Networking

1>What do you mean by stand alone computer system?

A computer system containing only a keyboard,a Visual Display Unit,System unit and a printer is called a signal
or stand alone computer system.

2>Mention some advantages of the Distributed Data Processing(DDP):
i. Fast data transmission and processing in low cost.
ii. To reduce the work burden of the host computer.
iii. To collect data from corporate database.
iv. To form local network,using different types of technology.
v. To use the software and hardware resources without bothering to depend on the central resources.
3>Name different elements of network and give block diagram of all.

i. Terminal:Input or output device for sending or receiving data.For example:Microcomputer, Telephone,Fax
Machine.
ii. Telecommunication Processor:They are used as controller of the network and computers.
Example:Modem,Multiplexer etc.
iii. Telecommunication Channel and Media:Data can travel in form of wave through these media. Example:Co-
axial cable, Fibre Optical cable,Microwave system etc.
iv. Computer Processor:It is by which data are processed,in network mainframe copmputers are used as Host
computers(server).
v. Telecommunication Software: It is a bundle of programs which controls the function of some network. These
softwares are present in the Host computer,Communication control computer and Terminal computer system.
4> Explain the functions of Modem.
The full form of MODEM is MOdulation DEModulation.It is the most used communication processor in
network.It's main function is to convert digital signal to analogue signal(modulation) which will travel through the
analogue data telephone wire. At the other end of communication link it converts analogue signal to digital
signal(demodulation).
5>What is the function of front end processor?
Front end processor remains attached to Host computer system.Its main function is to assist Host(server)
computer in the job of processing.
Networking -K.R sir
6>Explain in brief,the different media used in computer network system.
In computer network system data are transmitted from one place to another by the means of electric or
electromagnetic waves.For this purpose two types of media are used-


Guided or Bounded media:In this type of media wave is transmitted by any solid metallic conductor.
Example:Co-axial cable etc

Unguided or unbounded media:In this type of medium data is transmitted in the form of electromagnetic
waves through air media.
Example:Radio and Microwave transmission system.
7>What is the function of Repeater in network systems?
We know that signal power is inversely proportional with distance i.e signal power decreases as distance
increases.For this reason,after a definite interval of distance Repeater is used to enhance the signal power.
A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level or higher power,
or onto the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation.
8>What do you mean by channel bandwidth?
In electronic communication Channel Bandwidth means a range of frequency which is related with the specific
channel.
If a channel's bandwidth is 1000 MHz -100 MHz ,there is no wave of frequency less than 100 MHz and
greater than 1000 MHz will pass through the channel.The more the bandwidth of a channel,the better is the
power of data transmission of the channel.
The channel mentioned in the above example has a bandwidth of (1000-100) MHz i.e 900 MHz.
Networking -K.R sir
9>What do you mean by Interference?
In computer networking distortion of signal is called interference.Generally unguided media suffers from
interference.
10>What's the difference between Base Band and Broad Band?

Base Band Broad Band
i)In case of Base Band transmission digital signal is
transmitted through a single channel.
i)In Broad Band signal analogue signal is sent.
ii)Signal of a particular frequency is sent. ii)Signal of a particular range of frequency is sent.
iii)The signals sent are the discrete waves of light or
electric.
iii)The nature of the signals used in this system are
electromagnetic or optical non-discrete waves.
iv)Base Band transmission is bi-directional . iv)Broad Band transmission is uni-directional.
v)To enhance the signal strength in Base Band system
Repeater is used.
v)To enhance the signal strength in Broad Band system
Amplifier is used.
Example:Wide Area Network communication Example:Local Area Network communication
11>What's the difference between Physical Channel and Logical Channel?

Physical Channel Logical Channel
i)Through physical channel two nodes of
computer network are directly connected with
each other.
i) There is no connection between two nodes in
computer network through logical channel.
ii)Physical channel is slow and cheap. ii)Logical channel is fast that is why it is
costly.
iii)Physical channel is used for low
distance data transmission(LAN).
iii)Logical channel is used for the high
distance data transmission(WAN).
Example:Twisted pair,Co-axial cable,
Optical Fibre.
Example:Microwave link,Sattelite link
etc.

