Weldability and Joining of Materials

Job knowledge54:
Ceramics - Materials, Joining and Applications
Ceramics are an incredibly diverse family of materials whose members span
traditional ceramics (such as pottery and refractories) to the modern day engineering
ceramics (such as alumina and silicon nitride) found in electronic devices, aerospace
components and cutting tools.
Whilst the most extravagant claims of the 1980s in favour of advanced ceramic
materials (such as the all ceramic engine) have largely proved inaccurate, it is
true to say that ceramics have established themselves as key engineering
materials.
When used in conjunction with other materials, usually metals, they provide
added functionality to components thereby improving application performance,
once the appropriate joint design and technology have been identified.
Ceramic materials
Ceramics exhibit very strong ionic and/or covalent bonding (stronger than the
metallic bond) and this confers the properties commonly associated with ceramics:
high hardness, high compressive strength, low thermal and electrical conductivity
and chemical inertness.
This strong bonding also accounts for the less attractive properties of ceramics,
such as low ductility and low tensile strength. The wider range of properties,
however, is not widely appreciated. For example, whilst ceramics are perceived as
electrical and thermal insulators, ceramic oxides (initially based on Y-Ba-Cu-O)
are the basis for high temperature superconductivity. Diamond, beryllia and
silicon carbide have a higher thermal conductivity than aluminium or copper.
Control of the microstructure can overcome inherent stiffness to allow the
production of ceramic springs, and ceramic composites have been produced with a
fracture toughness about half that of steel.
The main compositional classes of engineering ceramics are the oxides, nitrides
and carbides. The Table gives the general properties of the most used ceramics.
Table 1 Properties of ceramics
Ceramic Melting
point (C)
Density
(g/cm
3
)
Strength
(MPa)
Coefficient of thermal
expansion
(x 10
-6
/C)
Thermal conductivity
(W/m.K)
Elastic
Modulus
(GPa)
BeO 2530 3.1 246 7.4 210 400
Al
2
O
3
2050 4.0 455 8.0 40 380
ZrO
2
2700 5.6 175 10.5 19 140
AlN 1900 3.3 441 4.4 180 320
Si
3
N
4
1900 3.2 210 3.0 17 175
B
4
C 2350 2.5 350 4.3 25 450
SiC 2700 3.2 140 4.3 50 210
WC 2377 15.8 600 5.2 - 700
Diamond 3000 3.5 1500 0.5 2000 500

Oxides
Aluminium oxide (Al
2
O
3
) and zirconia (ZrO
2
) are the most commonly used
engineering grade oxide ceramics, with alumina being the most used ceramic by far
in terms of both tonnage and value.
Nitrides
Silicon nitride (Si
3
N
4
), and aluminium nitride (AlN) are the main advanced
engineering ceramics in this category. There is a wide range of grades and types of
these materials, particularly of silicon nitride with each grade having specific
properties
Carbides
Silicon carbide (SiC) is widely used for its high thermal conductivity, corrosion
resistance and hardness, although as an engineering ceramic its toughness is lower
than that of some silicon nitride grades. Boron carbide (B
4
C) is the third hardest
industrial material (after diamond and cubic boron nitride) and is used for
components needing very high wear performance.
Ceramic-based composites
Ceramics are used as the reinforcement of composite systems such as GRP (glass
reinforced plastics) and metal matrix composites such as alumina reinforced
aluminium (Al/Al
2
O
3
). Advanced ceramic materials are also used as the matrix
materials in composites. Currently the most widely available materials are based on
SiC and carbon.
Joining
There are many possible techniques for joining ceramics to themselves and to
dissimilar materials. These technologies range from mechanical fixturing to direct
bonding. Fig.1 gives an overview of these methods.

Fig.1. An
overview of
processes for
joining ceramics


The selection of one of these techniques to manufacture a particular component
will depend on a number of factors including:
desired component function eg strength, electrical insulation or wear
resistance
materials to be joined
operational temperature
applied stress
required level of joint hermeticity
component design
cost
Whilst all these considerations must be taken into account, generally the two
important factors are the similarity of the materials to be joined and the required
temperature capability. Fig. 2 gives the temperature capability of a number of joining
media.



Fig.2.
Temperature
capability of a
number of
joining media
When joining ceramics to metals it is necessary to create an interface between the
materials. In general the interface must accommodate the following:
the difference in coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE)
bond type ie ionic/covalent for ceramics ranging to the metallic bond
crystallographic lattice mismatch between the ceramic and metal
Applications
Compared to metals and plastics, ceramics are hard, non-combustible and inert.
Thus they can be used in high temperature, corrosive and tribological applications.
These applications rely on combinations of properties that are unique to industrial
ceramics and which include:

retention of properties at high temperature

low coefficient of friction (particularly at high loads and low levels of
lubrication)
low coefficient of expansion
corrosion resistance
thermal insulation
electrical insulation
low density
Engineering ceramics are used to fabricate components for applications in many
industrial sectors, including ceramic substrates for electronic devices ( Fig. 3),
turbocharger rotors ( Fig. 4), and tappet heads for use in automotive engines. Other
examples of where advanced ceramics are used include oil-free bearings in food
processing equipment, aerospace turbine blades, nuclear fuel rods, lightweight
armour, cutting tools, abrasives, thermal barriers and furnace/kiln furniture.

Fig.3. Ceramic substrates for
electronic devices

Fig.4. Ceramic turbocharger
rotor assembly made from
silicon nitride
Courtesy of NGK/ NTK Spark
Plug Co
Summary
When selecting a material for use in a specific component the applicability and
suitability of the candidate materials need to be considered in detail. When a ceramic
material is being selected the fitness-for-purpose criteria that should be applied
include:
operational environment - atmosphere, temperature, applied stress, fatigue,
exposure time
predictable excursions beyond the usual, including mechanical impact or rapid
heating/cooling
design - ceramic materials are relatively intolerant of abrupt changes in cross-
section such as notches, holes and corners
joining - the role of the joint, its operational conditions and performance
requirements and the joining techniques suitable for manufacture
cost - as with all materials selection and component design questions, the
cost and availability of the raw materials and all necessary fabrication

techniques must be considered in the light of their suitability to provide a
component with the required performance profile at a viable cost
Future development is likely to come from improved processing and fabrication
techniques that will lower component costs or improve behaviour, an increasing
demand for higher performance materials necessitating the use of more ceramics.
Whilst it is difficult to predict new materials, improvements in existing ones can be
readily foreseen. The most significant area of development is likely to be in the
ceramic matrix composites.
Whilst existing composites based on SiC will improve as porosity levels are
reduced by improved processing techniques, the development of high
temperature oxide-based composites is likely to provide a competitor material
system with wider applicability in the near future. In the future we can expect to
see a still greater contribution to industrial growth and technological development
from these materials.


































This article was prepared by Alan Taylor. Copyright 2002 TWI Ltd
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