1

10.5 Cold working

Figure 10.9(a) shows the effect of drawing a metal rod through a die so as to reduce its diameter and increase its
length. As it passes through the die, the metal undergoes severe plastic deformation and the equi-aed cr!stals,
t!pical of a metal in the annealed condition, "ecome elongated and distorted. #n cold wor$ing this distortion
occurs "elow the temperature of recr!stallisation (see %ection &.1) and the cr!stals remain in the distorted
condition. 'his affects the properties of the metal as follows.
10.5.1 Strength
'he tensile strength of the metal is increased. 'his is "ecause etals onl! fracture "! movement of the lattice
along the slip planes. #n the case of metals which have undergone cold wor$ing, the slip planes "ecome
distorted ((rough)) as shown in Fig. 10.9("), and movement "etween ad*acent, distorted slip planes is li$e the
Fig. 10.9 Some effects or cold working metals. (a) effects of cold working on crystal structure. (b) distorted
slip planes in a cold-worked metal; (c) mechanism of crack propagation; (d) effect of cold working on
electrical conductivity
1
movement "etween two sheets of sandpaper. #n this case, the lanes cannot easil! slip over one another so
fracture "ecomes more difficult and the metal "ecome stronger.
10.5.2 Hardness
%oftness in a metal is the result of slip ta$ing place easil! with the application of onl! low values of applied
force. 'herefore, the metal "ecomes if slip "ecomes more difficult and requires a greater applied force to ma$e
it occur. #t follows that the distortion of the cr!stals during cold wor$ing which made slip ore difficult and the
metal stronger, also ma$es the metal harder. +ence, hardness and strength are interrelated (see %ection 11.11).
10.5.3 Elasticity
,educing the ease with which slip can ta$e place results in greater distortion of the cr!stal lattice "efore
dislocation can occur. 'his raises the !ield point of the metal and the results in a longer elastic range (see
%ection 11.-) under these conditions an! deformation will "e elastic, and plastic deformation cannot occur until
the applied load is sufficient to overcome the (roughness) "etween the slip planes so that dislocation can occur.
'hus, not onl! is the elasticit! of the materials increased, "ut its ductilit! and mallea"ilit! are correspondingl!
reduced.
10.5.4 Toghness
.istortion of the cr!stal structure also results in loss of impact strength (toughness). Again this is "ecause slip is
difficult to produce when friction "etween the slip planes has "een increased "! cold wor$ing. /ac$ of
toughness (or increased "rittleness) is aggravated "! the "ehaviour of the slip planes in the presence of a surface
discontinuit!. #f a surface discontinuit! (such as a sharp corner) or a crac$ is present, slip cannot ta$e place so
easil!. 'his is "ecause it is difficult for the essential dislocations to flow around the ape of the discontinuit!,
resulting in the discontinuit! of crac$ spreading (running) and the material showing a loss of toughness and a
corresponding increase in "rittleness. 'his is wh! impact (toughness) test specimens are usuall! notched. Figure
10.9(c) shows the mechanism of crac$ propagation in a "rittle metal. #t ma$es no difference whether the
"rittleness has "een imparted "! cr!stal distortion during cold wor$ing or whether the "rittleness has "een
imparted "! heat treatment (quench hardening).
At the "ase of discontinuit! the stress will "e large when the metal is in tension0 that is, there will "e a
stress concentration at the point 1. At the "ase of the discontinuit!, the plane 1 tries to slip over the plane 2 and
prevent the discontinuit! from running and spreading. #f slip cannot easil! ta$e place, then the stress at 1 will
1
cause the intermolecular "onds at 2 to "rea$ and transfer the stress to the plane ,, and so on. 'hus the crac$
spreads and the etal is said to "e "rittle.
10.5.5 !achina"ility
'his is improved "! cold wor$ing since the metal "ecomes stiffer, resulting in a cleaner shear at the point of
cutting and correspondingl! improved surface finish.
10.5.# Electrical condcti$ity
3old-wor$ed metals have a lower electrical conductivit! than annealed metals. 'his is "ecause cold wor$ing
distorts the whole cr!stal lattice and ma$es it more difficult for electron flow to occur, as shown in Fig. 10.9(d).
10.# The heat treat%ent o& cold'worked %etals
#f the wor$ing of the metal is ecessive it will wor$ harden to such an etent that its increased "rittleness will
result in the metal "rea$ing under reduced load conditions. 'his is precisel! what happens during a tensile test
to destruction (see %ection 11.4). 'he properties imparted to the metal "! cold wor$ing will remain until the
structure of the metal is changed "! heat treatment.
'he heat-treatment process will depend upon the composition of the material and the severit! of the cold
wor$ing it has received. 'he process annealing of plain car"on steels has "een descri"ed in %ections &.- and &.5,
and the solution treatment of the heat-treata"le non ferrous allo!s was descri"ed in %ection 6.&. this process are
not appropriate to pure metals such as aluminum and copper and non-ferrous allo!s such as "rass which do not
respond to solution and precipitation treatments. /et)s now loo$ at soe of the heat treatment processes
appropriate to cold-wor$ed metals.
1
10.#.1 (eco$ery
'he minimum heat treatment for a cold-wor$ed metal is simple stress relief. 'his occurs at quite low
temperatures, particularl! for non-ferrous metals and allo!s. 'here is no change in grain structure, "ut
individual atoms move within the cr!stal lattice. 'his effect is called recovery and occurs at a temperature of
a"out one-third the melting point of the metal when calculated on the Kelvin temperature scale (see 7ample
10.1).
'reatment at the recover! temperature does not adversel! affect the hardness and strength resulting from cold
wor$ing, and ma! even enhance these properties in some instances as shown in Fig. 10.10. %tress relief
annealing of 608-0 "rass after it has
"een severel! cold wor$ed prevents
(season crac$ing) (see
%ection 1-.10.-) occurring later in its
service life.
E)*!+,E 10.1- Estimate the recovery
temperature for a mild steel pressing if its
melting temperature is taken at !"#$%.
9elting point for steel (given) : 1&40;3
or : (1&40 <
46-)=
: 169-=
'herefore recover! temperature : 169-
0.--
: &9>=
(appro.)
or : (&9> ?
46-) ;3
: -4&;3
E)*!+,E 10.1- Estimate the recovery
temperature for a mild steel pressing if its
melting temperature is taken at !"#$%.
9elting point for steel (given) : 1&40;3
or : (1&40 <
46-)=
: 169-=
'herefore recover! temperature : 169-
0.--
: &9>=
(appro.)
or : (&9> ?
46-) ;3
: -4&;3
Fig.10.10. Effect of heat treatment on cold-worked &#'(# brass.
1
10.#.2 (ecrystallisation
@e considered the recr!stallisation of metals earlier in %ection &.1. #f cold-wor$ed metal is to undergo further
plastic deformation, then it must "e heat treated to restore the grain structure to the annealed condition "!
recr!stsallisation. 'he recr!stallisation temperature depends largel! upon the degree of cold wor$ing which the
material has undergone prior to heat treatment. 'he ore severe the cold wor$ing, the lower will "e the
recr!stallisation temperature. 'he recr!stallisation is generall! lower for pure metals than it is for pure allo!s.
For eample, it was stated in 3hapter 6 that the addition of 0.& per cent of the metal arsenic to copper produced
an allo! which would sustain its strength and hardness at elevated temperatures. 'his is due to the presence of
arsenic in the allo! raising the recr!stallisation temperature from a"out 400;3 for pure copper to &00;3 for
arsenical copper allo!.
1
Aust as the recover! temperature can "e approimated as one-third the melting temperature as calculated
in the =elvin scale, so the recr!stallisation temperature can "e approimated as one-half the melting
temperature of the metal or allo! as calculated on the =elvin scale. %ome metals, such as copper, recr!stallise at
a slightl! lower temperature since the! can sustain ver! severe cold wor$ing and cr!stal deformation prior to
heat treatment (see 7ample 10.4).
,eference "ac$ to %ection &.- for su"criticall! annealing mild steel shows that this approimation gives an
accepta"le recr!stallisation temperature. %ome metals, such as lead and tin, recr!stallise at temperatures "elow
room temperature and it is virtuall! impossi"le to cold wor$ such metals under normal wor$ing conditions.