Networking -K.R sir
12>Write differences between Synchronous and Asynchronous transmission.
13>Write short-notes on different guided media.
A) Twisted Pair: Twisted pair is the most used and the decade old transmission medium.
Structure: Twisted Pair is a pair of insulated copper wire which is twisted
uniformly.The main reason for twisting is to reduce the amount of
interference.Each pair acts as a link of communication.Many pairs
like this are used to form cable.To save the cable a jacket is used.
Each twisted pair is 1mm thick.



Signal Type:Within 1 Km both analogue and digital signal can be transmitted.
Classification: Two types of twisted pair are used:
Sheilded Twisted Pair(STP)
Unshielded Twisted Pair(UTP)
Necessary network device: To enhance the quality of signal amplifiers are used
in every 5-6 Km(for analogue) and repeaters are used
in every 2-3 Km (for digital).
Use: It is used to transmit voice and data in communication network all over the
world.All telephones are connected to telephone exchange through twisted
pair.
Advantages: i)It can transmit both analog and digital signal
ii)It least expensive when compared to other types of medium.
iii)If a portion of twisted pair gets damaged the network doesn't
collapse but it happens in the case of co-axial media.

Networking -K.R sir

Disadvantages: i)Rate of data transmission is low.
ii)Data can be transmitted through twisted pair for a small distance
only.
B) Optical Fibre: An optical fiber (or fibre) is a glass or plastic fiber designed to guide light
along its length.It is the most high speed medium for data transmission till
date.
Structure: Optical fibre is very thin and flexible medium.Light rays can be passed through it.To make
optical optical fibres various types of plastic and glasses are used.
It is cylindrical in shape.
It has has three concentric parts.They are-
Core: It resides inside the cable under other two parts.It has one or more very fine fibres
which are made of plastic.
Cladding:-the fibre of core is covered with another glass or plastic layer which is called
cladding.
Jacket:-the outer most of part of cable is called jacket.this jacket is made of plastic to
protect it from vapour or bad weather.

Classification:
I) Single Mode Fibre:-If the diametre of the fibre is reduced,light rays go
through the fibre in a rectilinear manner. this is called Single Mode Fibre.

ii) Multi Mode Fibre:-if the diametre of the fibre is increased then the
refracted light rays pass in different path this is called Multi Mode Fibre.
Uses:
I) fibre optic cable can be used for distant(900miles long) connection.

ii) fibre optic cable is used for video conferencing.

iii) it is used in LAN for transmiting Digital voice/image/graphics.

Networking -K.R sir
iv) In Hi-Bandwidth networking as in the case of FDDI(Fibre Distributed
Data Interface) fibre optic cable is frequently used.
Advantages:
i)From fibre optic high bit rate and high bandwidth is obtained.Fibre
optic cable is more safe as it is less dependant on weather.
ii)Fibre optic cable is less prone to Electromagnetic Interference.
Disadvantages:
i)Replacement cost for FOM is high.

ii)It is difficult to find efficient technicians for fault repairing of FOM.
iii)When light rays of different wave length pass through FOM,light rays
suffer from chromatic dispersion*.It is one of the main problems of
FOM.
iv)the mode of transmission in optical media is half duplex.For making
the transmission fullduplex two optical media must be used.That
doubles the cost.
Nessesary Network Device:
Reapeter is used in each 100 km to increase the signal strength.
}


Networking -K.R sir
Multi Mode Fibre

C) Co-Axial Cable:- For transmission of data co-axial cable is used in technology.

Structure:-In co-axial cable a conductor which is called carrier wire is placed inside another
conductor.The space between the above mention two conductor is filled with a di-electric
medium.The outer conductor is hollow,cylindrical in shape and a jacket covers it.the diametre
of co-axial cable ranges between 0.4 -1 inch.Co-axial cable suffers less than twisted pair from
cross-talk and interference.

