CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO.

I INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Aim and objective 4
1.2 Location of the study area 4
1.3 River and water body 5
1.4 Methodoloy 5
II GEOLOGY !
2.1 "ntroduction !
2.2. #eoloical setu$ of south "ndia !
2.2.1 %harnoc&ite '
2.2.2 #ranitic neisses 1(
2.2.3 #ranulites 1(
2.3 #eomor$holoy 12
2.3.1 "ntroduction 12
2.3.2 Landforms 12
2.3.2.1 )ediments 13
2.3.2.2 *tructural hills 15
2.3.2.3 Residual hills 15
2.4. *tructural #eoloy 15
2.4.1 "ntroduction 15
2.4.2 Lineaments in the study area 1+
III HYDROGEOLOGY 1,
3.1 "ntroduction 1,
3.2 -rainae 1,
3.3 *oil and %ro$s 21
IV HYDROGEOCHEMISTRY 22
4.1 "ntroduction 22
4.2 #round water sam$lin techni.ues 25
4.3.1 /ydro ion concentration 3(
4.3.2 0ater .uality ma$s 43
4.3.2.1 -istribution of calcium 43
4.3.2.2 -istribution of manesium 4+
4.3.2.3 -istribution of sodium 4+
4.3.2.4 -istribution of $otassium 4+
4.3.2.5 -istribution of bicarbonate 4+
4.3.2.+ -istribution of chloride 54
4.3.2.! -istribution of sul$hate 54
V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION +1
1"1L"2#RA)/3 +2
CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO.
I 1.1 1ase ma$ +
"" 2.1 #eoloy ma$ 11
2.2 #eomor$holoy ma$ 14
2.3 Lineament 1!
III 3.1 -rainae ma$ 2(
3.2 *oil ma$ 22
IV 4.1 Location ma$ 32
4.2 -istribution ma$ of $/ 35
4.4 -istribution ma$ of 4c 3,
4.+ -istribution ma$ of %alcium 3'
4., -istribution ma$ of Manesium 4!
4.1( -istribution ma$ of *odium 4'
4.12 -istribution ma$ of $otassium 51
4.14 -istribution ma$ of 1icarbonate 53
4.1+ -istribution ma$ of %hloride 55
4.1, -istribution ma$ of *ul$hate 5!
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO TITLE PAGE NO.
1 *tratira$hic succession ,
2 0ater sam$le Analyses of
5adayam$atty bloc& $remonsoon 2+
3 0ater sam$le Analyses of
5adayam$atty bloc& $ostmonsoon 2!
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
0ater is a $recious natural resource6 without which there would be no life
on 4arth. 0e6 ourselves6 are com$osed of two7thirds water by body weih. 2ur
everyday lives de$end on the availability of ine8$ensive6 clean water and safe
ways to dis$ose of it after use. 0ater su$$lies are also essential in su$$ortin food
$roduction and industrial activity. As a source of water6 roundwater obtained
from beneath the 4arth9s surface is often chea$er6 more convenient and less
vulnerable to $ollution than surface water.
#roundwater6 because it is unnoticed underround6 is often unac&nowleded and
undervalued resultin in adverse environmental6 economic and social
conse.uences. :he over7e8$loitation of roundwater by uncontrolled $um$in can
cause detrimental effects on neihbourin boreholes and wells6 land subsidence6
saline water intrusion and the dryin out of surface waters and wetlands. 0ithout
$ro$er consideration for roundwater resources6 roundwater $ollution from
uncontrolled uses of chemicals and the careless dis$osal of wastes on land cause
serious im$acts re.uirin difficult and e8$ensive remediation over lon $eriods of
time. Major sources of contamination include arochemicals6 industrial and
munici$al wastes6 tailins and $rocess waster water from mines6 oil field brine
$its6 lea&in underround storae tan&s and $i$elines6 and sewae slude and
se$tic systems.
1
THE WATER CYCLE
A useful start in $romotin a holistic a$$roach to lin&in round surface
waters is to ado$t the hydroloical cycle6 can be thouht of as the continuous
circulation of water near the surface of the 4arth from the ocean to the atmos$here
and then via $reci$itation6 surface runoff and roundwater flow6 bac& to the ocean.
0armin of the ocean by solar radiation causes water to be eva$orated into the
atmos$here and trans$orted by winds to the land masses where the va$our
condenses and falls as $reci$itation. :he $reci$itation is either returned directly to
the ocean6 interce$ted by veetated surfaces and returned to the atmos$here by
eva$otrans$iration6 collected to form surface runoff6 or6 infiltrated into the soil and
underlyin roc&s to form roundwater. :he surface runoff and roundwater flow
contribute to surface streams and rivers that flow to the ocean6 with $ools and
la&es $rovidin tem$orary surface storae.
2f the total water in the lobal cycle6 that saline water in the oceans
accounts for '!.25;. Land masses and the atmos$here therefore contain 2.!5;.
"ce ca$s and laciers hold 2.(5;. #roundwater to a de$th of 4 5m accounts for
(.+,;6 freshwater la&es (.(1;6 soil moisture (.((5; and rivers (.(((1;. About
!5; of the water in land areas is loc&ed in lacial ice or is saline. :he relative
im$ortance of roundwater can be reali<ed when it is considered that6 of the
remainin .uarter of water in land areas6 around ',; is stored underround. "n
addition to the more accessible roundwater involved in the water cycle above a
de$th of 4 5m6 estimates of the volume of interstitial water in roc& $ores at even
reater de$ths rane from 53 8 1(
+
5m
3
to 32( 8 1(5m
3
:here is a finite su$$ly of water on the 4arth6 but it is continually recycled
naturally. 0ater may occur as a solid6 li.uid6 or as6 and can be found in a wide
variety of locations. :his circulation that $urifies and redistributes water is called
the hydroloic cycle.
2
0ater can enter the atmos$here by eva$oration6 trans$iration6 or
sublimation. 4va$oration occurs as li.uid water becomes a as= the water can
come from anythin on the surface6 such as $lants6 soil6 rivers6 la&es6 and oceans.
:rans$iration is the $rocess by which water is released from reen $lants into the
atmos$here. "n many cases it is very difficult to distinuish eva$oration from
trans$iration= eva$otrans$iration refers to the combination of the two. *ublimation
is the $rocess of a solid turnin directly into a as= snow and ice chanin into
va$or is only a minor $art of water enterin the atmos$here. 0ater chanes from a
as into a li.uid by condensation and returns to the 4arth $rimarily in the form of
$reci$itation >snow and rain?. Many different thins can ha$$en to $reci$itation @
in some cases it does not even reach the round. "t can eva$orate before hittin
anythin6 or can be interce$ted by veetation. 0hen water reaches the round6 it
can infiltrate into the round6 be stored on the surface6 or travel on. :he surface
until it aninfiltrate or be stored. #roundwater travels throuh roc& and sediment
by $ercolation. "t moves by ravity and $ressure until the water table intersects the
round surface. 0ater can then be dischared at s$rins or any other body of
surface water. 2nce returned to the surface6 this water can be used by $lants6
stored on the surface6 or eva$orated.
IMPORTANCE OF THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE FOR GROUNDWATER
"nfiltration su$$lies a.uifers with a continual source of water to re$lace
that $um$ed from wells and dischared naturally >such as at s$rins?. -urin
infiltration water can $ic& u$ acids in the soil that can subse.uently e8$and the
$ore s$ace in a.uifers6 sometimes creatin caves. Lare areas of im$ervious
cover6 such as $ar&in lots6 do not allow infiltration. /ih volumes of rain over a
short $eriod of time also reduce the amount of water infiltratin= slow rainfall best
rechares roundwater.
