2o9ulator- ((41 1>>)1 anticancer ((9)1
an9 ,s-c/otro,ic (2:1) ,ro,erties. Dn vivo stu9ies o4
Abana1 an A-urve9ic 4or2ulation1 4oun9 a sli./t
re9uction in e",eri2entall- in9uce9 car9iac
arr/-t/2ias in 9o.s (%(). !6o 2icroor.anis2s
a.ainst 6/ic/ A-urve9ic ,re,arations /ave activit-
are As'er5illus s,,. ((4) an9 *ro'ioni)&.(erium
&.nes (1%:). (!/e as,er.illosis stu9- 6as ,er4or2e9
6it/ 2ice in vivo1 an9 it is t/ere4ore i2,ossible to
9eter2ine 6/et/er t/e e44ects are 9ue to t/e
sti2ulation o4 2acro,/a.e activit- in t/e 6/ole
ani2al rat/er t/an to 9irect anti2icrobial e44ects.)
!/e to"icit- o4 A-urve9ic ,re,arations /as been t/e
sub5ect o4 so2e s,eculation1 es,eciall- since so2e o4
t/e2 inclu9e 2etals. #r,ic?Ma5ic et al. i9enti4ie9 /i./
levels o4 lea9 in t/e bloo9 o4 a9ult volunteers 6/o
/a9 sel4?2e9icate9 6it/ A-urve9ic 2e9icines (1%+).
#ro,olis is a cru9e e"tract o4 t/e balsa2 o4 various
trees; it is o4ten calle9 bee .lue1 since /one-bees
.at/er it 4ro2 t/e trees. Dts c/e2ical co2,osition is
ver- co2,le"' liNe t/e late"es 9escribe9 above1
ter,enoi9s are ,resent1 as 6ell as 4lavonoi9s1 benOoic
aci9s an9 esters1 an9 substitute9 ,/enolic aci9s an9
esters (9). 3-nt/etic cinna2ic aci9s1 i9entical to t/ose
4ro2 ,ro,olis1 6ere 4oun9 to in/ibit /e2a..lutination
activit- o4 in4luenOa virus (199). A2oros et al. 4oun9
t/at ,ro,olis 6as active a.ainst an ac-clovir?resistant
2utant o4 =3H?11 a9enovirus t-,e 21 vesicular
sto2atitis virus1 an9 ,oliovirus (9). Mi"tures o4
c/e2icals1 suc/ as are 4oun9 in late" an9 ,ro,olis1
2a- act s-ner.isticall-. F/ile t/e 4lavone an9
4lavonol co2,onents 6ere active in isolation a.ainst
=3H?11 2ulti,le 4lavonoi9s incubate9 si2ultaneousl-
6it/ t/e virus 6ere 2ore e44ective t/an sin.le
c/e2icals1 a ,ossible e",lanation o4 6/- ,ro,olis is
2ore e44ective t/an its in9ivi9ual co2,oun9s (1:). O4
course1 2i"tures are 2ore liNel- to contain to"ic
constituents1 an9 t/e- 2ust be t/orou./l-
investi.ate9 an9 stan9ar9iOe9 be4ore a,,rove9 4or use
on a lar.e?scale basis in t/e Fest.
Ot/er Co2,oun9s
Man- ,/-toc/e2icals not 2entione9 above /ave
been 4oun9 to e"ert anti2icrobial ,ro,erties. !/is
revie6 /as atte2,te9 to 4ocus on re,orts o4 c/e2icals
6/ic/ are 4oun9 in 2ulti,le instances to be active. Dt
s/oul9 be 2entione91 /o6ever1 t/at t/ere are re,orts
o4 anti2icrobial ,ro,erties associate9 6it/
,ol-a2ines (in ,articular s,er2i9ine) (%:)1
isot/ioc-anates ((%1 1:4)1 t/iosul4inates (21()1 an9
.lucosi9es (1491 1+4).
#ol-acet-lenes 9eserve s,ecial 2ention. ;steveO?
<raun et al. isolate9 a C1% ,ol-acet-lene co2,oun9
4ro2 %u'leurum s&li.i1olium1 a ,lant native to t/e
Canar- Dslan9s. !/e co2,oun91 +3?/e,ta9eca?
2(>)19(>)?9iene?41)?9i-ne?11+?9iol1 6as in/ibitor- to
3. &ureus an9 %. su)(ilis but not to .ra2?ne.ative
bacteria or -easts ()2). Acet-lene co2,oun9s an9
4lavonoi9s 4ro2 ,lants tra9itionall- use9 in <raOil 4or
treat2ent o4 2alaria 4ever an9 liver 9isor9ers /ave
also been associate9 6it/ anti2alarial activit- (29).
Muc/ /as been 6ritten about t/e anti2icrobial e44ects
o4 cranberr- 5uice. =istoricall-1 6o2en /ave been
tol9 to 9rinN t/e 5uice in or9er to ,revent an9 even
cure urinar- tract in4ections. Dn t/e earl- 199:s1
researc/ers 4oun9 t/at t/e 2onosacc/ari9e 4ructose
,resent in cranberr- an9 blueberr- 5uices
co2,etitivel- in/ibite9 t/e a9sor,tion o4 ,at/o.enic
$. .oli to urinar- tract e,it/elial cells1 actin. as an
analo.ue 4or 2annose (2(2). Clinical stu9ies /ave
borne out t/e ,rotective e44ects o4 cranberr- 5uice
(1%). Man- 4ruits contain 4ructose1 /o6ever1 an9
researc/ers are no6 seeNin. a secon9 active
co2,oun9 4ro2 cranberr- 5uice 6/ic/ contributes to
t/e anti2icrobial ,ro,erties o4 t/is 5uice (2(2).
Ot/er 3ectionsA
A<3!RAC!