Signal Type:-Analog and Digital signal.
Classification:-Two types of co-axial cable is used.
i)50 ohm co-axial cable.
ii)75 ohm co-axial cable.
The first is generally used for digital and the second for analog transmission.
Nessesary Network Devices:- Reapeter is used in each 10 km to increase the signal strength.
Uses:-
Advantages:-i)The sheilding of co-axial cable is better than twisted pair.So co-axial cable is used for
distant transmission with high data rate.(the data rate of 1km long co-axial cable is 1-2Gbps)

ii)Co-axial cable is used for both analog and digital data transmission.

iii)The bandwidth of co-axial is very high (350Mhz) .It is capable of resisting noise.
Networking -K.R sir

iv)Co-axial cable is cheaper than FOM.
v) Co-axial cable is suffersless from cross-talk.
Disadvantages:- i)Co-axial cable is costlier than twisted pair.
ii)The resistive power of Co-axial cable for signal interference is much less than
FOM.
iii)For the electric current in one conductor electro magnetic field may be induced on
another conductor.
14>What is the Differences Between Serial Transmission and Parallel Transmission:-
Topic Serial Transmission Parallel Transmission
Principle of data transmission In this type of data transmission one
bit is sent each time.
In this type of data transmission more
bits are sent each time
Speed of data transmission Low Fast
Cost of Establishment Use of just one channel leads to low
cost approximately half of parallel
transmission.
More channels are used that is why it
is costly.
Parallel Transmission:-
Serial Transmission:-
Networking -K.R sir
0
1
1
0
Receiver
Sender
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
4 bits sent one after
another
0 1 1 0
one channel
only
Sender
Receiver
Parallel/Serial Converter
Serial/Parallel Converter
OSI MODEL