10.#.3 .rain growth
Finall!, the effect of cr!stal structure on grain growth must "e considered, figure 10.11 shows the relationship
"etween grain siBe after cr!stallisation annealing and the amount of deformation received prior to annealing if
the metal is onl! lightl! wor$ed (& to 10 per cent reduction) the cr!stals will "e, correspondingl!, onl! slightl!
distorted with few stress points. 'herefore, upon annealing, few nuclei will "e created and these will have room
E)*!+,E 10.2- Estimate the
recrystallisation temperature for a mild steel
pressing if its melting temperature is taken
as !"#$%.
9elting point for steel (given) : 1&40;3
or : (1&40 <
46-)=
: 169-=
'herefore recr!stallisation temperature :
169- 0.&
:
>9C.& =
or :
(>9C.& ? 46-) 3
:
C4-.&;3
E)*!+,E 10.2- Estimate the
recrystallisation temperature for a mild steel
pressing if its melting temperature is taken
as !"#$%.
9elting point for steel (given) : 1&40;3
or : (1&40 <
46-)=
: 169-=
'herefore recr!stallisation temperature :
169- 0.&
:
>9C.& =
or :
(>9C.& ? 46-) 3
:
C4-.&;3
1
to grow into large, coarse grains. 'his coarse-grain structure leads to loss of strength and the formation of an
(orange peel) surface therefore, if the metal is onl! lightl! wor$ed, heat treatment should "e restricted to
(recover!) treatment.
,ecr!stallisation annealing should "e reserved for severel! cold-wor$ed metals if a fine grains is to "e
achieved. #t must "e remem"ered that, for most metals and allo!sDother than the ferrous metals, the heat-
treata"le aluminium allo!s and so aluminum "ronBesDcold wor$ing is the onl! wa! in which the metals ma!
"e hardened and that the su"sequent recr!stallisation is the onl! wa! in which grain refinement can "e achieved.
Fig.10.11 )elationship between grain si*e and deformation
10./ Hot working
'his has alread! "een descri"ed as the forming of metals "! plastic flow a"ove the temperature of
recr!stallisation. #f the temperature of the metal "eing wor$ed is sufficientl! high, recr!stallisation ta$es place
as quic$l! as the cr!stals "ecome deformed and the metals can "e heavil! wor$ed with ease without ris$ of
crac$ing. As the temperature falls during processing, recr!stallisation occurs more slowl!. Eot onl! is ore force
required to achieve plastic deformation, "ut there is an increased ris$ of surface crac$s appearing.
A hot-wor$ing process should "e matched to the heating and cooling c!cle of the component so that the
process is completed at a temperature sufficientl! a"ove its recr!stallisation temperature to avoid crac$ing, "ut
not so far a"ove the recr!stallisation temperature that grain growth occurs. 3are must "e ta$en not to raise the
temperature of the component too high initiall! so that, in the case of non-ferrous metals, the! are melted or, in
the case of ferrous metals, the! "ecome ("urnt) ? that is, oidation of the grain "oundaries occurs so that the
1
material is severel! wea$ened and the component must "e scraped. #t ma! "e necessar! to reheat the component
during sustained hot wor$ing.
#f a hot-wor$ing component such as a forging is cut in half and etched so that its grain structure "ecomes
visi"le, then it is apparent that after hot wor$ing the grain flow follows the profile of the component, as shown
in Fig. 10.14. 'his figure compares a gear "lan$ machined fro a "ar with one that has "een forged to shape.
9etals "rea$ more easil! along the grain flow than across it (*ust li$e wood). %o !ou will see that in Fig.
10.14(a) the teeth cut in forged gear "lan$ will "e much stronger than those cut in the "lan$ which has "een
machined from a "ar, as shown in Fig.10.14 (").
Frain orientation in the stoc$ material has an important influence on su"sequent processing. For
eample, Fig. 10.1- shows the
effect of grain flow on a simple
"rac$et "ent from cold-rolled strip. #t
can "e seen that when the direction
of "ending is perpendicular to the
la! of the grain.
Fig. 10.12 +rain orientation, (a) machined from bar (b) machined from forging
Fig. 10.13 Effects of grain flow on subse-uent processing
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10.0 So%e hot'working 1rocesses
10.0.1 Hot &orging
'he "asic forging operations of drawing down, upsetting, piercing and drifting, and swaging are not onl!
performed "! the "lac$smith on the anvil using hand tools, "ut these techniques can "e applied to larger
components "! su"stituting pneumatic and steam hammers for the "lac$smith)s hand tools. +ot forging under a
steam hammer is shown in Fig, 10.15.
@here a large num"er of the same component is to "e produced, closed-die forging is used. 'he die
cavit! is the shape of a finished component and a section through such a die is shown in Fig.10.1&. a set of dies
for use with a drop-hammer are shown in Fig. 10.1C.
For ver! large forgings h!draulic presses are used, as their slow and stead! squeeBe ensures than grain
flow occurs right to the centre of the wor$, where as the sharp "low of the hammer onl! produces surface flow
in an! "ut small components. Figure 10.16 shows the temperature ranges from the hot wor$ing of some t!pical
metals.
Fig. 10.14 .orging-steam hammer (source, / 0 S 1assey 2td.)
1
Fig. 10.15 %lose-forging die
Fig. 10.1/ 3ot-working temperatures
Fig. 10.1# 4rop-forging dies
1
10.0.2 Hot'rolling
Figure 10.1> shows an ingot "eing hot rolled into a sla" of steel. 'he white-hot sla" is shown *ust leaving the
rolls and it is supported on a motorised roller "ed. 'he sla" passes "ac$wards and forwards "etween the wor$
rolls of the mill and is graduall! reduced in thic$ness. (Figure4.40 shows the str&ucture of a t!pical cast ingot
prior to hot rolling.) 'he structure changes from fine chill cr!stals at the surface to coarse equi-aed cr!stals at
the centre, resulting from the changing rate of cooling. #n addition there will "e a ph!sical discontinuit! in the
centre of the ingot called the pipe.
'hese changes of structure and the associated discontinuities adversel! affect the properties of the ingot. 'he
top or nec$ of the ingot is removed and, with it, most of the pipe and an! slag and impurities which have floated
to the surface of the molten metal. 'he structure of the ingot is then rectified "! the first hot-rolling process. 'he
pipe and other internal discontinuities are pressure welded "! the heat of the ingot and the pressure of the rolls
to ma$e the metals homogeneous. 'he cr!stal structure is "ro$en down and, since this is a hot-wor$ing process,
recr!stallisation occurs simultaneousl! to give a refined and uniform grain structure, as shown in Fig. 10.19(a).
'he effect of recr!stallisation on the strength and ductilit! of a metal after hot rolling is shown in Fig. 10.19(").
Fig. 10.10 3ot rolling
1
10.0.3 Hot e2trsion
'he principle of hot etrusion is shown in Fig. 10.40. A h!draulic ram squeeBes a "illet of metalDheated a"ove
its temperature of recr!stallisationDthrough a die *ust li$e toothpaste "eing squeeBed out of the end of a tooth-
paste tu"e. 'he hole in the die is shaped to produce the required section, and long lengths of material are
produced "! this process. 9aterials that are commonl! etruded areG copper, "rass allo!s, aluminum and
aluminium allo!s after hot etrusion the sections are often finished "! cold drawing to improved the surface
finish, dimensional accurac! and stiffness.
10.9 So%e cold'working 1rocesses
3old-wor$ing processes are essentiall! finishing processes. 'he forces required to produce quite modest
reductions in cross-sectional area are ver! much higher than those for hot wor$ing, so that the amount of
reduction is $ept to a minimum. +owever the finish and dimensional accurac! produced "! cold wor$ing is
Fig. 10.19 3ot rolling, (a) effect on structure; (b) effect on properties of grain si*e after rolling
Fig. 10.20 E5trusion, (a) commencement of e5trusion stroke; (b) completion of e5trusion stroke
1
much superior to that produced "! hot wor$ing. %ince cold wor$ing results in some wor$ hardening of the
metal, there is a corresponding improvement in its mechanical properties.