MAJOR BRO8#3 O
AC!DMDCRO<DAL COM#O8C$3 ROM #LAC!3
;E#;RDM;C!AL A##ROAC=;3
#LAC!3 FD!= ;DCACG
ABADC3! =8MAC DMM8CO$;DCD;CCG
HDR83
COMM;RCDAL AHADLA<DLD!G
AC$ 3A;!G O COM#O8C$3
COCCL83DOC3 AC$ 8!8R;
$DR;C!DOC3
R;;R;CC;3
;E#;RDM;C!AL A##ROAC=;3
;"traction Met/o9s
A9vice aboun9s 4or t/e a2ateur /erbalist on /o6 to
,re,are /ealin. co2,oun9s 4ro2 ,lants an9 /erbs.
Fater is al2ost universall- t/e solvent use9 to e"tract
activit-. At /o2e1 9rie9 ,lants can be in.este9 as teas
(,lants stee,e9 in /ot 6ater) or1 rarel-1 tinctures
(,lants in alco/olic solutions) or in/ale9 via stea2
4ro2 boilin. sus,ensions o4 t/e ,arts. $rie9 ,lant
,arts can be a99e9 to oils or ,etroleu2 5ell- an9
a,,lie9 e"ternall-. #oultices can also be 2a9e 4ro2
concentrate9 teas or tinctures (>:1 224).
3cienti4ic anal-sis o4 ,lant co2,onents 4ollo6s a
lo.ical ,at/6a-. #lants are collecte9 eit/er ran9o2l-
or b- 4ollo6in. lea9s su,,lie9 b- local /ealers in
.eo.ra,/ical areas 6/ere t/e ,lants are 4oun9 (1>().
Dnitial screenin.s o4 ,lants 4or ,ossible anti2icrobial
activities t-,icall- be.in b- usin. cru9e aPueous or
alco/ol e"tractions an9 can be 4ollo6e9 b- various
or.anic e"traction 2et/o9s. 3ince nearl- all o4 t/e
i9enti4ie9 co2,onents 4ro2 ,lants active a.ainst
2icroor.anis2s are aro2atic or saturate9 or.anic
co2,oun9s1 t/e- are 2ost o4ten obtaine9 t/rou./
initial et/anol or 2et/anol e"traction. Dn 4act1 2an-
stu9ies avoi9 t/e use o4 aPueous 4ractionation
alto.et/er. !/e e"ce,tional 6ater?soluble co2,oun9s1
suc/ as ,ol-sacc/ari9es (e...1 starc/) an9
,ol-,e,ti9es1 inclu9in. 4abatin (2(>) an9 various
lectins1 are co22onl- 2ore e44ective as in/ibitors o4
,at/o.en (usuall- virus) a9sor,tion an9 6oul9 not be
i9enti4ie9 in t/e screenin. tec/niPues co22onl-
use9. Occasionall- tannins an9 ter,enoi9s 6ill be
4oun9 in t/e aPueous ,/ase1 but t/e- are 2ore o4ten
obtaine9 b- treat2ent 6it/ less ,olar solvents. !able
> lists e"a2,les o4 e"traction solvents an9 t/e
resultant active 4ractions re,orte9 in recent stu9ies.
Co2,oun9s 6/ic/1 accor9in. to t/e literature1
,artition e"clusivel- in ,articular solvents are
in9icate9 in bol94ace t-,e in t/e table.
TABLE 3
olvents used for active component
e%traction
a

An- ,art o4 t/e ,lant 2a- contain active co2,onents.
or instance1 t/e roots o4 .insen. ,lants contain t/e
active sa,onins an9 essential oils1 6/ile eucal-,tus
leaves are /arveste9 4or t/eir essential oils an9
tannins. 3o2e trees1 suc/ as t/e balsa2 ,o,lar1 -iel9
use4ul substances in t/eir barN1 leaves1 an9 s/oots
(224).
or alco/olic e"tractions1 ,lant ,arts are 9rie91
.roun9 to a 4ine te"ture1 an9 t/en soaNe9 in 2et/anol
or et/anol 4or e"ten9e9 ,erio9s. !/e slurr- is t/en
4iltere9 an9 6as/e91 a4ter 6/ic/ it 2a- be 9rie9 un9er
re9uce9 ,ressure an9 re9issolve9 in t/e alco/ol to a
9eter2ine9 concentration. F/en 6ater is use9 4or
e"tractions1 ,lants are .enerall- soaNe9 in 9istille9
6ater1 blotte9 9r-1 2a9e into a slurr- t/rou./
blen9in.1 an9 t/en straine9 or 4iltere9. !/e 4iltrate can
be centri4u.e9 (a,,ro"i2atel- 2:1::: Z 51 4or >:
2in) 2ulti,le ti2es 4or clari4ication (421 221). Cru9e
,ro9ucts can t/en be use9 in 9isc 9i44usion an9 brot/
9ilution assa-s to test 4or anti4un.al an9 antibacterial
,ro,erties an9 in a variet- o4 assa-s to screen 4or
antiviral activit-1 as 9escribe9 belo6.
Catural?,ro9ucts c/e2ists 4urt/er ,uri4- active
c/e2icals 4ro2 cru9e e"tracts b- a variet- o4
2et/o9s. #etaloste2u2ol1 a 4lavanol 4ro2 ,ur,le
,rairie clover1 6as obtaine9 4ro2 t/e et/anol e"tract
b- ,artitionin. bet6een et/-l acetate an9 6ater1
4ollo6e9 b- ,artitionin. bet6een n?/e"ane an9 1:K
2et/anol. !/e 2et/anol 4raction 6as
c/ro2ato.ra,/e9 an9 elute9 6it/ toluene (1::).
!er,enoi9 lactones /ave been obtaine9 b- successive
e"tractions o4 9rie9 barN 6it/ /e"ane1 C=Cl>1 an9
2et/anol1 6it/ activit- concentratin. in t/e C=Cl>
4raction (1+:). !/e c/e2ical structures o4 t/e ,uri4ie9
2aterial can t/en be anal-Oe9. !ec/niPues 4or 4urt/er
c/e2ical anal-sis inclu9e c/ro2ato.ra,/-1
bioauto.ra,/-1 ra9ioi22unoassa-1 various 2et/o9s
o4 structure i9enti4ication1 an9 ne6er tools suc/ as
4ast ato2 bo2bar92ent 2ass s,ectro2etr-1 tan9e2
2ass s,ectrosco,- (1+1)1 /i./?,er4or2ance liPui9
c/ro2ato.ra,/-1 ca,illar- Oone electro,/oresis1
nuclear 2a.netic resonance s,ectrosco,-1 an9 E?ra-
c-stallo.ra,/- (2().