The Open Systems Interconnection Basic Reference Model (OSI Reference Model or OSI Model for short)
is a layered, abstract description for communications and computer network protocol design,developed as part of
the Open Systems Interconnection initiative.It is also called the OSI seven layer model. .For transmiting
data from one place to another there are many protocols and various rules involved.These set of rules are
known as OSI Model.ISO developed this model in 1983.
Various layers of OSI Model and their brief description:-
OSI Reference model has seven layers.In ascending order,they are ---
I. Application Layer(7)
II. Presentation Layer(6)
III. Session Layer(5)
IV. Transport Layer(4)
V. Network Layer(3)
VI. Data Link Layer(2)
VII. Physical Layer(1)
Layers Functions Protocols
Network
Components
Application
User Interface
used for applications specifically written to run over the network
allows access to network services that support applications;
directly represents the services that directly support user
applications
handles network access, flow control and error recovery
Example apps are file transfer,e-mail, NetBIOS-based applications
DNS; FTP;
TFTP; BOOTP;
SNMP;RLOGIN;
SMTP; MIME;
NFS; FINGER;
TELNET; NCP;
APPC; AFP;
SMB
Gateway
Presentation
Translation
Translates from application to network format and vice-versa
all different formats from all sources are made into a common
uniform format that the rest of the OSI model can understand
responsible for protocol conversion, character conversion,data
encryption / decryption, expanding graphics commands, data
compression
sets standards for different systems to provide seamless
communication from multiple protocol stacks
not always implemented in a network protocol
Gateway
Redirector
Session
syncs and sessions
establishes, maintains and ends sessions across the network
responsible for name recognition (identification) so only the
designated parties can participate in the session
provides synchronization services by planning check points in the
data stream => if session fails, only data after the most recent
checkpoint need be transmitted
manages who can transmit data at a certain time and for how long
Examples are interactive login and file transfer connections, the
session would connect and re-connect if there was an interruption;
recognize names in sessions and register names in history
NetBIOS
Names Pipes
Mail Slots
RPC
Gateway
Networking -K.R sir
Transport
packets; flow control
& error-handling
additional connection below the session layer
manages the flow control of data between parties across the
network
divides streams of data into chunks or packets; the transport layer of
the receiving computer reassembles the message from packets
"train" is a good analogy => the data is divided into identical units
provides error-checking to guarantee error-free data delivery, with
on losses or duplications
provides acknowledgment of successful transmissions; requests
retransmission if some packets dont arrive error-free
provides flow control and error-handling
TCP, ARP,
RARP;
SPX
NWLink
NetBIOS /
NetBEUI
ATP
Gateway
Advanced Cable
Tester
Brouter
Network
addressing; routing
translates logical network address and names to their physical
address (e.g. computername ==> MAC address)
responsible for
addressing
determining routes for sending
managing network problems such as packet switching, data
congestion and routing
if router cant send data frame as large as the source computer
sends, the network layer compensates by breaking the data into
smaller units. At the receiving end, the network layer reassembles
the data
think of this layer stamping the addresses on each train car
IP; ARP; RARP,
ICMP; RIP;
OSFP;
IGMP;
IPX
NWLink
NetBEUI
OSI
DDP
DECnet
Brouter
Router
Frame Relay
Device
ATM Switch
Advanced Cable
Tester
Data Link
data frames to bits
turns packets into raw bits 100101 and at the receiving end turns
bits into packets.
handles data frames between the Network and Physical layers
the receiving end packages raw data from the Physical layer into
data frames for delivery to the Network layer
responsible for error-free transfer of frames to other computer via
the Physical Layer
this layer defines the methods used to transmit and receive data on
the network. It consists of the wiring, the devices use to connect the
NIC to the wiring, the signaling involved to transmit / receive data
and the ability to detect signaling errors on the network media
Logical Link
Control
error
correction
and flow
control
manages
link control
and defines
SAPs
802.1 OSI Model
802.2 Logical Link
Control
Bridge
Switch
ISDN Router
Intelligent Hub
NIC
Advanced Cable
Tester
Networking -K.R sir
Media Access
Control
communica
tes with the
adapter card
controls the
type of
media being
used:
802.3 CSMA/CD
(Ethernet)
802.4 Token Bus
(ARCnet)
802.5 Token Ring
802.12 Demand
Priority
Physical
hardware; raw bit
stream
transmits raw bit stream over physical cable
defines cables, cards, and physical aspects
defines NIC attachments to hardware, how cable is attached to NIC
defines techniques to transfer bit stream to cable
IEEE 802
IEEE 802.2
ISO 2110
ISDN
Repeater
Multiplexer
Hubs
Passive
Active
TDR
Oscilloscope
Amplifier
Some Network Devices:-
1.Repeaters:- Repeaters work on level 1 i.e on the Physical Layer of OSI Model.The main
function of this device is is to amplify the incoming signals and send them to another cable.The main
disadvantage of this device is that it cannot filtter signals.
In Local Area Network the intermidiate distance between two repeaters is 2-10 km.
2.Bridges:- Bridges work on the layer 2(Data Link Layer) of OSI Model.This device can be
thought of as a smsrt repeater.The main function of bridge-------

