Nutrient Requirement for Human

Growth And Development

Booklet No. 304
Food and Nutrition FN!"#
$ontent%
Preface
I. Introduction
ll. Carbohydrates,
A Types of carbohydrates
B. Functions of carbohydrates
C. Sources of carbohydrates
III. Proteins
A. Types of proteins
B. Functions of proteins
C. Sources of proteins
IV. Lipids (Fats
A. Types of lipids
B. Functions of lipids
C. Sources of lipids
V. Vita!ins
A. Fat"soluble #ita!ins
B. $ater"soluble #ita!ins
VI. $ater
A. Functions of %ater
B. Sources of %ater
VII. &ineral 'le!ents
&refa'e
Food is re(arded as the pri!e necessity of life. The food that %e consu!e in our daily
diet is di(ested and assi!ilated in the body and is used for its !aintenance and (ro%th.
)utrients are the constituents in food that are re*uired for (ro%th and de#elop!ent of the
hu!an body. 'ach nutrient has a specific role to play for the proper functionin( of the body. This
boo+let pro#ides #aluable infor!ation re(ardin( the nutrients for hu!an (ro%th, their
physiolo(ical functions and food sources.
Dr. ( ). $hand*+ A,ri'ultural - .nvironmental .du'ation
/. /ntrodu'tion
)utrition is the science of foods, the nutrients and other substances, their action,
interaction and balance in relation" ship to health and disease condition. )utrients are the
constituents in the food that !ust be supplied to the body in suitable a!ounts. For !aintainin(
(ood health and physical efficiency, the diet should pro#ide ade*uate a!ounts of all nutrients.
Therefore, it is i!portant to deter!ine physiolo(ical re*uire!ents of #arious nutrients by
different a(e and se, (roups. The infor!ation on physiolo(ical re*uire!ents of nutrients !ust
be translated in ter!s of food consu!ed in habitual diets.
The nutrients re*uired for hu!an (ro%th and de#elop!ent are-
. Carbohydrates / Proteins 0 Fats 1 Vita!ins 2 &inerals and 3 $ater.
These are e,plained in detail, their functions in the body, sources, *uantity re*uire!ents
for #arious classes of people, a(e, se,, %or+ and special physical re*uire!ents.
//. $ar0oh*drate%
Carbohydrates are +no%n as 4ener(y yieldin( substances4. &ainly the carbohydrates
are, co!posed of starch, (lucose, cane su(ar, !il+, su(ar, etc. It has been found out that, the
carbohydrates the cheapest source of ener(y supply about 15 to 627 of the total calories in the
hu!an diet.
Table .- Percent calories supplied by carbohydrates in a#era(e diets in India
Sl.)o. 8iet 7 Calories supplied by
carbohydrates
. $ell to do class 15"22
/ &iddle inco!e (roups 32"92
0 Lo% inco!e (roups 9:"62
Children 25"32
Infants 02"12
It has been su((ested that of the total daily ener(y re*uire!ents, a !ini!u! of at least
157 should be pro#ided in the for! of carbohydrates. ;ence, it is i!portant to ha#e at least a
(eneral idea of the type of carbohydrates that occur in the hu!an diet.
A. )*pe% of 'ar0oh*drate%
Carbohydrates are broadly classified as !ono"saccharides, disaccharides and
polysaccharides.
#. 1ono%a''haride%
&onosaccharides (Si!ple su(ars are the si!plest of the carbohydrates. They are
na!ed accordin( to the nu!ber of carbon "ato!s in the chain li+e trioses, tetroses, pentoses,
he,oses and heptoses. They !ay contain 0 "9 carbon ato!s. They are the co!ponents that can
not be bro+en do%n to s!allest units<parts by hydrolysis. ;ydrolysis is a che!ical process in
%hich a co!pound is split into other co!pounds by ta+in( up the ele!ents of %ater. $ith the
e,ception of he,oses, !onosaccharides are of little dietory si(nificance.
&onosaccharides can be further sub"di#ided in to he,oses and pentoses.
a. He2o%e%
;e,oses ha#e 3"carbon ato!s in the structure. The e,a!ple of he,oses are- (lucose,
(alactose, fructose and !annose.
i. Glu'o%e
=lucoses also +no%n as de,trose, (rape su(ar or (rape su(ar. It is so!e"%hat less
s%eet than cane su(ar. =lucose is the chief end"product of di(estion of disaccharides and
polysaccharides. =lucose !i,es freely %ith blood and circulate in the body to pro#ide ener(y.