Recentl-1 ;lo44 ()1) e"a2ine9 a variet- o4 e"tractants
4or t/eir abilit- to solubiliOe anti2icrobials 4ro2
,lants1 as 6ell as ot/er 4actors suc/ as t/eir relative
ranNin. as bio/aOar9s an9 t/e ease o4 re2oval o4
solvent 4ro2 t/e 4raction. !/e 4ocus o4 t/e stu9- 6as
to ,rovi9e a 2ore stan9ar9iOe9 e"traction 2et/o9 4or
t/e 6i9e variet- o4 researc/ers 6orNin. in 9iverse
settin.s. Alt/ou./ it is not one o4 t/e 2ore 4rePuentl-
use9 e"tractants in stu9ies ,ublis/e9 to 9ate1 acetone
receive9 t/e /i./est overall ratin.. Dn 4act1 in a revie6
o4 4+ articles 9escribin. t/e screenin. o4 ,lant
e"tracts 4or anti2icrobial ,ro,erties in t/e 2ost
recent -ears o4 t/e Journ&l o1 "&(ur&l *rodu.(s1 t/e
Journ&l o1 $(hno'h&rm&.olo5+1 an9 t/e ?n(ern&(ion&l
Journ&l o1 *h&rm&.o5nos+1 onl- one stu9- use9
acetone as an e"tractant. O4 t/e solvents liste9 in
!able >1 6/ic/ are re,orte9 in t/e recent literature
6it/ t/e /i./est 4rePuenc-1 ;lo44 ranNe9 t/e2 in t/e
or9er 2et/-lene 9ic/lori9e1 2et/anol1 et/anol1 an9
6ater. !able 4 9is,la-s t/e breaN9o6n o4 scores 4or
t/e various solvents stu9ie9. !/e ro6 in9icatin. t/e
nu2ber o4 in/ibitors e"tracte9 6it/ eac/ solvent
,oints to t6o i2,lications' 4irst1 t/at 2ost active
co2,onents are not 6ater soluble1 su,,ortin. t/e 9ata
re,orte9 in !able >1 an9 secon91 t/at t/e 2ost
co22onl- use9 solvents (et/anol an9 2et/anol1 bot/
use9 as initial e"tractants in a,,ro"i2atel- >(K o4
t/e stu9ies a,,earin. in t/e recent literature) 2a- not
9e2onstrate t/e .reatest sensitivit- in -iel9in.
anti2icrobial c/e2icals on an initial screenin.. !/is
9is,arit- s/oul9 be e"a2ine9 as t/e searc/ 4or ne6
anti2icrobials intensi4ies.
TABLE 4
Comparison of e%tractants on different
parameters based on a five&point scale '( to
5) and *it! different *eig!ts allocated to t!e
different parameters
a

;44icac-
.n )itro e/periments.
#i' 0acteria and fungi.
Dnitial screenin. o4 ,otential antibacterial an9
anti4un.al co2,oun9s 4ro2 ,lants 2a- be ,er4or2e9
6it/ ,ure substances (21 2>1 11%) or cru9e e"tracts
(%>1 2:>1 1+2). !/e 2et/o9s use9 4or t/e t6o t-,es o4
or.anis2s are si2ilar. !/e t6o 2ost co22onl- use9
screens to 9eter2ine anti2icrobial susce,tibilit- are
t/e brot/ 9ilution assa- (1+1 +91 219) an9 t/e 9isc or
a.ar 6ell 9i44usion assa- (1(>); clinical
2icrobiolo.ists are ver- 4a2iliar 6it/ t/ese assa-s.
A9a,tations suc/ as t/e a.ar overla- 2et/o9 (1>+)
2a- also be use9. Dn so2e cases1 t/e inoculate9 ,lates
or tubes are e",ose9 to 8H li./t (221) to screen 4or
t/e ,resence o4 li./t?sensitiOin. ,/otoc/e2icals.
Ot/er variations o4 t/ese 2et/o9s are also use9. or
instance1 to test t/e e44ects o4 e"tracts on invasive
3hi5ell& s,ecies1 nonc-toto"ic concentrations o4 t/e
e"tracts can be a99e9 to Hero cell cultures e",ose9 to
a 3hi5ell& inoculu2 (2>(). !/e 9ecrease in c-to,at/ic
e44ect in t/e ,resence o4 t/e ,lant e"tract is t/en
2easure9.
Dn a99ition to t/ese assa-s1 anti4un.al ,/-toc/e2icals
can be anal-Oe9 b- a s,ore .er2ination assa-.
3a2,les o4 ,lant e"tracts or ,ure co2,oun9s can be
a99e9 to 4un.al s,ores collecte9 4ro2 soli9 cultures1
,lace9 on .lass sli9es1 an9 incubate9 at an a,,ro,riate
te2,erature (usuall- 2([C) 4or 24 /. 3li9es are t/en
4i"e9 in lacto,/enol?cotton blue an9 observe9
2icrosco,icall- 4or s,ore .er2ination (1%9).
O4 course1 a4ter initial screenin. o4 ,/-toc/e2icals1
2ore 9etaile9 stu9ies o4 t/eir antibiotic e44ects s/oul9
be con9ucte9. At t/is sta.e1 2ore s,eci4ic 2e9ia can
be use9 an9 MDCs can be e44ectivel- co2,are9 to
t/ose o4 a 6i9er ran.e o4 currentl- use9 antibiotics.