(a) To determine the recipent of a messege by examining the MAC (Media Access
Control) or physical address.It also helps to filter out messeges.
(b) It helps to divide a big network into some smaller networks.
(c) It controls Broadcast Network System.
(d) To detemine the destination of a messege or a packet.
3.Router*:- A device that forward data packets along networks.A router is connected to at two
networks,commonly two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its ISP's network.Routers are located at
gateways,the places where two or more networks connect.
Router works in layer 3 i.e in Network layer.It helps to send a messege to its proper destination
Networking -K.R sir
according to its IP address.It enables messages to pass from one computer to another and eventually reach
the target machine. Each intermediary computer performs routing by passing along the message to the next
computer. Part of this process involves analyzing a routing table to determine the best path.This feature is
called Least Cost Routing.
(*A router interconnects two or more physically and logically separate network segments and operates at the network layer.Segments are joined together by a
router , which maintains a separate logical identity.It constitutes an internetworka group of networks linked by routers.A router distinguishes data packets according to
protocol types,such as TCP/IP,IPX/SPX,or Apple Talk.Routers forward traffic according to network level addresses.They cannot access to a network,in some cases,depending
on the type of application,thus providing a certain measure of security.This capability is used extensively in creating firewalls,which provides security when a organisation is
linked to internet.Also a device that connects two or more differrent network segments,and allows information to flow between them only when neccessary.The router,unlike a
bridge,examines the data contained in very packet it receives for detailed information.Based on this information the router decides whether to block the packet from the rest of
the networks or transmit it.It also attempts to send the packet by the most efficient path through the network.Routers do this using various routing protocols(mentioned
above),the most common among these being RIP,OSPF & IGRP.---- O-Level by Satish Jain)
4.Gateways:-A device that is used to interface two otherwise incompatible network facilitie.also a
term used in networking.it is a computer providing a connection between two networks,two E-mail hanlding
systems,or a usenet newsgroup and a mailing list.A gateway reformats the data so that it will be acceptable to the
system it is passing into.A shared connection between a local area network and a large packet switching
network,whose communications are different.Usually slower than router or bridge,a gateway is combination of
hardware and software with its own processor and memory used to perform protocol conversion.
Difference between Hub and Switch:-
Hub and Switch both are known
as communicating device between various parts
of transmission and media.In Star Topology,
this devices are used as Central Controller.This
devices amplifies and transmits the network
signal.
A hub is typically the least
expensive, least intelligent, and least
complicated of the two. Its job is very simple:
anything that comes in one port is sent out to the
others. That's it. Every computer connected to
the hub "sees" everything that every other
computer on the hub sees. The hub itself is
blissfully ignorant of the data being transmitted.
For years, simple hubs have been quick and
easy ways to connect computers in small
networks.
A switch does essentially what a
hub does but more efficiently. By paying
attention to the traffic that comes across it, it
can "learn" where particular addresses are. For
example, if it sees traffic from machine A
coming in on port 2, it now knows that machine
A is connected to that port and that traffic to
machine A needs to only be sent to that port and
not any of the others. The net result of using a
switch over a hub is that most of the network
Networking -K.R sir
traffic only goes where it needs to rather than to every port. On busy networks this can make the network significantly
faster.
Difference between Router and Bridge:-
1. The device Bridge works in Data Link Layer while Router works in Network Layer.
2. Bidge is used to connect various parts (sub-network) of same network while Router connects different
networks.
3. Bridge works on Mac address provided by NIC manufacturer but Router deals with IP address provided by
Network administrator.
A Bridge is a device that connects a local area network (LAN) to another local area network that uses
the same protocol (for example, Ethernet or Token Ring). You can envision a bridge as being a device that decides
whether a message from you to someone else is going to the local area network in your building or to someone on the
local area network in the building across the street.
A Router is a device or, in some cases, software in a computer, that determines the next network point
to which a packet should be forwarded toward its destination. The router is connected to at least two networks and
decides which way to send each information packet based on its current understanding of the state of the networks it
is connected to. A router is located at any gateway (where one network meets another), including each point-of-
presence on the Internet. A router is often included as part of a network switch.
Define various types of network:-
LAN(Local Area Network):-