'he metal to "e cold wor$ed is usuall! "ro$en down "! hot wor$ing so that there is onl! a finishing
allowance left. 'he oide film (scale) on the surface of the hot-wor$ed metal is removed "! pic$ling the metal
in acid, after which it is passed through a neutralising "ath and oiled to prevent rusting and passed to the cold-
wor$ing process.
10.9.1 Cold'rolling
Figure 10.41 shows a t!pical cold strip rolling ill. 'he part-processed strip is unwound from the decoiler
situated to the etreme left of the figure. 'his strip is straightened and flattened in the pinch rolls and leveller
and passed to the ill rolls themselves for reduction in thic$ness. 'he ill shown is a four-high, single-stand
reversing mill with the lower rolls h!draulicall! loaded. (#n earlier mills the top rolls were screwed down
mechanicall!.) After passing through the mill the strip, now reduced in thic$ness, is recoiled on the right-hand
coiler. After this first pass the mill rolls are reversed and the strip is returned through the ill for further reduction
and is finall! recoiled on the left-hand, middle coiler.
10.9.2 T"e drawing
#n this process a pic$led and oiled hot-drawn tu"e is further reduced and finished "! drawing it through a die on
a draw-"ench, as shown in Fig.10.44 (a). ('he initial hot-drawing is similar, "ut th5e raw material is a hollow
"illet heated to a"ove its temperature of recr!stallisation.) #n order to control the wall thic$ness and internal
Fig. 10.21 %old rolling, the typical line shown consists of coil storage6 coil car6 undriven decoiler with
snubber roll6 soade opener with debender rolls6 four-high reversing hydraulic ill6 reversingcoilers6 coil car
and storage station; separate high- and low-pressure hydraulic packs provide the mill-loading system and the
operations of the ancillary e-uipment; a high-capacity soluble oil system strip lubrication and roll cooling
Fig. 10.22 7ubing drawing, (a) simple draw bench; (b) use of a plug; (c) use of a mandrel
1
finish of the tu"e, a (plug) mandrel ma! "e use, as shown in Fig. 10.44("). 'he floating mandrel or (plug) is
drawn forward with the tu"e "ut cannot pass through the die. 'his technique is used for long, thin-walled "ut is
of limited accurac!. An alternative technique is to use a fied mandrel, as shown in Fig. 10.44(c). H"viousl!
there are limitations to the length of the tu"e which can "e drawn "! this latter technique. +owever, it is widel!
used for thic$-walled tu"es and where greater accurac! is required.
10.9.3 3ire drawing
'his process is shown in Fig. 10.4-(a). it is similar in principle to tu"e drawing, "ut since a longer length of
material is involved, the wire is pulled through the die "! a capstan or ("ull-"loc$). #t ma! "e coiled up on the
capstan or assed to a separate coiler after ta$ing onl! one or two turns round the capstan. Fine wire, as used for
electrical conductors, is reduced on multiple head machines, as shown in Fig. 10.4-(").
As wire "ecomes thinner it "ecomes progressivel! longer. 'hus each successive capstan has to run faster
than the preceding
one. 'he speed is controlled
"! the pull of the wire on
the tension arm, which is
coupled to the motor
speed control. #f the
tension on the arm
increases, the capstan is
slightl! slowed, "ut of the
Fig. 10.23 8ire drawing, (a) single die; (b) multiple die
1
tension on the arm decreases, the capstan motor in the net stage is speeded up. #f the tension on the arm is
increased, the capstan motor of the net stage is speeded up if tension on the arm is increased0 the capstan motor
of the net stage is slowed down.
10.9.4 4%1act e2trsion
'he process differs fundamentall! from the hot-etrusion process descri"ed in %ection 10.>. in #mpact
etrusion, which is a cold-wor$ing process., a slug of metal is struc$ "! a punch and made to flow up "etween
the punch and the die, as shown in Fig. 10.45. 'ooth-paste tu"es are made from aluminium (slugs) "! this
process. At one time onl! ver! soft and mallea"le metals could "e cold impact etruded (e.g.aluminium, tin,
lead). +owever, modern techniques allow even allo! steels to "e processed in this, manner and the impact
etrusion and (warm forging) of such materials are discussed in Engineering 1aterials6 Iolume 4.
10.9.5 (i$et heading
'his process is shown in Fig. 10.4&. +ere, the performed head
of the rivet is supported "! a hold-up or (doll!), whilst the
Fig. 10.24 9mpact e5trusion
Fig. 10.25 %old heading rivets
1
opposite end of the rivet is head "! a pneumatic hammer. 'he shape of the rivet head "eing formed is controlled
"! the rivet (snap) which is fitted to the hammer. #n the eample shown0 "oth ends of the rivet will "e finished
with a rounded or snap head.
'he advantages and limitations of hot-wor$ing, cold-wor$ing and casting processes are compared in ta"les
10.4, 10.- and 10.5 respectivel!.
Ta"le 10.2 3ot-working processes
*56*7T*.ES ,4!4T*T487S
/ow cost. 1oor surface finish ? rough and scal!.
Frain refinement fro cast structure. .ue to shrin$age on cooling the dimensional
accurac! of hot-wor$ed components is of a low order.
9aterials are left in the full! annealed condition and
are suita"le for cold wor$ing (heading, "ending, etc.).
.ue to distortion on cooling and to the processes
involved, hot wor$ing generall! leads to geometrical
inaccurac!
%cale gives some protection against corrosion during
storage.
Full! annealed condition of the material coupled with
a relativel! coarse grain leads to a poor finish when
machined.
Availa"ilit! as sections (girders)and forgings as well
as the ore usual "ars, rods, sheets and strip and "utt-
welded tu"e
/ow strength and rigidit! for metal considered.
.amage to tooling from a"rasive scale on metal
surface.
Ta"le 10.3 %old-working processes
*56*7T*.ES ,4!4T*T487S
1
Food surface finish. +igher cost than for hot-wor$ed materials. #t is onl!
a finishing process for material previousl! hot
wor$ed. 'herefore, the processing cost is added to
the hot-wor$ed cost.
,elativel! high dimensional accurac!. 9aterials lac$ ductilit! due to wor$ hardening and
are less suita"le for "ending, etc.
,elativel! high geometrical accurac!. 3lean surface is easil! corroded.
@or$ hardening caused during the cold-wor$ing
processesG
(a) #ncreases strength and rigidit!
(") #mproves the machining characteristics of the metal
so that a good finish is or easil! achieved.
Availa"ilit! limited to rods and "ars also sheets and
strip, solid drawn tu"es.
Ta"le 10.4 %asting processes (gravity6 sand only)
*56*7T*.ES ,4!4T*T487S
1
Iirtuall! no limit to the shape and
complication of the component to "e cast.
%trength and ductilit! low, as structure is un-refined.
Iirtuall! no limit to the siBe of the casting 2ualit! is uncertain, as local differences of structure and
mechanical defects such as "low holes cannot "e controlled or
corrected.
/ow cost, as no epensive machines and
tools are required as in forging
/ow accurac! due to shrin$age.
%crap metal can "e reclaimed in the melting
furnace. (@rought and machined components
have to "e made from relativel! epensive
pre-processed materials.)
1oor surface finish.
3omponent must "e designed without sudden changes of
section,so that molten metal flows easil! and cooling crac$s and
warping will not occur.
Eot all metals are suita"le for casting. 'he "est metals have a
low shrin$age,a short freeBing range and high fusi"ilit!(melt at
relativel! low temperatures),and have a high fluidit! when
molten.
10.10 !olding 1oly%eric %aterials
10.10.1 Ther%o'setting 1lastics
1

'hese are usuall! moulded in dies fitted into h!draulic presses. A t!pical upstro$e press is show in
Fig.10.4C.the platens are provided with electrical or steam heating elements so that the moulds fastened to them
can "e heated to the curing temperature of the thermosetting plastic "eing processed. 9odern presses are
automatic in operation and this ensures the constant moulding conditions at each stro$e essential if mouldings
of consistent qualit! are to "e produced. 'he three factors which require to "e preset to ensure correct
pol!merisation (curing) of the moulding powder areG
J'he moulding pressure.
J'he time for which the mould is closed and $ept under pressure.
J'he temperature of the mould.