3
"nfiltration and $ercolation are usually slow $rocesses re.uirin water to
move throuh a tiht ma<e of sediment which acts as a filter. :oether with
bioloical activity6 water is cleaned as it moves throuh the round. :his natural
scrubbin is one of the reasons roundwater is so commonly used for drin&in.
0hen water $enetrates the 4arth surface we can observe its further
movements only indirectly. "t is not easy to determine the volume of water stored
within or movin throuh the subsurface elements controllin the hydroloic
system es$ecially when the model is com$le8. "t creates a s$ecial set of $roblems
to trac& water movin throuh the subsurface in a hard roc& terrain6 es$ecially in a
hih rade metamor$hosed ranulite terrane.
Aowhere else in the world6 subsurface roundwater e8$loitation has been
attem$ted on such a massive a scale as in "ndia6 $articularly )eninsular "ndia6
com$risin mostly of hard roc& terrain. :he author has studied the 5adayam$atty
1loc& union *alem -istrict to understand the hihly frail roundwater $otential
and the .uantitative eomor$holoy. "n this cha$ter the author $resents the aim of
study6 location6 rivers and methodoloy of the study area.
1.1. AIM AND OBJECTIVE
:he $resent wor& aims to enerate and amalamate the data of these
studies to evaluate the water .uality of the 5adayam$atty 1loc& of *arabana
watersheds. :he main objectives of the $ro$osed study area to understand the
eomor$holoy6 eoloy and structural character of the area. :o collect water
sam$les in 5adayam$atty 1loc& in 1( locations to determine the .uality
$arameters of round water6 durin $remonsoon 2(12 B $ostmonsoon in 2(13.
1.2. LOCATION OF THE STUDY AREA
:amil Aadu is the southern most state of "ndia and *alem -istrict lies in
interior of :amil Aadu. :he study area 5adayam$atty 1loc& lies in the northern
4
$art of *alem -istrict. "t lies between the latitudes 11( 459 to 12o 4(9 and
lonitudes !,
o
to !,
o
159 of :o$osheet Ao.5, "C1 scale 1D5(6((( $ublished by
*urvey of "ndia in 1'!3 is iven in Fig.I.1.
1.3. RIVERS AND WATER BODIES
*alem -istrict is mar&ed by isolated hills. River li&e cauvery6 *arabana6
:hirumanimuthar6 *wetha and Easista are the im$ortant rivers drainin in this
district. :he %auvery is the only $erennial river *arabana6 :hirumanimuthar6
*wetha and Easista are the tributaries of the %auvery.
1.4. METHODOLOGY
:he *urvey of "ndia to$ora$hic ma$s and other base line information are
formin the basic source for the study. :he different thematic ma$s li&e eoloy6
eomor$holoy6 structures6 lineament6 and drainae ma$s are collected from
various aencies. 0ater sam$les we collected durin $re monsoon 2(12 and $ost
monsoon of 2(136 the study $eriod. :he cation anion distribution ma$s where
$re$ared by usin #"* :echni.ues.
5
CHAPTER II
GEOLOGY
2.1. INTRODUCTION
/olland >1'((? first re$orted on the hy$ersthene ranite from *hevaroys
in *alem -istrict and later a similar roc& near Madras6 he made a detailed study on
the hy$ersthene ranite of Madras. :he 3ercaud hills >$art of *hevaroys? are $arts
of the 4astern #hates. :he 3ercaud were considered to be made u$ of
intermediate charnoc&ite massifs. Aaidu>1'+3? is of the view that Ailiris6
*hevaroys and )alani hills are neissic folded bloc&s of a ormer eosyncline and
are not charnoc&itic massifs.
:he three rou$s or su$errou$s reconi<ed by then in :amil Aadu are6
1. 5hondalite @ charnoc&ite su$errou$
2. *athyamanalam su$errou$ >com$arable to *arur? and
3. 1arur su$errou$ >com$arable to -harwar?
:here is no any distinct contact amon these su$errou$s and the contacts are
mostly areas of mimatisation.
Recently isoto$ic datin of several roc&s from )eninsular "ndia es$ecially
in the study area to be as youn as !5( m.y.
2.2 GEOLOGICAL SET UP OF SOUTH INDIA
:he hih rade terrain of :amil Aadu re$resents an im$ortant
metamor$hic $rovince in the world6 wherein dee$er sements of the crust are
e8$osed6 and is dominated by am$hibolite and ranulite facies roc&s. "t is
essentially a )recambrian terrainm which covers over ,(; of the landmass.
)hanero<oic sedimentary roc&s and river valleyalluvium account for the rest.
:hese include the F$$er #ondwana sediments alon linear trouhs and the
succession of
!
Meso<oic to Recent sediments in the sedimentary basis alon the continental
marin. :he enerali<ed #eoloical succession of :amil Aadu is iven in T!"#
2.1. :he eoloical ma$ has been $re$ared for the study area and it is shown in
Fig.2.1
2.1. S$%$ig%&'i( S)((#**i+, +- T.i" N/)
%eno<oic Alluvium
1lac& soil
Laterite
%uddalore *and stone
Meso<oic %reataceous Ainiyur Gormation
Ariyalur Gormation
:richina$oly Gormation
Fttatur Gormation
Meso<oic to )alaeo<oic #ondwana $lant beds
#ranite
%harnoc&ites
)rotero<oic Al&aline roc&s and %arbonatites
Fltra mafics
1asic dy&es
)rotero<oic to Archean Mimatite
#ranities
%harnoc&ite rou$
Archean Anorthosite #rou$
5olar #rou$
5hondolite #rou$
1havani #nessic %om$le8
*athyamanalam #rou$.
,
2.2. PROTERO0OIC SE1UENCE
2.2.1. CHARNOC2ITE
:he name charnoc&ite refers to an ortho$yro8ene bearin ranite commonly found
in ranualite facies terrain. /ih $ressure tem$erature condition is essential for
the formation of charnoc&ites of ineous oriin by mamatic differentiatin and in
com$osition ranin from acid to ultra basic roc&s.
Eerdenber >1'1'? correlated the charnoc&ite series and &hondalite series to
the -harwar system of 5arnata&a. Accordin to him6 charnoc&ite and &nondalite
re$resented intensely metamor$hosed facies of -harwar system.
/owie >1'55? on the basis of studies on the eochemistry near %hennai e8$ressed
the view that the roc& re$resented calc7al&aline $lutonic ineous roc&s that has
recrystalli<ed under conditions of $lutonic metamor$hism. Accordin to
Aarayanasamy and La&shmi >1'+'?6 the charnoc&ite are rou$ed into four ty$es as
followsD
i. Acid micro$erthitic charnoc&ite ii. "ntermediate nessic charnoc&ite iii.
1asic nortic charnoc&ite >)yro8ene ranulite? and iv. Fltrabasic charnoc&ite. Acid
micro$erthitic charnoc&ite occurs as conformable lenses and bands of different
dimensions within arnetiferous neiss and mimatites. :he intermediate neissic
charnoc&ite is the most $revalent and it is banded and foliated. Alternatin bands
of liht coloured micro$erthitic charnoc&ite and layers of $yro8ene ranualite are
seen in sheet li&e form.