!/e investi.ation o4 ,lant e"tracts e44ective a.ainst
2et/icillin?resistant 3. &ureus (19:1 229) ,rovi9es an
e"a2,le o4 ,ros,ectin. 4or ne6 co2,oun9s 6/ic/
2a- be ,articularl- e44ective a.ainst in4ections t/at
are currentl- 9i44icult to treat. 3ato et al. (19:)
e"a2ine9 t/e activit- o4 t/ree e"tracts 4ro2 t/e
4ruitin. bo9ies o4 t/e tree 7ermin&li& .he)ul& R;!3
a.ainst 2et/icillin?sensitive an9 2et/icillin?resistant
3. &ureus as 6ell as 12 ot/er .ra2?ne.ative an9
.ra2?,ositive bacteria. !/e- 4oun9 t/at .allic aci9
9erivatives 6ere 2ore e44ective a.ainst bot/ t-,es o4
3. &ureus t/an t/e- 6ere a.ainst ot/er s,ecies.
#ii' 1iruses.
3everal 2et/o9s are available to 9etect eit/er
viruci9al or in/ibitor- (antiviral) ,lant activit-.
Dnvesti.ators can looN 4or c-to,at/ic e44ects or ,laPue
4or2ation (11 111) or 4or trans4or2ation or
,roli4erative e44ects on cell lines (4+). Hiral
re,lication 2a- be assa-e9 b- 9etection o4 viral
,ro9ucts suc/ as $CA1 RCA1 or ,ol-,e,ti9es (12%1
1%1). HlietincN an9 Han9en <er./e (2>+) /ave note9
t/at t/e 2et/o9 4or assa-in. antiviral substances use9
in various laboratories is not stan9ar9iOe91 an9
t/ere4ore t/e results are o4ten not co2,arable to one
anot/er. !/ese aut/ors also ,oint out t/at researc/ers
2ust 9istin.uis/ bet6een 2erel- to"ic e44ects o4
a.ents on /ost cells an9 true antiviral ,ro,erties o4 t/e
,lant e"tracts. !able ( lists various in vitro antiviral
screenin. assa-s.
TABLE 5
In vitro antiviral screening assays
a

Dt s/oul9 be 2entione9 /ere t/at antiviral assa-s o4ten
screen 4or active substances 6/ic/ ,revent a9sor,tion
o4 t/e 2icroor.anis2 to /ost cells; t/is activit- is
overlooNe9 in screenin. ,roce9ures 4or antibacterial
an9 anti4un.al substances. =o6ever1 t/e lar.e bo9- o4
literature accu2ulatin. on antia9/esive a,,roac/es to
bacterial in4ections (1:9) su..ests t/at
,/-toc/e2icals s/oul9 be assesse9 4or t/is class o4
action in a99ition to t/eir Nillin. an9 in/ibitor-
activities.
#iii' Proto2oa and helminths.
3creenin. ,lant e"tracts 4or activit- a.ainst ,rotoOoa
an9 /el2int/s can be 2ore co2,licate9 t/an
screenin. 4or activit- a.ainst bacteria1 4un.i1 or
viruses. Bro6in. t/e or.anis2s is o4ten 2ore
9i44icult1 an9 4e6er or.anis2s are obtaine9. Assa-s
are .enerall- s,eci4ic 4or t/e 2icroor.anis2. or
instance1 reibur./aus et al. (%>) use9 t6o 2et/o9s to
assa- co2,oun9s 4or e44ectiveness a.ainst
7r+'&nosom& )ru.ei. irst1 ))?/ tissue cultures o4 t/e
tr-,anoso2es 6ere e",ose9 to various concentrations
o4 e"tracts1 an9 t/en t/e MDCs 6ere 9eter2ine9 6it/
an inverte9 2icrosco,e. (Dn t/is case1 t/e MDC 6as
9e4ine9 as t/e lo6est concentration o4 e"tract 6/ic/
co2,letel- in/ibite9 t/e .ro6t/ o4 t/e
tr-,anoso2es.) 3econ91 t/ese aut/ors use9 a
4luorescence assa- o4 tr-,anoso2e viabilit- in
2icrotiter 6ells.
!/ere is .reat interest in ,lant c/e2icals 6/ic/ 2a-
/ave anti?in4ective ,ro,erties 4or *l&smodium
s,ecies. One 2et/o9 4or testin. e"tracts 6/ic/ 2a-
be to"ic to ,las2o9ia uses ra9iolabelle9
2icroor.anis2s in an er-t/roc-te in4ection assa- 6it/
2icrotiter 9is/es (%2). #arasitiOe9 er-t/roc-tes are
incubate9 6it/ an9 6it/out test substances1 an9 t/e
nu2bers o4 *l&smodium or.anis2s a4ter t/e
incubation ,erio9 are Puantitate9. Anot/er laborator-
9irectl- 2easures 9ecreases in t/e .ro6t/ o4
*l&smodium un9er t/e in4luence o4 t/e e"tracts (29).
.n )i)o testing of phytochemicals.
!6o ,ri2e e"a2,les o4 ani2al stu9ies 4ro2 t/e
recent literature are t/e 9escri,tions o4 t/e e44ects o4
oolon. tea ,ol-,/enols on 9ental caries in rats (1+))
an9 c/olera in 2ice (22)) (9iscusse9 above). Anot/er
bacterial in4ection 2o9el1 *. &eru5inos& lun.
in4ection o4 at/-2ic rats1 6as use9 to test
subcutaneous a92inistrations o4 .insen.. !reate9 rats
/a9 9ecrease9 lun. ,at/olo.- an9 bacterial loa91
alt/ou./ en/ance9 /u2oral i22unit- 6as t/ou./t to
be at least ,artiall- res,onsible (2:%).