Fig.10.2# 1oulding press

Figure 10.46 shows a section through a simple flash-t!pe mould.#t is suita"le for shallow components in which
the thic$ness is not critical.'o ensure complete filling of the mould a slight ecess of moulding powder is placed
in the mould cavit!.'he ecess powder is forced out into the flash-gutter as the mould is closed and must "e
su"sequentl! trimmed off when the moulding is cold.'he flash-land holds "ac$ the flow of the ecess material
and ensures complete filling of the mould.
Allowance must "e made for thermal shrin$age of the moulding as it cools,and also for shrin$age due to
chemical changes resulting in loss of water as steam during the curing reaction.'he steam generated during
pol!merisation(curing) must "e allowed to escape from the mould.'his is onl! one of man! different moulding
techniques availa"le for processing thermosetting plastics.
1
'he moulding material ma! "e fed into the mould in the form of powder or granules containing the
thermosetting resin together with its additives and filters,or compacted into a performed shape to ensure
uniform filling of the mould cavit!.3orrect loading of the mould is critical,insufficient moulding material
resulting in voids and porosit! through the cavit! not "eing propertl! filled.A slight ecess of material is to "e
preffered as it ensures uniform filling of the mould,an! surplus "eing allowed for in the flsh.7cessive
overcharging of the mould must "e avoided as this can result in damage to the mould.
'he molding material can "e loaded either cold or preheated.1reheating reduces the curing time and
reduces erosion of the mould since the material is in a less a"rasive condition.As mentioned a"ove,volatile
gases are released during curing and these must "e allowed to escape through mould clearances and vents
machined into the dies.
Fig.10.2/ .lash mould

A release agent(lu"ricant) must "e spra!ed into the mould cavit! to prevent the plasticised resin from stic$ing
to the walls of the mold.,emem"er that most resins are also high-strength adhesives(see %ection 10.1>).'he
correct curing time and temperature,which is critical.generall! has to "e arrived at "! trial and error "ased upon
eperience of previous,similar mouldings.
An overcurred moulding has a dull or "listered surface,and will "e craBed and "rittle with internal crac$s
and poor mechanical properties.Kndercuring ma! produce a moulding with a correct appearance,"ut with poor
mechanical properties.9oisture in the moulding material ma! also cause "listers and porosit!.'he moisture
from damp moulding material must not "e confused with the water vapour produced during the curing process.

10.10.2 Ther%o1lastics
'he moulding of thermoplastic materials requires quite different techniques to those descri"ed a"ove as no
curing ta$es place in the mould.'he most common process for moulding thermoplastic materials is in*ection
moulding.#n this process a measured amount of thermoplastic material is heated until it "ecomes a viscous
1
fluid.#t is then in*ected into the mould under high pressure.%ince no curing ta$es place in the mould,it can "e
opened as soon as the moulding has cooled sufficientl! to "ecome self-supporting.#n*ection-moulding machines
are generall! arranged with the mould parting line vertical and the ais of in*ection horiBontal,as shown in
Fig.10.4>.
Fig.10.20 9n:ection moulding

/i$e so man! processes that are simple in principle, the practice is fraught with difficulties. For instance,
heating the plastic until it is a viscous fluid is not eas!. #f care is not ta$en the surface "ecomes degraded "! the
heat "efore the inner mass of the plastic has reached moulding temperature. Again, the in*ected plastic material
will not neccessaril! fill the mould cavit!0 there ma! "e "listers, voids, sin$s, shorts, and some cavities in a
multi-impression mould ma! not receive an! moulding material at all. 7*ection of the completed moulding is
also difficult if distortion is to "e avoided and, since thermoplastic materials are adhesive, the! will stic$ to the
mould whenever the opportunit! presents itself despite the use of a release agent. 'he following principle
varia"les need to "e controlled.
J'he quantit! of plastic material that is in*ected into the mould.
J'he in*ection pressure.
J'he in*ection speed.
J'he temperature of the plastic moulding material.
J'he temperature of the mould. 'oo cold and the plastic ma! solidif! "efore the mould is full0 too hot and the
moulding ma! "e soft and lac$ing in rigidit! when the mould is opened.
J'he in*ection plunger forward-time(i.e. the time the plastic material is maintained under pressure in the mould
as it cools and "ecomes rigid).'his reduces the effect of shrin$age and ensures that the mould cavities are $ept
filled.
J'he mould closed time.
J'he mould clamping force.
J'he mould open time.
1
'he temperature of the plastic during the moulding c!cle is etremel! critical as this controls its viscosit!. 'oo
high a temperature leads to degradation and poor mechanical properties, whilst too low a temperature leaves the
plastic too viscous so that it will not fill the mould properl!.
As soon as the mould is filled, the pressure is increased and Lpac$ingL of the mould commences. this
ensures that the moulding has high densit! and good mechanical properties0 it also prevents sin$s and shorts
occuring due to shrin$age of the plastic as it cools.
Knli$e thermosetting plastics where an! trimmings such as the flash and the cull are scrap and cannot "e
re-used, an! trimmings from thermoplastic mouldings can "e rec!cled and are not wasted.
10.10.3 E2trsion
'he etrusion of thermoplastic materials is, in principle, a continous in*ection-moulding process. An!
thermoplastic material can "e etruded to produce lengths of uniform cross-section such as rods,tu"es,sections
and filaments. 'o produce a continuous flow of plastic material through the die, a screw conve!or is used in
place of the ram and c!linder of the in*ection-moulding machine.
'he general arrangement of an etrusion-moulding machine is shown in Fig.10.49.Eote that screw
conve!or t!pe feed is also used for in*ection moulding for ver! large components, as some of the large "od!
mouldings used on modern cars are "e!ond the volumetric capacit! of the t!pe of in*ection-moulding machine
previousl! shown in Fig.10.4>.'his latter t!pe of machine is still the most widel! used for small mouldings
since it is quic$er in operation.
Fig.10.29 E5trusion moulding

%o far in this chapter we have seen how the properties of various materials are eploited in the forming
and shaping processes descri"ed.#tLs now time to turn our attention to the *oining of materials.Again we see how
the various *oining processes eploit the properties of the materials involved.
10.11 Co%1ression 9oints
1
10.11.1 !echanical
3ompression *oints rel! upon the elasticit! of components "eing *oined to secure one component to
another. Eo additional fastenings, such as "olts or rivets, are required. Masicall!, a mechanical compression *oint
consists of an oversiBe peg "eing forced into an undersiBe hole so that the peg is compressed and the hole is
stretched. #n a lightl! compressed *oint, friction will "e generated "etween the two components as the! tr! to
spring "ac$ to their original dimensions. 'his friction, alone, secures the components together. @here the siBe
difference is greater, the one component ma! actuall! L"iteL into the other giving some degree of positive
loc$ing. figure 10.-0 shows a t!pical pressed or Lsta$edL compression *oint.
Fig.10.30 1echanical compression :oint.(a)the bush becomes compressed as it is inserted in the bush plate and
the bush plate e5pands;(b)the bush plate springs back on the bush and grips it-the bush plate is in tension and
the bush is in compression.

Nou have to choose the materials for compression *oints with care. 'he outer component is su"*ected to
considera"le tensile stress and the inner component is su"*ected to considera"le compression stress. 'herefore
steel is suita"le for "oth the inner and outer components as it is equall! strong in tension and compression.
Alternativel!, !ou could use cast iron for the outer component since it is wea$ in tension and would crac$.
10.11.2 Ther%al :hot shrnk;
#nstead of forming a compression *oint "! mechanical pressing, the thermal epansion of the outer component is
eploited. Nou ma! remem"er that when metals are heated the! epand. %o, if the outer component is heated
sufficientl! it epands to a siBe where it can "e slipped easil! over the inner component. As the outer component
cools it shrin$s "ac$ to its original siBe and forms a compression *oint on the inner component as shown in
Fig.10.-1 (a).+eating must "e uniform to prevent distortion and the temperature has to "e closel! controlled.
J'oo low a temperature results in insufficient epansion for the components to "e assem"led.
J'oo high a temperature can result in changes in the properties and structure of the material used for the
outer(heated) component.