:he formation of charnoc&ite6 are in the dee$ tectonic levels influence of
stu$endeous $ressure and tem$erature of roc&s may will be ductile. "n such
environment6 the line of division between ineous and metamor$hic may be will
be narrowed down. :he ductile mass may be mar&ed by re.uisite mobility to form
intrusive features6 characteristics of ineous roc&s.
'
%harnoc&ites of :amil Aadu has been classified into the massive Hhihland ty$eI
of the first eneration charnoc&ites and another Hlow landI or Hinci$ient ty$eI.
:he charnoc&ite of the study area is fine6 medium to coarse rained.
*$hene6 a$alite6 <ircon6 manetic and o$a.ue forms as secondary mineral are
abundant.
2.2.2. GRANITIC GNEISSES
:he occurrence of this ty$e of roc& is observed in the A0 corner of the area and
e8tends towards south. :he )yno8enite bands in these roc&s occurs as Jenoliths
and they area mostly am$hibolised. :his roc& ty$e whows minor movements
alon certain $lanes. Minor folds area also noted. :he roc& e8hibits foliation
whenever there is considerable amount of biotite and hornblende and it is
structureless if such mafics area wantin. :he develo$ment of arnet6 dislocation
of basic bands6 thinin and drain of basic materials alon sheared $alnes6
develo$ment of white or rey coarse rained felds$ars and .uart< are inse$erable
associations in the field. :he contact between ranitic neisses and the adjoinin
charnoc&ites are always radational and $recise demarcation is im$ossible.
2.2.3. GRANULITES
%alc ranulites6 which are the metabasic roc&s metamor$hosed under
ranulite facies are the most abundant archaean su$racrustals roc& in the area.
:hey form linear bands of few tens of 5ilometers in lenth to 8enoliths of few
decimeters si<e and are distributed throuhout the area. Major bands are noticed in
the southeastern and western $art of the area6 within the charnoc&ites. "n other
areas they occur as disconnected bands of less than 1 &m lenth6 calc ranulites
occurrin within charnoc&ites form rides and serve as mar&er beds to trace the
fold $atterns. "n the neissic terrain6 the neiss and calc ranulite contact is not
clear.
1(
2.3 GEOMORPHOLOGY
2.3.1. INTRODUCTION
:he eomor$holoy is the study of landforms and surface features. :he
investiation reardin mountain6 $lateaus6 $lains6 valley and basins and their
association with landform and its develo$ment and dis$osition are comin under
the domain of eomor$holoy.
:he im$ortant features overnin the land form are develo$ment6 and its
resistance to erosion and the underlyin roc&s6 climate and veetative cover. :he
mor$hometry and the measurement of land form are useful in evaluatin drainae
basin $arameters which is in turn useful in understandin roundwater interaction.
:he roundwater rechare and runoff due to $reci$itation is controlled by
eomor$hic features. :he occurrence and movement and .uality of roundwater
are also controlled by eoloic formations. :he landforms are de$endin u$on the
followin features.
1? %limate settin includin its variation in the $ast. 2? Fnderlyin bed roc& and
3? :ime s$an involved.
0ith the hel$ of aerial $hotora$h and landsat imaery6 the terrain
$arameters are $redicted and they are land form structure6 drainae6 landuse and
land cover etc.
2.3.2. LAND FORMS
:he $resent day landforms and irreulara outline are different of
eomor$hic $rocess. :he rate of de$osition and erosion is never bein uniform
and causin uneven outcro$$in limits. 1y careful analysis of various outcro$
$atterns with the hel$ of aerial $hotora$hs and lands at imaeries6
the characteristic land form is reconi<ed Fig.2.2. :he followin is the various
12
landforms $resent in the study area. Alluvial $lain6 1ajada6 %ollovial $lain6 -ee$
$ediment /ill6 )edi$lain and *tructural /ill.
2.3.2.1. PEDIMENTS
"n many arid and semi7arid reions lon6 smooth roc&s cut $lains e8tend
out varyin distances u$ to several miles from mountain fronts. :hese $lains are
H)edimentI. :he $ediments are $lains of deradation. A $ediment may or may
not have an alluvial veneer over it6 but it is basically bed a roc& surface. Althouh
some may have develo$ed across oldest alluvial de$osits.
)ediments may have a thin veneer of ravel over them adjacent to the
mountain of this may be etchin away from the mountains thus become Hconcealed
sedimentsI. 4ven where concealed a $ediment is believed to be most ty$ically a
conve8 roc& surface which $lunes beneath the bajada that observes it. "ndividual
$ediments at the $oint where mountain valleys dischare into a $ediment slo$e
may e8$and to form Hcoalescin $edimentsI6 which may in time $ractically
consume a mountain mass. *ome $ediments e8hibit a considerable deree of
dissertion and are reard to as Hdissected $edimentsI.
"n many cases $ediments re$resent the recession of mountain fronts due to
weatherin and stream erosion. Accordin to some views as reion attain reater
to$ora$hic ae6 the width of $ediments increases mountain wards it follows then
that ultimately either isolated mountains ranes may be so thorouhly worn away
or $ediments will cover at the to$ of the eroded mountain.
:he $ediment is located as intermediate landform between inselbere and
shallow $ediments. :he roundwater condition in $ediments is e8$ected to vary
de$endin u$on the ty$e of underlyin folded structures6 fracture systems and
dderee of weatherin. #roundwater $ros$ectin in $ediments can be considered
as normal to $oor >*an&ar6 2((2?6 but $resence of any lineaments or fractures can
$rovide some sco$e for movement of roundwater and hence the $ros$ectin for
13
roundwater e8$loration. -u wells located in shallow buried $ediments have
shallow water table as com$ared to those in dee$ buried $ediments.
2.3.2.2. STRUCTURAL HILLS
:hese are acts as main water divide as initial unit of the watershed with
numerous drainaes oriinatin from them. :hey are linear to arcuate hill features
showin definite trend in their formation. :he major roc& ty$e of these areas are
hornblende7biotite neisses. %hances of occurrence of roundwater de$end on the
eoloical structures in this area6 althouh a reion with structural hills is normally
considered as $oor source of roundwater.
2.3.2.3. RESIDUAL HILL
:he term refers to a residual hill raisin above an erosion surface thouht
to be a $ediment or $edi$lain. :hese stee$ sided are most $rominent features of
island mountain landsca$e made famous form for 1ornhard6 $assae and others.
"n the beinnin6 this term has indiscriminately a$$lied for the term inselbere to
any hill reardless of its oriin. 0ills >1'3+? attem$ted to clarify.
2.4. STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
2.4.1. INTRODUCTION
:o assess the roundwater movement in a hard roc& terrain6 the structure
of the hard roc& terrain of the study area in detail becomes a necessity. :he
roundwater in a hard roc& terrain and that too hihly metamor$hosed6 can move
only alon structural discontinuities li&e roc& cleavae6 $artitions6 joints6 faults and
unconformities etc.
Earious ma$s were $re$ared from the field data6 aerial $hotora$hs and
satellite imaeries6 which show the reional rain6 fold $attern and the sinatures
of major and minor shears that develo$ in res$onse to the forces o$eratin in the
15
reion. *hear <ones may re$resent locali<ed fractures in deformation in their
country roc&s underoin slower and steadier strain. -eformation becomes non7
uniform where bifurcation beins but does not necessarily lead to locali<ation.