#er/a,s because o4 t/e lon.?stan9in. interest in
alternative ,/ar2aceuticals 4or use in 9evelo,in. an9
tro,ical re.ions o4 t/e 6orl91 2an- o4 t/e in vivo
stu9ies to 9ate /ave e"a2ine9 t/e anti,rotoOoal
e44ectiveness o4 ,lant e"tracts (((). !6o recent
stu9ies 6it/ rats use9 e",eri2ental $n(&moe)&
in4ections to test t/e e44ectiveness o4 a cru9e Dn9ian
/erbal e"tract (2:() an9 o4 an et/anolic e"tract o4
*i'er lon5um 4ruits1 ,robabl- containin. t/e alNaloi9
,i,erine (%+). A4ter a,,l-in. t/e c/loro4or2 e"tract
o4 t/e le.u2e Mille(i& (honnin5ii to,icall- to t/e sNin
o4 2ice1 #errett et al. (1%() 4oun9 t/at it ,revente9 t/e
establis/2ent o4 subsePuent 3.his(osom& m&nsoni
in4ection. !/ere are also ani2al stu9ies o4 t/e activit-
o4 various e"tracts o4 t/e barN o4 *(eleo'sis su)eros&
a.ainst ulcers ((>)1 o4 ,a,a-a late" a.ainst in4ections
6it/ t/e /el2int/ 0eli5mosomoides 'ol+5+rus (191)1
an9 o4 3&n(olin& .h&m&e.+'&rissus essential oil
a.ainst can9i9al in4ections (21>).
An A-urve9ic 4or2ulation1 Cauver- 1::1 6as
a92inistere9 orall- to rats eit/er be4ore or a4ter
9iarr/ea 6as in9uce9 b- castor oil. F/ile t/is trial 9i9
not test anti2icrobial activities o4 t/e ,re,aration but1
rat/er1 its e44ect on .ut 2otilit- an9 ion loss in t/e
sicN ani2als1 it s/o6e9 t/at Cauver- 1:: /a9 bot/ a
,rotective an9 a curative e44ect in rats (1>4). A si2ilar
stu9- 6it/ si2ilar results 6as ,er4or2e9 on rats 6it/
c/e2icall- in9uce9 ulcers (1>>). !/e A-urve9ic
As/6a.an9/a 6as 4oun9 to ,rolon. t/e survival
,erio9 o4 <AL<Wc 2ice in4ecte9 6it/ As'er5illus1 an
e44ect believe9 to be 2e9iate9 b- increase9
2acro,/a.e 4unction ((4).
-linical trials in humans.
O4 course1 ,lants /ave been use9 4or centuries to treat
in4ections an9 ot/er illnesses in /u2ans in abori.inal
.rou,s1 but controlle9 clinical stu9ies are scarce. Dn
so2e cases1 tra9itional /ealers 6orNin. to.et/er 6it/
traine9 scientists /ave be.un Nee,in. recor9s o4 t/e
sa4et- an9 e44ectiveness o4 ,/-toc/e2ical treat2ents1
but t/ese are .enerall- uncontrolle9 an9
unran9o2iOe9 stu9ies. ;"a2,les o4 ,eer?revie6e9
trials o4 t/e use o4 ,/-toc/e2icals in /u2ans are
brie4l- re,orte9 /ere.
A cross?sectional e,i9e2iolo.ical stu9- (t/us1 not a
ran9o2iOe9 trial) o4 t/e e44ectiveness o4 c/e6in.
sticNs versus toot/brus/es in ,ro2otin. oral /-.iene
6as con9ucte9 in Fest A4rica. !/e stu9-Rs aut/ors
4oun9 a re9uce9 e44ectiveness in c/e6in.?sticN users
co2,are9 to toot/brus/ users an9 conclu9e9 t/at t/e
anti2icrobial c/e2icals Nno6n to be ,resent in t/e
sticNs a99e9 no oral /ealt/ bene4it (1()). Also1
re.ar9in. oral /ealt/1 2out/rinses containin. various
anti2icrobials /ave been evaluate9 in /u2ans
(revie6e9 in re4erence 24:). Mout/rinses containin.
,/-toc/e2icals 6ere not 4oun9 to be as e44ective in
9ecreasin. ,laPue or clinical .in.ivitis as 6ere
Listerine or c/lor/e"i9ine.
!o 9ate1 4e6 ran9o2iOe9 clinical trials o4 ,lant
anti2icrobials /ave been ,er4or2e9. Biron et al. (%9)
co2,are9 an e"tract o4 3ol&num ni5res.ens 6it/
n-statin1 bot/ .iven as intrava.inal su,,ositories1 in
6o2en 6it/ con4ir2e9 C. &l)i.&ns va.initis. !/e
e"tract ,rove9 to be as e44icacious as n-statin. Dn
199) t/e lon.?reco.niOe9 e44ects o4 cranberr- 5uice
on urinar- tract in4ections 6ere stu9ie9 in a .rou, o4
el9erl- 6o2en. Co 9ata are ,rovi9e9 b- t/e aut/or
about clinical outco2es1 but treate9 6o2en /a9 4e6er
bacteria in t/eir urine t/an 9i9 t/e untreate9 .rou,
(1%).
our 9i44erent A-urve9ic 4or2ulations 6ere teste9
a.ainst a ,lacebo 4or t/eir e44ectiveness a.ainst acne
vul.aris. One o4 t/e 4or2ulations1 3un9er Hati1
,ro9uce9 a si.ni4icantl- .reater re9uction in lesion
count t/an 9i9 t/e ot/er t/ree an9 t/e ,lacebo. Co
to"ic si9e e44ects 6ere observe9 (1%:). !6o
,ro,rietar- co2,oun9s 9erive9 4ro2 tro,ical ,lants1
#rovir1 4or t/e treat2ent o4 res,irator- viral
in4ections1 an9 Hiren91 a to,ical anti/er,es a.ent1
6ere teste9 in clinical trials in 1994 (114). 3ince t/en1
t/e e44icac- an9 sa4et- o4 Hiren9 /ave been
establis/e9 in ,/ase DD stu9ies (1)%).
Ot/er 3ectionsA
A<3!RAC!