Fig.10.31 7hermal compression :oint, (a) hot shrink; (b) cold e5pansion
1
(a)
.1Od4 when shaft and collar are at room temperature
.4O.1 when the collar is heated, allowing the shaft to enter
A compression (shrin$) *oint is made when the collar cools and shrin$s onto the shaft. 'he shaft is in
compression and the collar is in tension
(")
.1O.4 when shaft and collar are at room temperature
.4O.1 when the shaft is cooled in liquid nitrogen. 'he collar can now slip over the shaft
A compression (epansion) *oint is made when the shaft warms up to room temperature and epands
into the collar. 'he shaft is in compression and the collar is in tension
10.11.3 Ther%al :cold e21ansion;
#n a cold epansion *oint, the inner component is cooled down until it will slip easil! into the hole in the outer
component, as it warms up to room temperature, it epands and forms a compression *oint with the outer
component, as shown in Fig.10.-1 (").'his technique requires the use of such coolants as solid car"on
dioide(dr! ice) or liquid nitrogen. 'hese are "est used under carefull! controlled wor$shop conditions as such
low temperatures are potentiall! dangerous and special equipment is required in their use. 'he appropriate
codes of practice and safet! regulations must "e rigidl! adhered to.
1
3ooling has the advantage that it does not affect the ph!sical properties of the material, whereas heating
ma! do so. For eample, heating a starter ring gear to slip it over a fl!wheel of a car engine ma! soften the teeth
of the gear. 3ooling the fl!wheel will not affect its properties once it has returned to room temperature. 'he
precautions concerning the choice of materials for thermal compression *oints are the same as those for
mechanical compression *oints.
10.12 So&t Soldering
'he process of soldering eploits the fusi"ilit! (low melting temperature) of tin-lead allo!s. 'he molten LsolderL,
as the allo! is called, bonds to an unmelted parent metal "! the application of heat and a suita"le flu. 'he
solder does not *ust Lstic$L to the surface of the parent metal. 'his "onding is the result of solder molecules
migrating into the surface of the parent metal to form a permanent amalgam. 'he parent metal is the metal from
which the components "eing *oined are manufactured. 'hus, the solder must have a lower melting temperature
than the parent metal and it must also "e capa"le of reacting together with the parent metal to form a "ond. 'he
composition of some soft solders, together with their melting temperature range and some t!pical applications,
have alread! "een listed in 'a"les 6.1- and 6.15.
'he "onding action of the solder cannot ta$e place unless the two surfaces to "e *oined are chemicall! as well as
ph!sicall! clean. 'he surfaces of the *oint should "e degreased and then scoured with Lsteel woolL to ma$e them
ph!sicall! clean. 'he! are then chemicall! cleaned and prepared for tinning "! the action of a flu5. 'he purpose
of a flu is toG
,emove the oide film from the surfaces to "e soldered.
1revent the oide film from reforming during the soldering process.
L@etL the surfaces "eing *oined so that the molten solder will run out into an even film
Allow itself to "e easil! displaced "! the molten solder so that a metal to metal contact is achieved.
'he action of a flu is shown in Fig. 10.-4. 'he flues used for soft soldering fall into two categoriesG active
flu5es and passive (inactive) flu5es.
10.12.1 *cti$e &l2es
Active flues such as Ma$erLs fluid (acidified Binc chloride solution) quic$l! dissolve the oide film and prevent
it reforming. 'he! also etch the surface to "e soldered, ensuring good wetting and "onding. Knfortunatel! all
active flues leave a corrosive residue which has to "e washed off immediatel! after soldering and the *oint has
to "e treated with a rust inhi"itor.
1
10.12.2 +assi$e &l2es
1assive flues, such as resin, are used for those applications where it is not possi"le to remove an! corrosive
residue "! washing - for eample, electrical connections. Knfortunatel! passive flues do not remove oide
films to an! apprecia"le etent0 the! onl! prevent them from reforming during the soldering process. 'herefore
the initial mechanical scouring of the *oint faces has to "e ver! thorough.
Fig.10.32 7he soldering flu5 is displaced by molten solder which is said to be ;wet; when it leaves a continuous
permanent film on the surface of the parent metal instead of rolling over it. <- flu5 solution lying above o5idi*ed
metal surface; /- boiling flu5 solution removing the film o5ide (e.g. as chloride) %- bare metal in contact with
fused flu5; 4- li-uid solder displacing fused flu5; E- tin reacting with the base metal to form compound; .-
solder solidifying.
10.13 Hard soldering :"ra<ing;
+ard soldering is the general term used for silver soldering and "raBing, and it can "e defined as0
< process of :oining metals in which a molten filler metal is drawn by capillary attraction into the space
between closely ad:acent surfaces of the parts to be :oined.
As in soft soldering onl! the filler metal (solder) "ecomes molten and the parent metal remains solid throughout
the process. 'herefore, li$e soft solders, hard solders also have a melting temperature range "elow that of the
parent metal. +owever, this melting temperature range (generall! &00;3) is well a"ove that of soft solder and a
soldering iron cannot "e used to heat the *oint and load the solder into it.
'he heat required for the process of hard soldering is provided "! some form of gas "low-pipe. Eatural gas
from the mains suppl! or "ottled gas (propane) ma! "e used. %ome t!pical hand torches for flame "raBing are
shown in Fig. 10.--(a) and a t!pical set-up for flame "raBing is shown in Fig. 10.1-(").
A hard soldered *oint is much stronger than s soft-soldered *oint. Nou require special flues for hard-soldering
processes and the flu must match the filler allo! "eing used. %uch flues are supplied "! the manufacturers of
hard solders and "raBing spelters and !ou should follow their instructions carefull!. +ard-soldering flues are
usuall! supplied as powders and have to "e mied into a paste with water "efore appl!ing to the *oint. 'he
success of all hard-soldering processes depends upon the following conditionsG
1
%election of a suita"le filler allo! which has a melting range apprecia"l! lower than the parent metals
"eing *oined.
'horough cleanliness of the surfaces to "e *oined "! hard solder.
3omplete removal of the oide film from the *oint surfaces "efore and during hard soldering "! means
of a suita"le flu.
3omplete LwettingL of the *oint surfaces "! the molten filler allo!. @hen a surface is LwettedL "! a
liquid, a continuous film of the liquid remains on that surface after draining. 'his condition is essential
for hard soldering and the flu, having removed the oide film, must completel! wet the *oint surfaces.
'his LwettingL action "! the flu assists the spreading and feeding of the molten filler allo! into the
*oint "! capillar! action. 'his ensures a completel! filled *oint.
%ince the molten filler allo! is drawn into the *oint "! capillar! attraction, the space "etween the *oint
surfaces must "e $ept to a minimum and it must also "e $ept constant. An! local increase in the gap
can present a "arrier to the filling of the filter allo!. 'his will prevent the *oint from "eing uniforml!
filled, resulting in serious loss of strength.
9elting the filler allo! alone is not sufficient to produce a sound *oint. 'he parent metal must itself "e
raised to the "raBing temperature so that the filler allo! melts on coming in contact with the *oint
surfaces even after the flame has "een withdrawn.
Fig. 10.33 .lame bra*ing, (a) typically hand torches used for hard soldering and bra*ing6 (b) fire bricks or
other suitable insulating material is packed around the component to form a bra*ing hearth which contains and
reflects the torch;s heat.
Knli$e welding, dissimilar metals and allo!s ma! "e *oined "! hard soldering. For eampleG copper to "rass,
steel to "rass, mild steel to mallea"le cast iron, etc. 'he groups of filler material most widel! used for hard
soldering are summariBed in 'a"le 10.&G
%ilver solders are epensive material since the! contain the precious metal silver. +owever, the! produce strong
and ductile *oints and are used for the finest wor$ as the melting temperature range is sufficientl! low not to
affect the parent metal, and a ver! neat *oint can "e made.
10.13.1 =ra<ing alloy containing 1hos1hors
MraBing allo!s containing phosphorus are usuall! referred to as Lself-fluingL allo!s. 'hese allo!s contain silver,
phosphorus and copper. the! are cheaper and stronger than silver solders, "ut the! can onl! "e used to "raBe
copper and copper allo! components in the air. Eo separate flu is needed. 'he phosphorus content reacts with
o!gen in the air to form a compound which acts as a flu. 'hese filler allo!s must not "e used for "raBing
1
nic$el, nic$el allo!s containing more than 10 percent nic$el. Eor must the! "e used for "raBing ferrous metals
and allo!s.