2.4.2 LINEAMENTS IN THE STUDY AREA
Lineaments can be traced more easily when the contrast of the imaes is
shar$. :he imaery used by the author in this syno$tic inter$retation is on
1D5(6((( scale. :he linear features were round chec&ed by the reular field visits.
Fig3 2.3.
"n the study area lineaments were identified. :hey are $articularly in the
A47*0 directions in eastern side. A07*4 lineaments were identified in western
side of the watersheds. :he hori<ontal joints were cut across by 470 as well as
A47*0 lineament brin about more roundwater su$$ly to the reion.
1+
CHAPTER III
HYDROGEOLOGY
3.1. INTRODUCTION
H4/%+g#+"+g4 >hydro7meanin water6 and @ eoloy meanin the study
of the 4arth? is the area of eoloy that deals with the distribution and movement
of roundwater in the soil and roc&s of the 4arth9s crust6 >commonly in a.uifers?.
:he term g#+'4/%+"+g4 is often used interchaneably. *ome ma&e the minor
distinction between a hydroloist or enineer a$$lyin themselves to eoloy
>eohydroloy?6 and a eoloist a$$lyin themselves to hydroloy >hydroeoloy?.
/ydroeoloy >li&e most earth sciences? is an interdisci$linary subject= it
can be difficult to account fully for the chemical6 $hysical6 bioloical and even
leal interactions between soil6 water6 nature and society. :he study of the
interaction between roundwater movement and eoloy can be .uite com$le8.
#roundwater does not always flow in the subsurface down7hill followin the
surface to$ora$hy= roundwater follows $ressure radients >flow from hih
$ressure radient to low? often followin fractures and conduits in circuitous $aths.
:a&in into account the inter$lay of the different facets of a multi7com$onent
system often re.uires &nowlede in several diverse fields at both the e8$erimental
and theoretical levels. :his bein said6 the followin is a more traditional
>reductionist view$oint? introduction to the methods and nomenclature of saturated
subsurface hydroloy6 or sim$ly hydroeoloy.
3.2 DRAINAGE
:he drainae $attern in the basin shows both radial and dentritic
$attern. Most of them are either circular or oval. :o$ora$hically hih areas are
1,
drained by streams which radiate outward from the central $art and flow down the
flan&s in all the directions.
:he drainae $attern of the study area is shown in Fig.3.16 0e can
observe that all over the reion6 the streams were erodin headword alon the
shear <ones resultin in $iracies.
A drainae $attern is the $lanimetric arranement of streams6 etched into
the land surface by a drainae system. :he drainae $atterns of all ty$es found on
a variety of roc&s from those defined by major river system to those associated
with riles and ulley. :hey hel$ te8tural features of scene and de$endin u$on the
s$acin of the individual stream may be defines as coarse6 intermediate and fine
te8tural $atterns. :he stream6 which defines the $atterns6 can be of any enetic
ty$e6 conse.uent6 subse.uent and so forth. :he first stae in usin drainae is to
see& connection between stream $attern and the dis$osition of roc&s.
A channel which has develo$ed on initial slo$e on which continues to
follow its oriinal direction is said to be conse.uent. An inse.uent streams
occu$ies a course which is not due to determine factors. :he best develo$ment of
inse.uent streams ta&es ta&es $lace on the hori<ontal roc&s6 $lained massive
crystalline roc&s.
A subse.uent stream develo$s by eadword erosion alon a belt of wea&
roc&s. "n an alternate se.uence of hard and soft roc&s di$$in weaword a
conse.uent stream will for wider valleys where it cuts the wea& roc&. :ributaries
oriinate on wider side of these valleys and lenthen their valleys by head ward
erosion formin subse.uent streams.
1'
3.2 SOIL AND CROPS
0eatherin of roc&s led to formation of four ty$es of soil. :hey are red
soil6 brown soil and red colluvial soil.
Red soil >non calcareous? covers ma8imum area in this reion. :he soil
ma$ of the study area is shown in Fig.3.2 :hic&ness of the soil cover in the study
area varies from 1.2m to 4.5 m.
:he area is mainly covered by red soil blac& cotton soil and blac& soil to
the minor e8tent. :he total area covered by ariculture is !2; and the forestland
is 11;. At the time of normal seasons both wet and dry cro$s are cultivated. :he
wet cro$ is cultivated mainly with the hel$ of du cum bore wells and bore wells.
:he most common trees found in the area are Aeem >A<aditchala "ndica?6
)almyra >Arraos )labellifer?6 5aruvelam >Acacia Arabica?6 4tti >*tychnous Au8
Eomioca?6 "llu$ai >1asria6 L
atfifolia6 1anyan >Gicuss 1enalenis?6 Murunai >Marinae #lerifera?6
Aathi >Aathi #round Glora?6 >Mananifera "ndica?6 *il& %otton >4rodendron
)entantdum?. 2ther than these6 trees li&e 4ucoly$tus6 )unam6 1amboo and
1abool are noticed.
21
CHAPTER IV
HYDROGEOCHEMISTRY
4.1. INTRODUCTION
H0ater is the eli8ir of life. 0ithout it life is not $ossibleI. 0ater is a
natural resource for e8cellence6 while soil is womb of all life on earth. :he
millions of s$ecies of $lants6 cro$s and trees $rovidin food and fodder for billions
of livin creatures and the sun and the life iver water is catalyst for the sustained
of life on this earth. %ivili<ation have flourished with the develo$ment of reliable
water su$$lies and then colla$sed as water su$$ly failed.
#round water is a $recious and most widely distributed resource of the
earth and unli&e any other mineral resource= it ets annual re$lacement from the
meteoric $reci$itation. :he worlds total water resources are estimated at 1.3!81(
7,
million ha.m. 2f these lobal water resources about '!.2; is salt water mainly in
oceans6 and only 2.,; is available as fresh water at anytime on the $lanet earth.
2ut of this 2.,;6 about 2.2; is available as surface water and (.+; as round
water. 2ut of this (.+; is stored as round water. 2nly about (.3; can be
economically e8tracted with $resent drillin technoloy6 the remainin bein
unavailable as it is situated below the de$th of ,(( m.
0ater is fast becomin scarcer6 for more reason than one6 li&e the
$o$ulation e8$losion and standard of livin leadin to increased use of water.
0ater is fortunately not only renewable6 but also self cleansin to a certain e8tent
as lon as the $ollution load is within its ca$acity to dilute and wash down6 but not
to an e8tent of overloadin with to8ic minerals and mostly throuh human
intervention.
0ater is one of the most critical of natural resources. /owever there is
rowin water crisis today6 which is $reci$itatin social and $olitical turmoil in the
society. "ncreased human activity and rowin re.uirements on the one hand and
22
limitations in the su$$ly on the other hand made it absolutely necessary to $ay
closer attention to all as$ects of water resources. Assessin and $lannin and
manain water source for sustainable use become our im$ortant issue es$ecially
in water scarcity reion.
At $resent only one fifth on all water used in the world is obtained from
round water resources. Ariculture is the reatest user of water accountin for
,(; of all consum$tion. Animal husbandry and fisheries all re.uire abundant
water. *ome 15; of the world9s cro$land is irriated. :he $resent irriated land
in "ndia consumes 4(; of roundwater.
About two thirds of land in our country com$rises of consolidated
formation6 5; $ercent bein made u$ of crystalline roc&s and consolidated
sediments and the remainin twenty five $ercent of tra$. :he remainin one third
of the land area com$rises of semi7consolidated and unconsolidated formations
li&e alluvial tracts.