MAJOR BRO8#3 O
AC!DMDCRO<DAL COM#O8C$3 ROM #LAC!3
;E#;RDM;C!AL A##ROAC=;3
#LAC!3 FD!= ;DCACG
ABADC3! =8MAC DMM8CO$;DCD;CCG
HDR83
COMM;RCDAL AHADLA<DLD!G
AC$ 3A;!G O COM#O8C$3
COCCL83DOC3 AC$ 8!8R;
$DR;C!DOC3
R;;R;CC;3
#LAC!3 FD!= ;DCACG ABADC3! =8MAC
DMM8CO$;DCD;CCG HDR83
;44ective t/era,ies 4or =DH in4ection are bein. sou./t
4ar an9 6i9e1 in t/e natural 6orl9 as 6ell as in
laboratories. As one e"a2,le o4 in vivo anti?=DH
stu9ies1 in4ection in 2ice /as been stu9ie9.
Bl-c-rr/iOin1 4oun9 in Gl+.+rrhi;& ,lants (t/e source
o4 licorice)1 e"ten9e9 t/e li4e o4 t/e retrovirus?
in4ecte9 2ice 4ro2 14 to 1% 6eeNs (242). A cru9e
e"tract o4 t/e cactus @'un(i& s(re'(&.&n(h& /a9
2arNe9 antiviral e44ects in vitro1 an9 to"icit- stu9ies
,er4or2e9 in 2ice1 /orses1 an9 /u2ans 4oun9 t/e
e"tract to be sa4e (>).
!/e sco,e o4 stu9ies o4 anti?=DH ,lant e"tracts is too
broa9 to /an9le in 9etail in t/e ,resent revie61 but
!able ) su22ariOes 2an- o4 t/e co2,oun9s stu9ie9
to 9ate as 6ell as t/eir ,ur,orte9 tar.ets o4 action.
!/e intereste9 rea9er is re4erre9 to several use4ul
revie6s (>)1 1((1 1%21 21%).
TABLE 6
Compounds *it! anti&+I, activity
Ot/er 3ectionsA
A<3!RAC!
MAJOR BRO8#3 O
AC!DMDCRO<DAL COM#O8C$3 ROM #LAC!3
;E#;RDM;C!AL A##ROAC=;3
#LAC!3 FD!= ;DCACG
ABADC3! =8MAC DMM8CO$;DCD;CCG
HDR83
COMM;RCDAL AHADLA<DLD!G
AC$ 3A;!G O COM#O8C$3
COCCL83DOC3 AC$ 8!8R;
$DR;C!DOC3
R;;R;CC;3
COMM;RCDAL AHADLA<DLD!G AC$ 3A;!G O
COM#O8C$3
A 6i9e variet- o4 ,lant e"tracts1 2i"tures1 an9 sin.le
,lant co2,oun9s are available in t/e 8nite9 3tates
6it/out a ,rescri,tion t/rou./ /ealt/ 4oo9 stores an9
vita2in retailers. or e"a2,le1 ,re,arations o4
4lavones (bran9 na2es lavons (:: an9 Citrus
<io4lavonoi9s) are sol9 b- su,,le2ent su,,liers.
Ca,saicin a,,ears in a to,ical antiart/ritis crea2
available in 2ainstrea2 .rocer- an9 9ru. stores. !/e
over?t/e?counter ,re,arations are relativel-
unre.ulate9. !/is results in ,re,arations o4 uncertain
an9 variable ,urit-.
Man- stores also sell 6/ole 9rie9 ,lants1 6/ic/ /ave
been 4oun9 occasionall- to be 2isi9enti4ie91 6it/
,otentiall- 9isastrous consePuences. Obviousl-1 2an-
,lants can also be .ro6n b- t/e consu2er in /o2e
.ar9ens. Dn 19941 Con.ress ,asse9 t/e $ietar-
3u,,le2ent =ealt/ ;9ucation Act1 6/ic/ rePuire9 t/e
oo9 an9 $ru. A92inistration to 9evelo, labelin.
rePuire2ents s,eci4icall- 9esi.ne9 4or ,ro9ucts
containin. in.re9ients suc/ as vita2ins1 2inerals1 an9
/erbs inten9e9 to su,,le2ent t/e 9iet. !/e ne6 rules1
issue9 in late 199%1 rePuire ,ro9ucts to be labele9 as a
9ietar- su,,le2ent an9 carr- a I3u,,le2ent actsJ
,anel 6it/ in4or2ation si2ilar to t/e ICutrition
actsJ ,anels a,,earin. on ,rocesse9 4oo9s. !/e rules
also rePuire t/at ,ro9ucts containin. botanical
in.re9ients s,eci4- t/e ,art o4 t/e ,lant use9 (%1).
!/e oo9 an9 $ru. A92inistration re.ulates 9ietar-
su,,le2ents as 4oo9s1 as lon. as no 9ru. clai2s are
2a9e 4or t/e2 ()>). Ot/er or.aniOations overseein.
/erbals an9 botanicals are t/e A2erican $ietetic
AssociationRs Co22ission on $ietar- 3u,,le2ent
Labels (11) an9 t/e oo9 an9 Cutrition 3cience
Alliance (12).
!/e 4irst investi.ational ne6 9ru. a,,lication 4or
/erbal ,/ar2aceuticals1 available b- ,rescri,tion1 6as
sub2itte9 in 199% (1>). F/et/er t/is is t/e be.innin.
o4 a substantial Irus/ to 2arNetJ is unclear. 3o2e
anal-sts su..est t/at ,/ar2aceutical co2,anies 6ill
not invest in 9ru. testin. 4or botanicals since it is still
unclear 6/et/er ,ro,rietar- clai2s can be 2a9e (49).
Ric/ar9 van 9en <roeN1 in9ustr- anal-st1 concurs1
sa-in. t/at 2ost novel antibiotic researc/ is bein.
con9ucte9 instea9 b- biotec/nolo.- co2,anies (%).
#lants an9Wor ,lant co2,onents 6/ic/ are currentl-
available to consu2ers as su,,le2ents t/rou./
co22ercial outlets are a2on. t/ose liste9 in !able 1.
Rou./ to"icit- ranNin.s are also ,rovi9e9. Dt /as lon.
been reco.niOe9 t/at ,ossibl- t/era,eutic 4oo9stu44s
2a- also contain substances 6/ic/ act as ,oisons in
/u2ans (1>2). Clinical scientists an9 ,ractitioners are
best a9vise9 to be a6are o4 t/e 6i9es,rea9 sel4?