10.13.2 =ra<ing s1elters
MraBing spelters are "rass allo!s and are the oldest filler allo!s used. #t is from the use of these "rass allo!s that
the process called L"raBingL gets it name. 'hese spelters ma$e the strongest *oints "ut the! also have the highest
melting temperatures. 'he! are mainl! used to "raBe copper, steel and mallea"le cast iron components.
10.14 Fsion welding
#n the soldering and "raBing processes previousl! descri"e, *oints are made "! a thin film of metal that has a
lower melting point and inferior strength than the metals "eing *oined. #E fusion welding an! additional material
added to the *oint has a similar composition and strength to the metals "eing *oined. Figure 10.-5 shows the
principle of fusion welding, where not onl! the filler metal "ut also the edges of the components "eing *oined
are melted. 'he molten metals fuse together and, when solid, form a homogeneous *oint whose strength is equal
to the metals "eing *oined. #n this chapter we are onl! going to consider the welding of plain car"on steels.
Fig. 10.34 .usion welding, (a) before - a single ;=; butt re-uires e5tra metal; (b) after - the edges of the ;=; are
melted and fused together with the molten filler metal.
10.14.1 82yacetylene welding
#n this process the heat source in a miture of o!gen and acet!lene "urning to produce a flame whose
temperature can reach -4&0;3, and this is a"ove the melting point of most metals. Figure 10.-& shows a t!pical
set of welding equipment. 'he welding gases form a highl! flamma"le and even eplosive miture, so this
equipment must onl! "e used "! a suita"le qualified person or a trainee under the direct instruction of such
person. Figure 10.-C shows the two "asic techniques for fusion welding using an o!acet!lene torch. Eo flu is
required when welding ferrous metals as the products of com"ustion from the "urnt gases protect the molten
weld pool from atmospheric o!gen.
Fig. 10.35 >5yacetylene welding e-uipment
1
10.14.2 !etallic arc welding
'his is a fusion welding process where the heat energ! required to melt the edges of the components "eing
*oined and also the filler rod is supplied "! an electric arc. 'he arc is the name given to the prolonged spar$
struc$ "etween two electrodes. #n this process the filler rod forms one electrode and the wor$ forms the other
electrode. 'he filler rod electrode is coated with a flu which melts and shields the *oint from atmospheric
o!gen at the ver! high temperatures involved. (Average arc temperature is a"out C000;3). the flu also
sta"iliBes the arc and prevents the rod from shot circuiting against the sides of the *oint when welding a thic$
metal. Figure 10.-6 compares the principles of gas and metallic arc welding.
Fig. 10.3# >5yacetylene welding techni-ues, (a) the leftward method of welding - this is the easiest techni-ue
for a right-handed operator; it is used for sheet metal; (b) the rightward method of welding - this method is
used for thicker plate as it gives better preparation
Fig. 10.3/ %omparison of (a) o5yacetylene welding and (b) manual metallic arc welding
A transformer is used to reduce the mains voltage to a low voltage, heav! current suppl! which is not on! safe
"ut suita"le for arc welding. As with gas welding, arc welding equipment must not "e used "! untrained persons
ecept under the closest supervision. 'he dangers with arc welding arise from the ver! high temperatures and
ver! heav! electric currents involved. Also high voltages are present in the primar! circuit (suppl! side) of the
transformer, and these can lead to accidents involving electrocution. Figure 10.-> shows the general
arrangement of metallic arc-welding installation. For "oth gas and electric arc welding, suita"le e!e protection
equipment must "e used.
Fig. 10.30 1anual metallic arc-welding circuit diagram
10.15 E&&ect o& welding on the strctre and 1ro1erties o& %aterials
'he structures on a welded *oint range from the wrought structures of the parent metal to the cast structures of
the weld itself, all of which will have "een su"*ected to heat treatment "! the high temperatures involved in the
process. 'he heat-affected *one of the parent metal will ehi"it the effects of heat treatment. 'he unaffected
regions, where the temperature has not "een so high, will retain the original wrought structure of the parent
metal. 'herefore the effects of welding can "e studied under the following headings.
'he weld-metal deposit.
'he heat-affected Bone.
1
10.15.1 The weld'%etal de1osit
As previousl! stated, the weld metal can "e considered as a miniature casting which has cooled rapidl! from an
etremel! high temperature. /ong columnar t!pe cr!stals ma! "e formed giving rise to a relativel! wea$
structure, as shown in Fig. 10.-9(a). #n a multi-run weld each deposit normali*es the preceding run and
considera"le grain refinement occurs with a consequent improvement in the mechanical properties of the *oint.
#n this case, onl! the top run ehi"its the coarse Las-castL structure as shown in Fig. 40.-9(").
Eon-metallic inclusions
'he formation of oide and nitride inclusions due to atmospheric contamination is reduced "! the "lan$et of
"urn gases (products of com"ustion) in the case of gas welding, and "! the use of a flu when electric arc
welding. 9odern flu-coated electrodes usuall! provide good qualit! weld deposits free from harmful
inclusions. #n the argon arc-welding process the metal is deposited under a shroud of the inert gas argon. 'his
prevents oidation and the formation of nitrides, so no flu is necessar!, Further, since no flu is required there
will "e no slag inclusions. #n multi-run welds using coated electrodes the slag must "e removed "etween each
run.
Fig. 10.39 8eld metal deposit structure, (a) large single-run weld; (b) metallic arc weld
Fas porosit!
'he chief cause of gas porosit! is the presence of h!drogen in the weld metal or the formation of steam from the
reaction of h!drogen with an! oide present in the molten parent metal. #n addition, h!drogen is present in the
welding flame when gas welding and in the flu coatings of electrodes when arc welding.
@eld-metal crac$ing
@edded *oints that are prevented under restraint are lia"le to intercr!stalline crac$ing in the weld deposit due to
contractional strains set up during the cooling of the metal. %uch crac$ing, usuall! $nown as Lhot crac$ingL, is
largel! related to the grain siBe and the presence of grain "oundar! impurities. At high temperatures, the grain
"oundaries are more a"le to accommodate shrin$age strains that the grains themselves. A coarse grain deposit
with large columnar cr!stals possesses a relativel! small grain "oundar! area and is, therefore, more suscepti"le
to hot crac$ing.
10.15.2 The heat a&&ected <one
1
'he heat-affected Bone of the parent metal is difficult to define. #t will depend upon such factors asG
'he temperature f the weld pool.
'he time ta$en to complete the weld.
'he thermal conductivit! of the parent metal.
'he specific heat of the parent metal and the dimensions of the parent metal.
'he method of welding used.
@edded *oints produced in metals such as copper and aluminum that have a high thermal conductivit! will have
a wider heat-affected Bone than a plain car"on steel that has a lower thermal conductivit!. 9etallic arc welding
produces a more concentrated heating effect than gas welding. 'he heat energ! output is greater with arc
welding, so the welding process can proceed more quic$l!. 'herefore the heat-affected Bone when arc welding
will "e narrower than that when gas welding the same materials.
'he heat-affected Bone in mild steel plate can ehi"it various structures. 'hese range from an overheated
structure for those parts ad*acent to the weld pool and , therefore, heated to well a"ove the upper critical
temperature, to those parts whose temperature has hardl! risen a"ove room temperature. 'hese are shown in
Fig. 10.50 for "oth a single-run o!acet!lene weld and a single-run metallic arc weld.
Fig. 10.40 1acrostructure of single-run welds in mild steel, (a) o5yacetylene weld; (b) metallic arc weld
'he molten metal of the weld pool will "e made up from the deposited metal and the molten parent
metal.
'here will "e a fusion line "etween the molten metal and the unmolten metal.
'he heat-affected *one will etend from the fusion line to the parent metal where the temperature has
not "een sufficientl! raised to change the original wrought structure.
Ad*acent to the fusion line is a Bone of coarse grains. +ere the metal has "een heated nearl! to its
melting point and considera"le grain growth will have occurred.