2ur country in fortunately enclosed with ood river wealth. 0e have 14
major rivers drainin more than 2(((( s..&m. 4ach6 44 medium rivers in the
cateory drainin between 2((( and 2(((( s..&m and several minor rivers
drainin less than 2((( s..&m. ,3; $ercent of eora$hical area is within the
catchments drained by the major rivers and about ,(; of the $o$ulation lives in
their basins.
River cauvery is one of the major rivers in the *outh and the only major
river :amil Aadu can boost of. %auvery is held sacred and shi$$ed in :amil Aadu6
as life ives and $rofusely mentioned in the scri$tures and literature.
:he surface water is now a days inade.uate to meet the various $ur$oses
and hence the round water is the only resource. :he sub7surface a.uifers are the
main and only source of fresh water in areas where there are no $erennial rivers.
:he occurrence and movement roundwater in an area is overned by several
23
factors such as to$ora$hy6 litholoy6 eoloical structure6 de$th of weatherin6
e8tent of fractures6 slo$e6 drainae $attern6 land use and land cover6 climatic
condition and inter relationshi$ between these factors. Gor delineation of
$ros$ective <one6 it is im$erative to interate the data on these terrain
characteristics.
"n identifyin landform features6 drainae $attern6 eomor$hic indicators
for location of rechare and dischare areas6 analysis of eomor$holoic condition
are an essential $re7re.uisite in understandin water bearin characteristics of most
crystalline roc&s. *ufficient thic& weathered <one forms round water storae in
bedroc& areas but often may not $rovide reular su$$ly of round water.
:he eoloical formations normally encountered in hard roc& areas of our
country are ranite or ranite neiss overlain by variable thic&ness of weathered
material. A reolith >over burden? normally $roduced by the weatherin of
basement roc&s. :he reolith normally rade into solid unfractured basement over
several terms of meter6 althouh often the boundary between them in shar$. /ydro
eoloically the weathered overburden has hih $orosity and certain sinificant
amount of water. 1ut6 normally hiher content of clay $resent in them6 it has low
$orosity. 0hereas the bedroc& has hiher $ermeability due to the $resence of
fre.uently fractured roc& containin them. :he reolith is considered as Hround
water reservoirsI and discharin hih yield de$endin u$on the ma8imum
thic&ness of weatherin. :he fracture $resent in them acts as flow $ath from the
reservoir6 which in term $rovidin lon term yields. 1ore7hole $enetrate saturated
weathered mantle and devoid of fracture in it are li&ely to $rovide sufficient yield
for hand $um$ only.
As the round water occurrence is the sub7surface $henomenon6 its
identification is based on the analysis of some directly observable terrain features
li&e eoloy6 eomor$holoy and hydroeoloy. :he satellite imaeries are
24
hihly useful in roundwater e8$loration by identifyin and outlinin various
eomor$hometric units as direct and indirect indicators of $ros$ective round
water <ones. :he round water e8$loration in small area in by field survey
method6 and the satellite imainaries are hihly useful for the reional level by
$rovidin data of the terrain.
"n recent year6 there has been an increasin tendency towards drillin dee$
bore7wells6 as the field round water develo$ment and technoloical innovation
made to lift the round water at the de$th of 25(m to 3((m below the round level
with the e8tension of free electricity in rural areas for ariculture6 there is s$ent in
lift irriation from tube wells and bore7wells.
4.2. GROUNDWATER SAMPLING TECHNI1UES.
-e$th interatin sam$lers and $oint sam$lers are used in obtainin
sam$les of water for estimatin non7volatile constituents. :he former consist only
of a mechanism for holdin and submerin the bottle. 2n lowerin the bottle at a
uniform rate6 water enters throuh the vertical $rofile. )oint sam$lers are used for
collectin water at a s$ecific de$th below the water surface. )olythene or lass
bottles of 1 to 2 litres ca$acity are usually used for the collection of sam$les and
are numbered. :he date and other $articulars are entered in reister in the
laboratory. :he water sam$le collected in 1( location in the study area. "t is
shown in Gi. 4.1 :he $hysical and chemical $arameter for 1( location is shown in
25
T!"#3 4.1 W$#% *.&"#* A,"4*#* +- 2/4.&$$4 !"+(5 &%#.+,*++, 2612
*.A2. Area )/ 4c %a M Aa 5 %23 /%23 %l3 *24
1. 5anavai$udur !.+ 1.2 3.! 5.( 3.2 (.(5 7 +., 5.( (.2(
2. E.Manani&adu !., (.' 3.3 4.( 1.! (.(, 7 4.! 3.! (.+2
3. Eadaam$atty !.+ 2.1 !.( 11.3 2.+ (.15 7 '.5 1(.5 1.(4
4. 1ommiam$atty !.+ 1.+ 5.3 '.2 1.+ (.(5 7 !.' !.5 (.+2
5. Fmbilic&am$atty !.+ 1.5 5.2 '.1 1.5 (.(4 7 !., !.4 (.+1
+. 5adayam$atty ,.2 1.! 5.' ,.1 3.( (.(5 1.5 ,.2 +.2 1.(4
!. )anna$atty !.! 1.! 5.' '.( 2.1 (.(2 7 3.5 12.5 1.(3
,. Kodu&uli ,.( 2., '.3 1(.( ,.+ (.(2 1.( 13.( 12.5 1.5
'. %hinnathiru$athi !.4 2.' ,.( 14.4 +.5 (.12 ( 11.2 15.5 2.3
1(. *emmanda$atty !.! 3.( +.! ,.( 15.2 (.1( 7 1(.2 1!.5 2.3
2+
T!"#3 4.2 W$#% *.&"#* A,"4*#* +- 2/4.&$$4 !"+(5 P+*$.+,*++, 2612
*.A2. Area )
/
4c %a M Aa 5 %2
3
/%2
3
%l
3
*2
4
1. 5anavai$udur !.3 1.( 3.3 4., 3.( (.(! 7 +.5 4.! (.1,
2. E.Manani&adu !.5 (.! 3.1 3.! 1.2 (.(3 7 4.2 3.2( (.32
3. Eadaam$atty !.3 1., 4.( 1(.' 2.1 (.' 7 ,.' '.' 1.(1
4. 1ommiam$atty !.2 1.2 4.' ,.' 1.2 (.2 7 !.1 !.2 (.32
5. Fmbilic&am$atty !.3 1.2 4., ,.! 1.1 (.3 7 !.1 !.2 (.33
+. 5adayam$atty !.' 1.2 5.2 !., 2.' (.2 1.2 !., 5.' (.'
!. )anna$atty !.2 1.2 5.3 ,.5 1.' (.(1 7 2.' 11.' 1.(1
,. Kodu&uli !.! 2.2 ,.' '.+ ,.1 (.(1 (.' 12.5 11.' (.'
' %hinnathiru$athi !.1 2.5 !.5 13.' !.' (.! 7 1(.' 14.' 2.1
1(. *emmanda$atty !.2 2.5 +.2 !.5 14 (.! 7 '.' 1+.' 1.'
2!
4.3. CHEMICAL ANALYSES3
A wide rane of analytical techni.ues are available for the detection and
.uantification of metal s$ecies. :hese techni.ues can be classified into two main
rou$s6 namely6 s$ectrosco$ic and non7s$ectrosco$ic techni.ues. *$ectrosco$ic
techni.ues include the followinD
Atomic Absor$tion *$ectrosco$y >AA*?