2e9ication 6it/ t/ese ,ro9ucts an9 to consi9er t/eir
e44ects on ,atients.
Ot/er 3ectionsA
A<3!RAC!
MAJOR BRO8#3 O
AC!DMDCRO<DAL COM#O8C$3 ROM #LAC!3
;E#;RDM;C!AL A##ROAC=;3
#LAC!3 FD!= ;DCACG
ABADC3! =8MAC DMM8CO$;DCD;CCG
HDR83
COMM;RCDAL AHADLA<DLD!G
AC$ 3A;!G O COM#O8C$3
COCCL83DOC3 AC$ 8!8R;
$DR;C!DOC3
R;;R;CC;3
COCCL83DOC3 AC$ 8!8R; $DR;C!DOC3
3cientists 4ro2 9iver.ent 4iel9s are investi.atin.
,lants ane6 6it/ an e-e to t/eir anti2icrobial
use4ulness. A sense o4 ur.enc- acco2,anies t/e
searc/ as t/e ,ace o4 s,ecies e"tinction continues.
Laboratories o4 t/e 6orl9 /ave 4oun9 literall-
t/ousan9s o4 ,/-toc/e2icals 6/ic/ /ave in/ibitor-
e44ects on all t-,es o4 2icroor.anis2s in vitro. More
o4 t/ese co2,oun9s s/oul9 be sub5ecte9 to ani2al
an9 /u2an stu9ies to 9eter2ine t/eir e44ectiveness in
6/ole?or.anis2 s-ste2s1 inclu9in. in ,articular
to"icit- stu9ies as 6ell as an e"a2ination o4 t/eir
e44ects on bene4icial nor2al 2icrobiota. Dt 6oul9 be
a9vanta.eous to stan9ar9iOe 2et/o9s o4 e"traction
an9 in vitro testin. so t/at t/e searc/ coul9 be 2ore
s-ste2atic an9 inter,retation o4 results 6oul9 be
4acilitate9. Also1 alternative 2ec/anis2s o4 in4ection
,revention an9 treat2ent s/oul9 be inclu9e9 in initial
activit- screenin.s. $isru,tion o4 a9/esion is one
e"a2,le o4 an anti?in4ection activit- not co22onl-
screene9 4or currentl-. Attention to t/ese issues coul9
us/er in a ba9l- nee9e9 ne6 era o4 c/e2ot/era,eutic
treat2ent o4 in4ection b- usin. ,lant?9erive9
,rinci,les.
AC&COFL;$BM;C!
D .rate4ull- acNno6le9.e t/e tec/nical assistance o4
;2il- A. =orst.
Ot/er 3ectionsA
A<3!RAC!
MAJOR BRO8#3 O
AC!DMDCRO<DAL COM#O8C$3 ROM #LAC!3
;E#;RDM;C!AL A##ROAC=;3
#LAC!3 FD!= ;DCACG
ABADC3! =8MAC DMM8CO$;DCD;CCG
HDR83
COMM;RCDAL AHADLA<DLD!G
AC$ 3A;!G O COM#O8C$3
COCCL83DOC3 AC$ 8!8R;
$DR;C!DOC3
R;;R;CC;3
R;;R;CC;3
1. Abou?&ara2 M1 3/ier F !. A si2,li4ie9 ,laPue re9uction assa-
4or antiviral a.ents 4ro2 ,lants. $e2onstration o4 4rePuent
occurrence o4 antiviral activit- in /i./er ,lants. J Cat #ro9.
199:;3%'>4:*>44. L#ubMe9M
2. A4ola-an A J1 Me-er J J M. !/e anti2icrobial activit- o4 >1(1%?
tri/-9ro"-4lavone isolate9 4ro2 t/e s/oots o4 0eli.hr+sum
&ureoni(ens. J ;t/no,/ar2acol. 199%;34'1%%*1+1. L#ubMe9M
!. A/2a9 A1 $avies J1 Ran9all 31 3Ninner B R <. Antiviral
,ro,erties o4 e"tract o4 @'un(i& s(re'(&.&n(h&. Antiviral Res.
199);%&'%(*+(. L#ubMe9M
4. A/2e9 A A1 Ma/2ou9 A A1 Fillia2s = J1 3cott A D1 Reibens,ies
J =1 Mabr- ! J. Ce6 sesPuiter,ene X?2et/-lene lactones 4ro2 t/e
;.-,tian ,lant J&soni& .&ndi.&ns. J Cat #ro9. 199>;35'12%)*12+:.
L#ubMe9M
-. AN,ata ; 31 ANinri2isi ; O. Antibacterial activit- o4 e"tracts
4ro2 so2e A4rican c/e6in. sticNs. Oral 3ur. Oral Me9 Oral #at/ol.
19%%;66'%1%*%22. L#ubMe9M
6. Ali?3/ta-e/ M 31 Al?Curi M A1 Ga./2our R M R1 ai9i G R.
Anti2icrobial activit- o4 Mi.romeri& ner#os& 4ro2 t/e #alestinian
area. J ;t/no,/ar2acol. 199%;37'14>*14%. L#ubMe9M
7. Al,er J. ;44ort to co2bat 2icrobial resistance la.s. A3M Ce6s.
199+;56'44:*441.
. A2aral J A1 ;Nins A1 Ric/ar9s 3 R1 &no6les R. ;44ect o4
selecte9 2onoter,enes on 2et/ane o"i9ation1 9enitri4ication1 an9
aerobic 2etabolis2 b- bacteria in ,ure culture. A,,l ;nviron
Microbiol. 199+;56'(2:*(2(. L#ubMe9M
9. A2oros M1 3auva.er 1 Birre L1 Cor2ier M. Dn vitro antiviral
activit- o4 ,ro,olis. A,i9olo.ie. 1992;$%'2>1*24:.