1rogressing awa! from the weld, the grains "ecome smaller, and the Bone where ver! fine grains appear
is called the refined *one. +ere the metal has "een heated sufficientl! for recrystallisation to occur "ut
cooling has "een sufficientl! rapid to prevent an! growth.
1
Me!ond the refined Bone is the transition Bone. #n this Bone some of the metal will have recr!stallised
and some will not. 'here will "e a mied structure.
Finall! we come to the unaffected Bone where the parent metal has not "een sufficientl! heated for an!
structural changes to occur and the original wrought structure will "e in evidence. 'he temperature
Bones are summariBed in 'a"le 10.C.
'he properties of the material will change these changes in structure. 'he coarser grains will show greater
ductilit! and softness "ut reduced strength. 'he finer cr!stals will show less ductilit! "ut greater hardness and
strength. 'hese effects "ecome more apparent as the car"on content of the steel increases.
10.1# S1ot welding
'his is a resistance welding process widel! used in the sheet metal industr!. 'he *oint is produced "! ma$ing a
series of spot welds side "! side at regular intervals. Apart from ensuring that the *oint faces are clean and free
from corrosion, no special *oint preparation is required.
'he temperature of the metal components to "e *oined is raised locall! "! the passage of a heav! electric current
at low voltage through the components, as shown in Fig. 10.51.
'he components are gripped "etween the copper electrodes. @hen the current flows through the components
their resistance to the current causes local heating. %ufficient heat is generated to raise the metal to its welding
temperature at this spot. 'he current is then switched off and the pressure eerted "! the electrodes is increased
to form a weld. Eo filler metal is added and the process is ver! rapid. 'he c!cle of events is controlled
automaticall! "! a programma"le logic controller (1/3).
'he effect of welding temperature on a spot weld is shown in Fig. 10.54. #f the welding temperature is too high,
the columnar cr!stals will meet at the centre of the spot weld. 'his will form a plane of wea$ness which ma!
lead to intercr!stalline crac$ing. #f the temperature is correct equi-aed grains will form in the centre of the
weld "efore the columnar cr!stals can meet. 'he importance of time and temperature control when spot welding
should now "e apparent.
Fig. 10.41 ?rinciples of resistance welding, (a) schematic diagram of electric spot-welding machine; (b) spot
welding
Fig. 10.42 Structure of spot welds, (a) correct welding temperature; (b) temperature too high
1
10.1/ 3elding 1lastic %aterials
+eat-welding techniques can onl! "e used to *oin thermoplastic materials6 since onl! these plastic materials
soften upon "eing heated. A distinction must "e made "etween sealing and welding. 'he term sealing is
reserved for the thermal *oining of thin films and foils (plastic "ags containing foods such as crisps). 'he term
welding is reserved for *oining relativel! heav! gauge (thic$) sheet plastic components.
'he low thermal conductivit! and softening of temperatures of plastic materials necessitates the use of a low
welding temperature. 'his ena"les the heat to penetrate the "od! of the plastic "efore the surface is overheated.
+eat is normall! applied to the *oint using a hot-air gun. 'o t!pes of gun are shown in Fig. 10.5-.Hidation can
wea$en the *oint, so where the *oint is critical hot nitrogen gas is used instead of hot air.
Fig. 10.43 ?lastic-welding guns, (a) electrically heated hot air plastic welding gun; (b) gas-heated hot
nitrogen plastic welding gun
Knli$e metals which have a fairl! sharpl! defined melting point, thermoplastics usuall! have a wide range of
temperatures "etween which the! start to soften and eventuall! degrade. 'he easiest plastics to weld are
pol!vin!l (1I3) and pol!eth!lene (17) as the! have a wide softening range.
'he "asic technique is to appl! a *et of hot air or hot nitrogen so that the edges of the parent plastic sheet is
softened. Filler material, in the form of a rod of the same material as that "eing welded, is added into the *oint in
much the same wa! as when gas welding .
10.1/ 3elding 1lastic %aterials
+eat-welding techniques can onl! "e used to *oin thermoplastic materials, since onl! these plastic materials
soften upon "eing heated. A distinction must "e made "etween sealing and welding. 'he term sealing is reserved
for the thermal *oining of thin films and foils (plastic "ags containing foods such as crisps). 'he term welding is
reserved for *oining relativel! heav! gauge (thic$) sheet plastic components.
'he low thermal conductivit! and softening temperatures of plastic materials necessitates the use of a low
welding temperature. 'his ena"les the heat to penetrate the "od! of the plastic "efore the surface is overheated.
+eat is normall! applied to the *oint using a hot-air gun. 'wo t!pes of gun are shown in Fig. 10.5-. Hidation
can wea$en the *oint, so where the *oint is critical hot nitrogen air is used instead of a hot air.
1
Fig. 10.43 ?lastic-welding guns, (a) electrically heated hot air plastic-welding gun; (b) gas-heated hot
nitrogen plastic-welding gun
Knli$e metals,
which have a
fairl! sharpl!
defined melting
point,
thermoplastics usuall! have a wide range of temperatures "etween which the! start to soften and eventuall!
degrade. 'he easiest plastics to weld are pol!vin!l chloride (1I3) and pol!eth!lene (17) as the! have a wide
softening range.
'he "asic technique is to appl! a *et of hot air or hot nitrogen so that the edge of the parent plastic sheet is
softened. Filler material, in the form of a rod of the same material as that "eing welded, is added into the *oint in
much the same wa! as when gas welding metals. 'his is shown in Fig. 10.55. 'he weld P"eadQ must not "e
removed when plastic welding as this "ead adds considera"l! to the strength of the *oint.
10.18 Adhesive bonding
Eaturall! occurring adhesives fall into two categoriesG
+lues 'hese are made from the "ones, hooves and horns of animals and the "ones of fishes.
.erivatives of mil$ and "lood are also used. Flues were largel! used for *oining wood and were
used in the furniture and to! manufacturing industries. 'he! have now "een almost totall!
replaced with modern high-strength s!nthetic adhesives, "ut the! are still used where their non-
toic and non-narcotic properties are important.
+ums 'hese are still made from vegeta"le matter, resins and ru""ers "eing etracted from trees
and starches from the "!-products of flour milling. %ince the! are non-toic the! are used for
such low strength applications as stamp adhesives and envelope flap adhesives which have to "e
lic$ed.
1
Fig. 10.44 ?lastic heat-welding techni-ue
9odern high-strength s!nthetic adhesives have "een developed "! the plastics industr!. Figure 10.5& lists some
t!pical adhesives and the adherent materials for which the! can "e used, whilst 'a"le 10.6 lists some of the
more important advantages and limitations of such adhesives compared with the *ointing processes discussed
earlier in this chapter.
1
Fig. 10.45 Selection of adhesives6 in general6 any two adherends may be bonded together if the chart shows
that they are compatible with the same adhesive
1
Ta"le 10./ <dvantages and 2imitations of /onded @oins
*56*7T*.ES ,4!4T*T487S
'he a"ilit! to *oin dissimilar materials, and
materials of widel! different thic$nesses.
'he a"ilit! to *oin components of difficult
shape that would restrict the application of
welding or riveting equipment.
%mooth finish to the *oint which will "e free
from voids and protrusions such as weld "eads,
rivet and "olt heads, etc.
Kniform distri"ution of stress over entire area
of *oint. 'his reduces the chances of the *oint
failing in fatigue.
7lastic properties of man! adhesives allow for
flei"ilit! in the *oint and give it vi"ration
damping characteristics.
'he a"ilit! to electricall! insulate the adherents
and prevent corrosion due to galvanic action
"etween dissimilar metals.
'he *oin ma! "e sealed against moisture and
gases.
+eat-sensitive materials can "e *oined.
'he "onding process is more comple than
mechanical and thermal processes, i.e. the
need for surface preparation, temperature
and humidit! control of the wor$ing
atmosphere, ventilation and health pro"lems
caused "! the adhesives and their solvents.
'he length of the time that the assem"l! must
Me *igged whilst setting (curing) ta$es place.
#nspection of the *oint is difficult.
Aoint design is more critical than for man!
mechanical and thermal processes.
#ncompati"ilit! with the adherends. 'he
adhesive itself ma! corrode the materials
it is *oining.
.egradation of the *oint when su"*ect to high
and low temperatures, chemical atmospheres,
etc.