"nductively %ou$led )lasma Atomic 4mission *$ectrosco$y >"%)7A4*?
J7Ray Gluorescence *$ectrosco$y >JRG?
"nductively %ou$led )lasma Mass *$ectrometry >"%)7M*?
Aeutron Activation Analysis >AAA?
Aon7*$ectrosco$ic methods include6 but are not limited to6 the followinD
"on %hromatora$hy
:itrimetric and Eolumetric Methods
%olorimetric Analysis
#ravimetric Methods
*$ecific "on 4lectrode Methods
)olarora$hic :echni.ues.
*$ectrosco$ic techni.ues are based on the $remise that all elements
absorb and emit radiation at s$ecific and characteristic wavelenths6 and the ability
of a s$ectrometer to measure the absor$tion emission $roduced. :herefore6
elements can be identified by their characteristic radiation and .uantified by the
s$ectrosco$ic techni.ue.
Analyses of metals by non7s$ectrosco$ic methods usually involves the
se$aration of the s$ecies of interest from their matri8 by basic chemical $rocedures
2,
and final .uantification by ravimetric6 colorimetric6 conductivity6 volumetric or
other means.
Metal leachin into the environment is the $rinci$al concern of acidic
drainae. Metal analysis is one of the &ey $arameters in assessin the weatherin
characteristics of mine waste. Metal analyses of water sam$les are a$$licable forD
)redictin the .uality of water that will contact mine waste= and
-eterminin the water .uality of runoff6 receivin surface water6 and
roundwater after it has contacted mine waste.
Metal analysis is only limited by selection of the a$$ro$riate analytical
method and $ro$er sam$lin and $re$aration.
:he most common method for analy<in metals in solution is $lasma emission
s$ectrosco$y >"%)7A4*? and is described in section 312( >*tandard Methods6
1'',?. "%)7A4* is $articularly useful when the concentration of a lare number of
metals is re.uired in sam$les. Another method of analysis is inductively cou$led
$lasma mass s$ectrometry >"%)7M*?. "%)7M* $rovides reater sensitivity for
most elements com$ared to "%)7A4*= however6 the cost is substantially hiher and
total dissolved solids content must be &e$t low to avoid adverse instrument
$erformance.
*am$les may be analy<ed for total metals or dissolved metals. Gor total
metal analysis6 sam$les must be diested $rior to analysis to ensure the elements of
interest are e8tracted from the sam$le. Gor dissolved metal analysis6 the sam$le is
filtered throuh a (.45 mm $olycarbonate membrane or fluorocarbon filter. :he
filtrate is acidified with $urified nitric acid to a $
/
of L2 for $reservation of the
metal s$ecies. "f $reci$itates develo$ after filtration and addition of acid6 the
filtered sam$le must be diested as for total metals.
2'
4.3.1. HYDROGEN ION CONCENTRATION3 P
H
)
/
is the most fre.uently used water chemistry test. )ractically every
$hase of water chemistry6 includin6 acid7base neutrali<ation6 metal ion solubility6
wastewater treatment and corrosivity is )
/
de$endent. )
/
is a measure of the
balance between the concentration of hydroen >/
M
? ions and hydro8yl >2/
7
? ions
in solution. "n acidic conditions6 there are more /
M
ions than 2/
7
ions >$
/
L!?. "n
al&aline >basic? conditions6 there are more 2/
7
ions than /
M
ions >$
/
N!?. 0hen
conditions are neutral6 the concentration of /
M
and 2/
7
ions are e.ual >$
/
O !?. $
/
is defined as @loP/
M
Q6 where P/
M
Q is defined as the /
M
concentration. $
/
values are
on a scale from ( to 14. :his scale is based on the $roduct of the /M and the 2/7
concentrations which is e.ual to 1(714 m26 the e.uilibrium constant6
5DP/
M
QP2/
7
Q O 1(714 M
2
M re$resents molarity which is molar concentration >moles of solute C liters
of solution?. 0here does that number 1(714 M2 come from anywayR "t is based
on the theory of e.uilibrium and the enery re.uired for reactions to ta&e $lace.
4.uilibrium is based on chemical reactions >such as the dissociation of /
2
2?D
/
2
2 L 7 N /
M
M 2/
7
which are reversible and $roceed until the forward and bac&ward reactions
occur at the same rate. :he reaction is then said to be at chemical e.uilibrium6 and
no further chane in the concentration of $roducts and reactants occurs. At
e.uilibrium6 the chemical reaction re.uires no enery to be maintained.
Movement away from e.uilibrium is nons$ontaneous= which means that an outside
enery source is re.uired. :he actual numbers that are derived as e.uilibrium
constants >i.e. 1(714 M2 for the dissociation reaction of /
2
2? oriinate from the
conce$t of the enery re.uired for a reaction to $roceed de$endin on how far the
reaction is away from e.uilibrium.
3(
Gor a more in de$th understandin of the relationshi$ between
e.uilibrium6 enery and the e.uations that the e.uilibrium constant6 56 is based on
"n a neutral solution6 P/
M
Q O 1(7! M and P2/
7
Q O 1(7! M6 and the $roduct is 1(714
M2 >1(7! M S 1(7! M?. "f enouh acid is added to a solution to increase P/
M
Q to
1(75 M6 thenP2/
7
Q will decline by an e.uivalent amount to 1(7' M >1(75 M S 1(7'
M O 1(714 M2?. 0henever we &now the concentration of either /
M
or 2/
7
a
solution6 we can deduce the concentration of the other ion.
1ecause the /
M
and 2/
7
concentrations of solutions can vary by a factor
of 1(( trillion or more6 scientists develo$ed a way to e8$ress this variation more
conveniently6 by use of the $
/
scale6 which ranes from ( to 14. 1y ta&in the
neative lo of the P/
M
QD
$
/
O 7lo P/
M
Q6
$
/
will always be between ( and 146 which ives an easier scale for
understandin the balance between /
M
and 2/
7
ions in solution.
"t is im$ortant to remember that each $
/
unit re$resents a tenfold
difference in /
M
and 2/
7
concentrations. "t is this mathematical feature that ma&es
the $
/
scale so com$act. A solution of $
/
3 is not twice as acidic as a solution of
$
/
+6 but a thousand times more acidic. 0hen the $
/
of a solution chanes slihtly6
the actual concentrations of /
M
and 2/
7
in solution chane substantially.
$
/
measurement is conducted usin a standard hydroen electrode and a
reference electrode in order to determine the activity >concentration? of the
hydroen ions by $otentiometric measurement. Modern electrodes combine the
reference and standard electrodes into one unit. :he electrode is calibrated over
the measurin rane usin certified standard buffers standardi<ed at s$ecific
tem$erature $rior to measurin the sam$le. :he tem$erature of the sam$le should
be the same as the buffers= otherwise the tem$erature of the sam$le should be
31
recorded. Many $
/
meters have a tem$erature dial to adjust the $otentiometric
slo$e to com$ensate for tem$erature. Gor s$ecifics on the $
/
$otentiometric
method6 see section 45((7/
M
. "n addition6 there are numerous color indicators for
$
/
6 which are useful when accuracy re.uirements of (.5 $
/
units are acce$table.