i. -A network of interconnected computers that is distinguished by its small geographical size (typically
measured in meters), privately owned, high-speed (usually measured in megabits per second), and low
error rate (typically 1 bit in a trillion).
ii. Components of computers,terminals and peripherals are connectes with co-axial cable or twisted pair.
iii. LAN transmits data faster (0.1-100 mbps)than WAN.
iv. Data transmission in LAN is cheap.
Example: Computer scattered through various department of office is connected through ethernet cards in Bus
topology.
WAN(Wide Area Network):-
i. A communications network serving geographically separate areas. A WAN can be established by
linking together two or more metropolitan area networks, which enables data terminals in one city to
access data resources in another city or country.
ii. Transmission media are Telephone line,Microwave and satellite communication system.
iii. Data transmission is costlier than LAN.
iv. Speed of Data transmission is less than LAN.(1800-9600 bit/sec)
Example:A network between various branches of a multinational company.
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network):-
i. The MAN is a high-speed network used within a town or city. A MAN typically provides very high-
speed connections, using fiber-optic cable or other digital media, between LANs in the same area.
Networking -K.R sir
ii. Communication is maintained between computers through modem,telephone line etc.
iii. Cost of Data transmission is cheaper than WAN but costlier than LAN.
iv. The Media of data transmission can be both bounded or unbounded.
Example:Examples of metropolitan area
networks of various sizes can be found in the
metropolitan areas of London, England; Lodz,
Poland; and Geneva, Switzerland. Large
universities also sometimes use the term to
describe their networks. A recent trend is the
installation of Wireless MANs.
Circuit Switching:-
A physical link is established between source and destination point in this method.In this method a real
connection is established in switching center.Telephone line is used as communication channel.
Characteristics:-
In circuit switching method once a connection is established communication is kept intact until the
connection is cut.
Advantages:-
i. While transferring the huge ammount of data circuit switching is extremely useful.
ii. Bit rate,Format,Framing etc. method are adopted to maintain the connection between source and
destination.
iii. Call charge depends on distance and time but not on ammount of data.So large ammount of data can be
send.
iv. Lack of buffers in the data path
v. Possibility of all-optical data paths.
vi. Higher switching capacity.
vii. Simple admission control.
viii. No degradation of the response time.
Disadvantages:
i. A characteristic of circuit switching method is called time delay(10 sec for local call).that means if
physical connection is not properly established between the source and the destination communication
is not possible.
ii. Even though no data is transmited after establishment of the data communication channel the channel
keeps it's bandwidth fixed i.e. bandwidth is waisted.
Networking -K.R sir
iii. Circuit switching method is mainly confined to voice communication.
iv. Architechture of circhuit switch is complex.
Packet Switching:-
Packet switching is a
communications paradigm in which
packets (discrete blocks of data) are
routed between nodes over data links
shared with other traffic. In each network
node, packets are queued or buffered,
resulting in variable delay. A tight upper
limit on block size is stipulated.This
contrasts with the other principal
paradigm, circuit switching, which sets up
a limited number of constant bit rate and
constant delay connections between the
nodes for their exclusive use for the
duration of the communication.
Packet switching network do not have the limitations of circuit switching
1. Sender and receiver can transmit at different rates.
Different types of computers can communicate between each other in packet switched networks.
2. Because of its nature, packet switched networks can accomodate multi-process communications.
3. Packet switched networks do not refuse a connection; at most, they delay it until the packet can be
transmitted.
However, packet switching is not without problems:
1.Too many packets can lead to a congestion of the packet switched network: packets that cannot be
stored or delivered might be discarded by the Packet Switching Exchange.
2.Packets can arrive at different times and in a different order than when they were sent: this is a
problem for telephone conversation.
Message Switching:

There is no existence of physical copper path between source and destination in Message switching.In this
method data is first stored in switching office(router) and then if the out going circuit is free the data is sent to the
destination.This is called 'Store & Forward Method'.
There is no strict limitation in block size inb message switching.accutally it is the factor in which message
switching is different from packet switching.
Networking -K.R sir
(*:-In optics, dispersion is the phenomenon that the phase velocity of a wave depends on its frequency. In a prism, dispersion causes the spatial
separation of a white light into spectral components of different wavelengths. Dispersion is most often described in light waves, but it may happen to any kind of wave
that interacts with a medium or can be confined to a waveguide, such as sound waves. Dispersion is sometimes called chromatic dispersion to emphasize its
wavelength-dependent nature.)
Networking -K.R sir
Networking -K.R sir