3reep under sustained loads.
1
/et)s now loo$ at the successful *oining of materials using adhesives in rather more detail. Figure 10.5C
(a) shows t!pical "onded *oint and eplains the terminolog! used for the various features of the *oint. 'he
strength of the *oint depends upon the two of the following factorsG
<dhesion 'his is the a"ilit! of the "onding material (adhesive) to stic$ (adhere) to the materials "eing
*oined (adherends). 'here are two wa!s in which the "ond can occur. 'hese are shown in Fig. 10.5C (")
and (c).
%ohesion 'his is the a"ilit! of the adhesive film itself to resist the applied forces acting on the *oint.
Figure 10.5C(d) shows the three wa!s in which a "onded *oint ma! fail under load. 'hese failures can "e
prevented "! careful *oint design and their correct selection of the adhesive.
3areful preparation of the *oint surfaces is essential for a sound *oint. 'he surfaces must "e chemicall!
and ph!sicall! clean. Also the atmospheric temperature and humidit! of the wor$ing environment must "e
closel! controlled. Eo matter how effective the adhesive and how carefull! !ou appl! it, the *oint will "e a
failure if it is not correctl! designed. #t is "ad practice to appl! adhesive to a *oint which is originall!
proportioned for "olting, riveting or welding. Nou must design the *oint to eploit the special properties of
adhesives. %ome t!pical adhesive *oint designs are shown in Fig. 10.56. 9ost adhesive are relativel! strong #
tension and shear "ut wea$ in cleavage and peel. 'hese terms are eplained in Fig. 10.5>.
An! adhesive must (wet) the *oint surfaces thoroughl! or voids will occur and the actual "onded area
will "e su"stantiall! less than the design area. 'his will result in a wee$ *oint. Figure 10.59 shows the effect of
wetting on the adhesive film.
1
Fig. 10.4# 7he bonded :oint (a) elements of the bonded :oint; (b) simple cemented :oint in the adhesive
penetrates the pores of the adherends (occurs with rough or porous surfaces); (c) adhesive and adherends react
together chemically so that an intermolecular bond is formed; (d) adhesive and cohesive failure
Fig. 10.4/ Surface for bonding
1
Fig.10.40 Stressing of bonded :oints, (a) tension; (b) cleavage; (c) shear; (d) peel
Fig. 10.49 8etting capacity of an adhesive, (a) an adhesive with a poor wetting action does not spread
evenly over the :oint area6 which reduces the effective area and weakness of the :oint; (b) an adhesive with a
good wetting action will flow evenly over the entire :oint area6 which ensures a sound :oint of ma5imum
strength
10.19 Ther%o1lastic adhesi$es
'hermoplastic materials are those plastic materials, li$e pol!st!rene washing-up "owls, which soften
when heated and harden again when cooled. 'he adhesives derived from this group of s!nthetic materials ma!
"e applied in two wa!s.
3eat activated 'his is where the adhesives is softened "! heating until fluid enough
to spread freel! over the *oint surfaces. 'hese are "rought into contact immediatel!,
whilst the adhesive is still soft, and pressure is applied until the adhesive has cooled to
room temperature and set.
Solvent activated 'his is where the adhesive is softened "! a volatile solvent. 'he
dissolved adhesive is applied to the *oint and a "ond is achieved "! the solvent
evaporating. 'he cellulose adhesive ("alsa cement) used "! aero-modellers is an eample
of a solvent-activated adhesive.
1
Mecause the evaporation is essential to the setting of the adhesive, a sound "ond is almost impossi"le to achieve
in the centre of a large *oint area when *oining in impervious materials. 'his is shown in Fig. 10.&0.
Fig. 10.50 Solvent-activated adhesive fault. @oints made between non-porous adherends (such as metal or
plastic) with solvent-activated adhesives may fail due to lack of evaporation of the solvent. 7his solvent around
the edge of the :oint sets off6 forming a seal and preventing further evaporation of the solvent. 7his reduces the
effective area of the :oint and reduces its strength
10.20 4%1act adhesi$es
'hese are solvent-"ased adhesives which are spread separatel! on the *oint faces and left to dr!. Mecause the
coated *oint faces are open to the atmosphere, evaporation of the solvent is rapid and total. @hen dr!, the
coated *oint faces are "rought into contact whereupon the! instantl! "ond together "! intermolecular attraction.
'his ena"les non-a"sor"ent materials to "e successfull! *oined over large contact areas. A t!pical *oint is shown
in Fig. 10.&1.
Fig. 10.51 7he use of an impact adhesive (a) adhesive is spread thinly and even on both :oint surfaces and left
to dry by evaporation (avoiding the problem in .ig. #.AB); (b)when dry6 the surfaces are bought into contact C
they form an immediate intermolecular bond
'hermoplastic adhesive are "ased upon s!nthetic material such as pol!amides, vin!l and acr!lic
pol!mers and cellulose derivatives. 'he! are also "ased upon naturall! occurring materials such as resins,
shellac, mineral waes and ru""er. %uch adhesives are not as strong as the thermosetting adhesive "ut, "eing
1
generall! more flei"le, are more suita"le for *oining non-rigid materials. Knfortunatel!, the! are heat sensitive
and lose their strength rapidl! as the temperature rises. For eample, natural glues "ecome liquid at the
temperature of "oiling water.
10.21 Ther%osetting adhesi$es
'hermosetting plastic materials change chemicall! when heated (cured) and can never "e again "e
softened. 'his ma$es them less heat sensitive than thermoplastic adhesives. 'he heat necessar! to cure the
adhesive can "e applied eternall!, as when phenolic resins are used, or the heat ma! "e generated internall! "!
chemical reaction (addition of a chemical hardener) as when epo! and pol!st!rene resins are used.
%ince the setting process is a chemical reaction and is not dependent on the evaporation of a solvent, the
area of the *oint does not affect the setting process. 'hermosetting adhesives are ver! strong and are used to
ma$e structural *oints "etween high strength materials such as metals. Aoints in the "od! shells of motor cars
and stressed components in aircraft are increasingl! dependent upon high-strength adhesives in place of welding
and riveting.
'he stresses are more uniforml! transmitted from one component of the *oint to the other.
'he *oints are sealed against corrosion.
.issimilar materials can "e *oined without the ris$ of electrochemical attac$.
'he relativel! low curing temperatures, compared with welding temperatures, do not adversel!
affect the structure and properties of the materials "eing *oined.
Knfortunatel! thermosetting materials tend to "e rigid when cured, so the! are unsuita"le for *oining flei"le
material or structures, or for ma$ing *oints which are su"*ected to high levels of vi"ration.
10.22 Sa&ety in the se o& adhesi$es
Hne of the great advantages of naturall! occurring glues and gums is that the! are neither toic nor
narcotic. Further, the! are not particularl! flamma"le. 'herefore the! are widel! used for la"eling and
pac$aging foodstuff, and for the adhesives on stamps and envelope flaps, which have to "e lic$ed.
Knfortunatel! most s!nthetic adhesives and their solvents, hardeners, catal!sts, etc. , are toic and
narcotic to some degree. Also their solvents are invaria"l! highl! flamma"le. 'herefore these adhesives,
together with their solvents, hardeners and catal!sts, must "e stored and used onl! in a well-ventilated
conditions and the wor$ing area must "e declared a no-smo$ing Bone. 'he health haBards associated with these
1
materials range from dermatitis and sensitisation of !our s$in, to permanent damage of !our "rain, liver,
$idne!s and other internal organs if inhaled or accidentall! swallowed.
All safet! regulations concerning these materials must "e rigidl! adhered to (if !ou)ll ecuse the pun)
and an! protective clothing provided must "e worn.
10.22.1 +recations
Kse onl! in well-ventilated areas.
@ear protective clothing appropriate to the process, no matter however inconvenient.
#f !ou don)t wear gloves, protect !our hands with a "arrier cream.
After use, wash thoroughl! in soap and water0 do not use solvents ecept under medical supervision.
.o not smo$e in the presence of solvents. Eot onl! are the! highl! flamma"le "ut, when the vapours are
drawn in through a cigarette or a pipe, some of the vapours change chemicall! into highl! poisonous
gases.