:he most common is litmus $a$er which turns red in acidic solutions and blue in
al&ali solutions. %olor indicators are a ra$id trouble free method to obtain an
a$$ro8imate $
/
value. Fig 4.2 ,/ Fig.4.3 shows distribution of $
/
in
5adayam$atty bloc& for $remonsoon and $ostmonsoon res$ectively the $
/
value is
hih in 5adayam$atty villae $remonsoon. :he $
/
value is low in
%hinnathiru$athi villae durin $remonsoon. :he $
/
value is low in
%hinnathiru$athi6 $anna$atty and 1ommiam$atty durin $remonsoon.
4.3.2. ELECTRICAL CONDUCTANCE 7EC8
:he electrical conductance >4%? of a solution is a measure of the ability of
a solution to conduct a current. "t is a $ro$erty attributable to the ions in solution
4lectrical current is trans$orted throuh solutions via movement of ions6 and
conductivity increases as ion concentration increases. :he conductivity of a
solution is measured between two s$atially fi8ed inert electrodes of &nown surface
area. %onductance is directly $ro$ortional to the electrode surface area and
inversely $ro$ortional to the distance between the electrodes. "n the international
system of units6 conductivity is re$orted as decisiemens $er meter >d*Cm?.
%onductivity can be used for a variety of a$$lications at mine sites6 includinD
%om$arin with other water .uality $arameters to show $otential ross errors in
analysis. Gor e8am$le6 an increase or decrease in conductance of a $articular
water source will result in a similar increase or decrease in other water .uality
$arameters such as total dissolved solids6 sulfate6 and metals. "f this is not
observed6 analysis should be considered sus$ect and re$eated=
34
4stimate the total dissolved solids in a sam$le by multi$lyin conductivity by an
em$irical factor determined from analysis.
%onductivity results iven alone are very limitin as they do not measure
individual contaminants nor the overall state of the water
%onductivity method descri$tion :he conductivity of a sam$le is
measured with a self7contained conductivity meter >0heatstone bride or
e.uivalent?. :he instrument must be standardi<ed with 5%1 solutions of &nown
conductance before use. :he cell is washed with (.(1 M 5%1 followed by one to
two rinses with the sam$le $rior to measurement. :em$erature corrections are
made if the sam$le is not analy<ed at 25%.Gi 4.4 and Gi 4.5 shows the
distribution of 4c in 5adayam$atty bloc& for $remonsoon and $ostmonsoon.4c
value hih in %hinnathiru$athi6 *emmanda$atty and Kodu&uli durin $remonsoon.
4c value low in 5anavai$udur and E.Manani&adu durin $ostmonsoon.
DETERMINATION OF CALCIUM 7C8 ,/ MAGNESIUM 7Mg8
:he versenate >4-:A? titration $rocedure is em$loyed alternatively for
calcium and %a M M determination because of its s$eed and sim$licity. %alcium
contributes hardness in water. :he hihest concentrations are usually formed in
water that has been in contact with limestone6 dolomite or y$sum. *odium and
$otassium salts $resent in water to increase the solubility of calcium carbonate6
#ar >1'!,?. Manesium behaves in a very similar manner as calcium and the
common source of manesium in round water is form dolomite and dolomitic
limestone of sedimentary roc&= olivine6 biotite6 hornblende and auite of ineous
roc&s. "t enerally varies from (.5( $$m in natural water.
DETERMINATION OF SODIUM 7N8 ,/ POTASSIUM 728
Fsin standard stoc& solutions of (71(( $$m6 a wor&in curve is drawn
form the alvanometer readin when the res$ective solutions are automi<ed in
3!
Glame $hotometer. 0hile wor&in for sodium6 the standard filter for
sodium is used and similarly when wor&in for $otassium6 the $otassium filter is
used. Fsin the standard wor&in and findin6 the alvanometer readin for each
sam$le6 the value of either sodium or $otassium can be inferred.
:he )rimary source for sodium in roundwater is weathered $laioclase
felds$ar6 -avis and -e 0iest >1'++?. 0hen salt de$osits of eva$orate oriin are
$resent6 it leads to very hih concentration of sodium. *ometimes clay mineral
releases lare to very hih concentration of sodium. :he concentration of sodium
is an im$ortant inde8 for sodium ha<ard6 which determines the .uality of
roundwater for irriation $ur$oses.
0hen com$ared to sodium6 $otassium occurs in very low abundance. :he
common sources of $otassium are weathered orthoclase6 biotite6 leucite and
ne$helene in ineous and metamor$hosed roc&s. 0alton >1'!(? observed that
waters $ercolatin throuh eva$orates contain hiher concentration of $otassium.
Anions are electro7neative ions and are usually acids. :he concentration
of anions includes :otal al&alinity6 *ul$hate6 %hloride6 Aitrate6 Gluoride6 1oron
and *ilica. :he sinificance of the im$ortant anions is e8$lained in the followin
DETERMINATION OF TOTAL AL2ALINITY 7T+$" A"58
Al&alinity is the ca$acity of a system to neutrali<e acid. /ow much acid
can be added to a system before the $
/
of the solution is brouht down to a certain
levelR :he al&alinity of a natural water source is6 for the most $art6 defined by the
carbonate system. :he carbonate system is the main rou$ of molecules that
determine how well a natural water source can HbufferI the addition of acid
without the $
/
dro$$in ra$idly. :he molecules of the carbonate system that
larely attribute to this ability to buffer lare dro$s in $
/
are /%2
3
7
6 %2
3
7
6 and
4(
2/
7
6. :hese molecules are bases and when /
M
>acid? is added to the water source6
the /
M
ions will chemically bond with the bases. Gor e8am$leD
2/
7
M /
M
7777777N /
2
2=
%2
3
7
M /
M
777777N /%2
3
7
=
/%2
3
7
M /
M
777777N /
2
%2
3
it is shown here how the /
M
ions chemically bond with the carbonate
minerals. 0hen the only carbonate mineral in solution is /
2
%2
3
6 all the al&alinity
has been used u$ since there are no carbonate molecules left for the /
M
ions to
chemically bond with.
0hen there are mostly basic carbonate molecules in solution >/%2
3
7
6
%2
3
7
6 and 2/
7
?6 the $
/
is corres$ondinly basic >almost always N !?. "n contrast6 if
the carbonate molecules in solution are mostly /
2
%2
3
6 the $
/
is corres$ondinly
acidic >L!?. :he larer the concentration of basic molecules6 the more /
M
ions that
can be added to the water source without the $/ dro$$in ra$idly to a low level. "f
more acid is added to the system than can chemically react with the basic
molecules6 all carbonate molecules will be in the form of /
2
%2
3
and the $
/
will
dro$ to a very low level. :his is classically re$resented by acid mine drainae
with very low $
/
s O 2 or 3.
:he $resence of lare .uantities of al&alinity in water sources that are
im$acted by minin is very im$ortant in $reventin hihly acidic conditions. "t is
.uite common to add al&alinity to a water source to raise the $
/
. Al&alinity is
commonly added in the solid form of calcium carbonate >%a%2
3
?6 also &nown as
limestone. 0hen limestone dissolves in water6 the calcium carbonate molecule
dissociates and lare concentrations of %2
3
7
are released into solution which will
chemically bond with /
M
ions. 0hen all the /
M
ions have chemically bonded with
41
the %2
3
7
molecules6 %2
3
7
and /%2
3
7
will accumulate in solution6 increasin the
al&alinity of the water source and also raisin the $
/
.