10. A2oros M1 3i2oes C M O1 Birre L. 3-ner.istic e44ect o4
4lavones an9 4lavonols a.ainst /er,es si2,le" virus t-,e 1 in cell
culture. Co2,arison 6it/ t/e antiviral activit- o4 ,ro,olis. J Cat
#ro9. 1992;33'1%>2*1%4:. L#ubMe9M
11. Anon-2ous. Co22ission on $ietar- 3u,,le2ent Labels issues
4inal re,ort. J A2 $iet Assoc. 199+;87'2%:. L#ubMe9M
12. Anon-2ous. AC3A releases state2ent about 9ietar-
su,,le2ent labelin.. J A2 $iet Assoc. 199%;84'%2+*%29.
1!. Anon-2ous. irst DC$ sub2itte9 6it/ $A 4or an /erbal
,/ar2aceutical. AD$3 FeeNl- #lus 1+. 199%.
14. A,isari-aNul A1 HanittanaNo2 C1 <u99/asuN/ $. Anti4un.al
activit- o4 tur2eric oil e"tracte9 4ro2 Cur.um& lon5&
(\in.iberaceae). J ;t/no,/ar2acol. 199(;68'1)>*1)9. L#ubMe9M
1-. Atta?ur?Ra/2an M D1 C/ou9/ar- $iter,enoi9 an9 steroi9al
alNaloi9s. Cat #ro9 Re,. 199(;9$'>)1*>%9. L#ubMe9M
16. Aureli #1 Costantini A1 \olea 3. Anti2icrobial activit- o4 so2e
,lant essential oils a.ainst 8is(eri& mono.+(o5enes. J oo9 #rot.
1992;33'>44*>4+.
17. Avorn J. !/e e44ect o4 cranberr- 5uice on t/e ,resence o4
bacteria an9 6/ite bloo9 cells in t/e urine o4 el9erl- 6o2en. F/at
is t/e role o4 bacterial a9/esion] A9v ;", Me9 <iol. 199);6&7'1+(*
1+). L#ubMe9M
1. A-a4or J 1 !c/uen9e2 M = &1 C-asse <. Covel bioactive
9iter,enoi9s 4ro2 A1r&momum &ul&.o.&r'os. J Cat #ro9.
1994;34'91%*92>. L#ubMe9M
19. <alls A &1 =ale F 31 =arris ! =. A cr-stalline ,rotein obtaine9
4ro2 a li,o,rotein o4 6/eat 4lour. Cereal C/e2. 1942;98'2%9*2++.
20. <alOarini J1 3c/ols $1 Ce-ts J1 Han $a22e ;1 #eu2ans F1 $e
ClercP ;. X?(11>)? an9 X?(11))?$?2annose?s,eci4ic ,lant lectins are
2arNe9l- in/ibitor- to /u2an i22uno9e4icienc- virus an9
c-to2e.alovirus in4ections in vitro. Anti2icrob A.ents C/e2ot/er.
1991;%3'41:*41). L#ubMe9M
21. <arnar9 $ L1 =u442an J =1 Me-erson L R1 3i96ell R F. Mo9e
o4 in/ibition o4 res,irator- s-nc-tial virus b- a ,lant 4lavonoi9.
C/e2ot/era,-. 199>;%8'212*21%. L#ubMe9M
22. <arre J !1 <o69en < 1 Coll J C1 Jesus J1 uente H ;1 Janairo B
C1 Ra.asa C G. A bioactive triter,ene 4ro2 8&n(&n& .&m&r&.
#/-toc/e2istr-. 199%;63'>21*>24. L#ubMe9M
2!. <atista O1 $uarte A1 Casci2ento J1 3i2ones M . 3tructure an9
anti2icrobial activit- o4 9iter,enes 4ro2 t/e roots o4 *le.(r&n(hus
hereroensis. J Cat #ro9. 1994;34'+(+*+)1. L#ubMe9M
24. <erNa9a <. #reli2inar- re,ort on 6ar4arin 4or t/e treat2ent o4
/er,es si2,le". J Dris/ Coll #/-s 3ur.. 19%+;$$#+uppl.''().
2-. <orris R #. Catural ,ro9ucts researc/' ,ers,ectives 4ro2 a 2a5or
,/ar2aceutical co2,an-. J ;t/no,/ar2acol. 199);39'29*>+.
L#ubMe9M
26. <ose # &. On so2e bioc/e2ical ,ro,erties o4 natural
cou2arins. J Dn9ian C/e2 3oc. 19(+;37'>)%*>%(.
27. <oslan9 # F. C/iles' /istor-1 cultivation an9 uses. Dn'
C/arala2bous B1 e9itor. 3,ices1 /erbs an9 e9ible 4un.i. Ce6 GorN1
C.G' ;lsevier; 1994. ,,. >4%*>)).
2. <ourinbaiar A 31 Lee =uan. 3. !/e activit- o4 ,lant?9erive9
antiretroviral ,roteins MA#>: an9 BA#>1 a.ainst /er,es si2,le"
virus in4ection in vitro. <ioc/e2 <io,/-s Res Co22un.
199);$98'92>*929. L#ubMe9M
29. <ran9ao M B L1 &rettli A 81 3oares L 3 R1 Cer- C B C1
MarinuOOi = C. Anti2alarial activit- o4 e"tracts an9 4ractions 4ro2
%idens 'ilos& an9 ot/er %idens s,ecies (Asteraceae) correlate9 6it/
t/e ,resence o4 acet-lene an9 4lavonoi9 co2,oun9s. J
;t/no,/ar2acol. 199%;34'1>1*1>+. L#ubMe9M
!0. <rantner A1 Brein ;. Antibacterial activit- o4 ,lant e"tracts use9
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4:. L#ubMe9M
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11-. &ita.a6a D1 Ma/2u9 !1 GoNota &?D1 CaNa.a6a 31 Ma-u2i !1
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Articles 4ro2 Clini.&l Mi.ro)iolo5+ ,e#ie9s are
,rovi9e9 /ere courtes- o4
American +ociety for Microbiology #A+M'