Bein( a *uic+ ener(y releasin( su(ar, it is used and (i#en directly blood to the patients to re(ain
their ener(y in case of e!er(ency.
ii. Fru'to%e
Fructose, +no%n as fruit su(ar, is !uch s%eeter than cane su(ar and is a product of the
hydrolysis of sucrose. Both (lucose and fructose occur in free for! in a fe% foods-
iii. Gala'to%e
>nly source of (alactose is fro! the hydrolysis of lactose. Both fructose and (alactose
are con#erted to the stora(e carbohydrates (lyco(en in the li#er and thus (i#e rise to (lucose
and contribute to the cell ener(y supply.
iv. 1anno%e
&annose has only li!ited distribution in foods, is poorly absorbed, and is of little
i!portance in nutrition.
;e,oses play funda!ental role in cellular nutrition and are the constituents of a lar(e
nu!ber of co!ple, substances synthesi?ed by the cell such as structural co!ponents and
secretions.
0. &ento%e%
Pentoses ha#e fi#e carbon ato!s in the structure. @ibose, Aylose and Arabinose are the
three pentoses that are of little dietary si(nificance. It is rapidly synthesi?ed by the body cell
thou(h not a dietary essential. Pentoses also play a funda!ental role in cellular nutrition.
3. Di%a''haride%
8isaccharides (8ouble su(ars are for!ed %hen t%o he,oses are co!bined to(ether
%ith the loss of one !olecule of %ater. >n hydrolysis they split into !ono"saccharide units.
Sucrose, !altose and lactose are the three i!portant disaccharides contained in our food.
a. !u'ro%e
Sucrose, also +no%n as table su(ar is the %hite or bro%n su(ar %e use in our daily diet.
This is produced fro! su(ar, cane and su(ar beets. &any fruits and #e(etables also contain
s!all a!ounts of sucrose. Althou(h che!ically cane and beet su(ar are the sa!e, cane su(ar
can be crystalli?ed %hile beet su(ar is not. 8urin( di(estion sucrose is hydroly?ed to (lucose
and fructose.
0. 1alto%e
&altose also called !alt"su(ar, found in sproutin( (rains, !alted cereals and !alted
!il+. A!on( the s%eetenin( a(ents this is found in corn syrup and co!"su(ar. $hen
hydrolysed, !altose yields t%o !olecules of (lucose. &altose is of little dietary si(nificance. It is
so!eti!es used as dietary su(ar in infant feedin( for!ulas.
'. 4a'to%e
Lactose, also called !il+ su(ar, is produced by !a!!als and is the only dietary
carbohydrate of ani!al ori(in. It is about one si,th as s%eet as sucrose. ;u!an !il+ contains
3.67 of lactose %hereas co%Bs !il+ contains 1.:7. $hen lactose is hydrolysed, (alactose and
(lucose are for!ed.
3. &ol*%a''haride%
Polysaccharides are the co!ple, carbohydrates. They !ay contain as !any as /555
!onosaccharide units. $hen the polysaccharide contain only one !onosaccharide, then it is
said to be ;o!o"polysaccharide %hen the polysaccharide contain se#eral different
!onosaccharides or its deri#ati#es, it is said to be ;etero"polysaccharide. Polysaccharides
%hich are i!portant in nutrition are starch, de,trin, (lyco(en and cellulose. There are three
types of polysaccharides- (a Indi(estible, (b Partially di(estible and (c 8i(estible.
a. /ndi,e%ti0le
Indi(estible polysaccharides are those %hich can not be di(ested by the di(esti#e tract
of the hu!an body. These only pro#ide the bul+ to the diet and help in peristaltic !o#e!ent in
the intestines. These include cellulose, he!i"cellulose, pectins, and (u!s. A!on( these
cellulose play an i!portant role. Cellulose is the structural co!ponent of the plant cell. In hu!an
food, cellulose referred to as fibre, pro#ides a source of rou(ha(e in the intestinal tract %hich
aids nor!al peristaltic action of the intestine, absorbs !oisture and pro#ides bul+ to sti!ulate
nor!al e#acuation of the lar(e intestine.
0. &artiall* di,e%ti0le
Partially di(estible polysaccharides are those %hich are di(ested by the hu!an body
only to so!e e,tent. These includes, Inulin, =alacto(ens, &annosans, @affinose and
Pentosans.
'. Di,e%ti0le
8i(estible polysaccharides are those %hich can be di(ested co!pletely by the di(esti#e
syste! of the hu!an body. These include (i starch (ii 8e,trins and (iii =lyco(en.
i. !tar'h
Starch is the stora(e for! of carbohydrates in plant and pro#ides a #aluable contribution
to the ener(y content of the diet. Coo+ed starch is !ore palatable and easily di(ested. The end
product of all starch %hen it is hydroly?ed is (lucose.
ii. De2trin%
8e,trins are the inter!ediate products in the hydrolysis of starch. They are abundant in
(er!inatin( seeds. So!e de,trins are produced %hen flour is bro%ned or bread is toasted.