:he eneral method for measurin al&alinity is the $otentiometric titration
techni.ue. :his method involves continuously addin volumes of acid with a
certain concentration to a water sam$le until the $
/
of the water reaches a s$ecified
end$oint. :he total volume of acid re.uired to dro$ the $
/
to a certain level is
called a titration. H)otentiometricI refers to the use of a $
/
meter to identify when
the desired $
/
has been reached. :he amount of acid added is converted to
e.uivalent m >%a%2
3
C1 and re$orted alon with the titrated $
/
end$oint. m
%A%2
3
C1 is the common way to e8$ress the concentration of al&alinity.
SULPHATE 7SO
4
8
*ulfate >*2
4
7
? is a naturally occurrin ion and may be $resent in waters
over wide concentration rane. Acidic drainae may contribute lare amounts of
sulfate from o8idation of $yrite and other sulfide minerals. "ncreased levels of
sulfate are usually the first indication of acid eneration. *ulfate concentrations
can be measured by ion chromatora$hy6 colorimetry6 ravimetrically6 or
turbidimetrically usin either manual andCor automated $rocedures. :he main
limitation of sulfate occurs in the inter$retation of data. :he source of the sulfate
ion can be incorrectly attributed to acidic drainae6 when in fact it may be from
solubili<ation of salts such as y$sum which6 release sulfate but do not $roduce
acid mine drainae.
:he standard method for sulfate analysis is the turbidimetric $rocedure
whereby6 sulfate ion in acidic medium is $reci$itated with barium chloride to form
barium sulfate. :he resultin sus$ension is measured by a $hotometer at 42(
nanometers or with a turbidity meter. :he instrument of use is calibrated with
42
sulfate standards of &nown concentrations. "nitial turbidity in the sam$les must be
removed by filtration $rior to analysis. :he minimum detectable sulfate
concentration by this method is " mC1.
*ulfate concentrations can also be determined by ion chromatora$hy. "n
this $rocedure6 the sam$le anions of interest are se$arated on the basis of their
relative affinities for a low ca$acity6 wronly basic anion e8chaner. :he
advantae of this method is that other anions can be determined at the same time
i.e. $hos$hate6 nitrate. :he ravimetric $rocedure is a classical method base on the
low solubility of barium chloride :he $rocedure is time consumin and is only
used when sulfate levels are very hih. *ulfate can be determined colorimetrically
by the methylyhymol blue method. :his colorimetric $rocedure can only be
conducted on sam$les that are free of color and turbidity.
CHLORIDE 7CL8
As silver nitrate solution is titrated with chloride solution in $resence of %r2
4
only
momentary formation of real A
2
%r2
4
occurs as lon as some chlorides $ersist in
the solution. 0hen the chloride in the solution is e8hausted by the $reci$itation of
A%l6 the red $reci$itate of silver chromate starts formin6 which indicates the
end$oint.
4.3.2. WATER 1UALITY MAPS
0ater .uality of roundwater bodies in a reion can be studied by $lottin
the result of analysis of water sam$les on ma$s6 Line of e.ual concentration and
$lottin the values in the -urov $lot and :rilinear diaram.
4.3.2.1 DISTRIBUTION OF CALCIUM
:he distribution of calcium for $remonsoon iven in the Fig.4.9.
:he hih value in the location at Kodu&uli and the low value in the location at
43
5anavai$udur. :he distribution of calcium for $ostmonsoon iven in the Gi.4.!.
:he hih value in the location at 5adayam$atty and the low value in the location at
)anna$atty6 *emmanda$atty.
4.3.2.2. DISTRIBUTION OF MAGNESIUM
:he distribution of manesium for $remonsoon iven in the Fig.4.:. :he
hih value in the location at %hinnathiru$athi. :he distribution of manesium for
$ostmonsoon iven in the Fig.4.;. :he hih value is in the location of
%hinnathiru$athi and the low value are at 5adayam$atty.
4.3.2.3. DISTRIBUTION OF SODIUM
:he distribution of sodium for $re monsoon iven in the Fig.4.16. :he
hih value in the location at *emmanda$atty and the low value in the location at
)anna$atty6 5adayam$atty. :he distribution of sodium for $ostmonsoon iven in
the Fig.4.11. :he hih value in the location at *emmanda$atty and the low value
in the location at )anna$atty6 )ommiyam$atty6 and 5anavai$udur.
4.3.2.4. DISTRIBUTION OF POTASSIUM
:he distribution of )otassium for $remonsoon iven in the Fig.4.12. :he
hih value in the location at Eadaam$atty and the low value in the location at
Kodu&uli. :he distribution of $otassium for $ost monsoon iven in the Fig.4.13.
:he hih value in the location at Eadaam$atty and the low value in the location at
)anna$atty6 Kodu&uli and 5anavai$udur.
4.3.2.<. DISTRIBUTION OF BICARBONATE.
:he distribution of bicarbonate for $remonsoon iven in the Gi.4.14. :he
hih value in the location at Kodu&uli6 %hinnathiru$athi and the low value in the
location at E.Manani&adu6 )anna$atty. :he distribution of bicarbonate for
4+
$ost monsoon iven in the Gi.4.15. :he hih value in the location at Kodu&uli6
%hinnathiru$athi and the low value in the location at )anna$atty E.Manani&adu.
4.3.2.9. DISTRIBUTION OF CHLORIDE
:he distribution of chloride for $remonsoon iven in the Gi.4.1+. :he
hih value in the locatin at %hinnathiru$athi and *emmanda$atty6 the low value in
the location at 5adayam$atty6 5anavai$udur. :he distribution of chloride for
$ostmonsoon iven in the Gi.4.1!. :he hih value in the location at
%hinnathiru$athi6 *emmanda$atty and the low value in the location at
5anavai$udur and E.Manani&adu.
4.3.2.=. DISTRIBUTION OF SULPHATE
:he distribution of sul$hate for $remonsoon iven in the Gi.4.1,. :he
hih value in the location at %hinnathiru$athi6 *emmanda$atty and the low value
in the location at 5anavai$udur. :he distribution of sul$hate for $ostmonsoon
iven in the Gi.4.1'. :he hih value in the location at %hinnathiru$athi6
*emmanda$atty area and the low value in the location at 1ommiyam$atty6
Fmblic&am$atty6 5anavai$udur and E.Manani&adu.
54
CHAPTER V
<.1. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
:he study area forms the Aorth west $art of *alem -istrict6 :amil Aadu
coverin an area of nearly 1,,.2 s.. miles.
:he area receives only limited rainfall throuh A4 @ *0 monsoons. :he
study area is classified under hard roc& terrain and the hihest rade of charnoc&ite
and is covered charanoc&ite roc&s are distributed throuhout study area.
"n %ha$ter "6 the author $resents the location6 and river systems and minor
basins of the 5adayam$atty bloc&.
"n cha$ter "" the author $resents review of literature cited from various
sources. #eoloy of the 5adayam$atty bloc& and brinout the different ty$es of
roc&s. :he eomor$holoical and structural ma$s showin faults and lineaments.
All the A4 @ *0 and A0 @ *4 lineaments are intersected around 5adayam$atty
bloc& is a ood $otential for round water.
"n %ha$ter """6 :he author $resents the oriin of round water in
5adayam$atty bloc&. :he several litholoy of the study area is an u$$er layer of
soils followed by weathered <one6 fractured <one and hard bed roc&s.
"n %ha$ter "E6 the author $resents the hydroeochemistry for 1( duwells
located in 5adayam$atty bloc&. :he chemical analyses6 water .uality ma$s have a
$re$ared and are discussed.
+1
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