Since, de,trins are produced as inter!ediate products in the hydrolysis of starch they are not
too i!portant as a source of carbohydrates.
iii. Gl*'o,en
=lyco(en is also called as ani!al starch is the stora(e for! of starch polysaccharides in
the body. It is found in the li#er of all ani!als and in s!all a*uatic ani!als. It is rapidly
synthesi?ed fro! (lucose in the li#er and !uscle. =lyco(en is found in the body as reser#e as
the body cannot store (lyco(en in the sa!e %ay as it stores fat. Li#er (lyco(en is a#ailable as a
source of ener(y to all body cells. In s+eletal !uscle, (lyco(en ser#es as a source of ener(y for
!uscle contraction.
B. Fun'tion% of 'ar0oh*drate%
Carbohydrates pro#ide a #ariety of functions. The !ost. i!portant of these is to supply
ener(y for the body processes. The inta+e of carbohydrate is (reater than fat in a#era(e Indian
diets. The i!portant functions of carbohydrates are (i#en here.
#. !our'e of ener,*
'ach (ra! of carbohydrate %hen o,idi?ed pro#ides appro,i!ately 1 +cal of ener(y
%hich %ill be utili?ed for all the bodily functions. =lucose solutions are used for i!!ediate tissue
ener(y needs. S!all a!ounts are stored as adipose tissue for later ener(y needs. =lucose is
the sole for! of ener(y for the brain in and ner#ous tissue. Carbohydrates are con#erted to fat
as a lar(er reser#e for ener(y. The total (lyco(en reser#es in the body %ould !eet about half of
one dayBs ener(y needs of the adult.
3. &rotein %parin, a'tion
Since, carbohydrates is used as a source of ener(y, it is to be ade*uately supplied in the
diet. Any deficiency of the carbohydrates in the diet is !ade up by usin( fats of adipose tissue
and protein tissues. This further results in protein deficiency in the hu!an bein(. Protein"ener(y
!alnutrition (P'& disorders are caused, by such protein"carbohydrate deficiency. This leads to
the diseases in youn( children #i?. C%ashior+ar and &aras!us. ;ence, ade*uate supply of
carbohydrate to spare protein for its pri!ary purpose of body buildin( and repair of tissues is
#ery i!portant.
3. Re,ulation of fat meta0oli%m
Certain a!ount of carbohydrate is necessary in the diet so that the o,idation of fats can
proceed nor!ally. In the absence of ade*uate carbohydrates lar(e a!ounts of +etone bodies
are produced. The accu!ulation of +etone bodies increases the acidity of blood. This condition
is called 4Cetosis4. Cetosis is a condition %hich !ay occur in diabetes %here the cells cannot
utili?e carbohydrates. It !ay also occur in star#ation %here the cells !ust use fat sources of the
body for ener(y.
4. !upport ,a%tro"inte%tinal fun'tion
The carbohydrates ser#e as a source of ener(y for the !icro or(anis!s that synthesi?e
so!e B"co!ple, #ita!ins in the intestinal tract and the cellulose pro#ides fibre and bul+ that
pro!ote healthy intestinal hy(iene.
5. Add variet* to the food
Carbohydrate foods also add #ariety, fla#our and bul+ to the diet.
6. 1ain 'on%tituent in the 0od*
Carbohydrates for! a !aDor portion in the hu!an body is 055 "025 (!. >f this, .55 (!
is stored as (lyco(en in cardiac, s!ooth and s+eletal !uscles, and about (! !a+e up the
(lucose in the blood and e,tra"cellular fluid. Carbohydrates pro#ide the carbon, %hich help in
the synthesis of the non"essential a!ino"acids by the body.
7. Dietar* fi0re
8ietary fibre yields no nutrients to the bodyE but aids in the sti!ulation of peristaltic
!o#e!ents of the (astro"intestinal tract, (i#e bul+ to the intestinal contents, and reduces the
len(th of ti!e that food %astes re!ain in the colon.
8. Help in a0%orption of 'al'ium and pho%phoru%
Lactose under(oes fer!entation by lactic acid bacteria in the intestinal tract and this
helps in the absorption of calciu! and phosphorus.
$. !our'e% of 'ar0oh*drate%
The richest sources of carbohydrates in food are su(ars, cereal (rains, le(u!es and
dried fruits. Fat, !il+ products, Da!s, Dellies, pastries, breads, ca+es and candies ha#e
appreciable *uantities of carbohydrates. Bananas, dates, potatoes and s%eet. potatoes are also
rich in carbohydrates. Foods of ani!al ori(in such as e((s, fish, poultry, cheese, fresh !il+, and
!eats (e,cept li#er contain #ery little carbohydrates, ani!al and #e(etable fats contain no
carbohydrates at all.
///. &rotein%
Proteins are the i!portant substances in the cells of the body. They for! the i!portant
constituents of !uscles and other tissues and also of the #ital fluids li+e blood. Proteins pro#ide
the buildin( !aterials for the body and !aintain the %ear and tear of tissues, %hich is a nor!al
and a constant feature of the life process, therefore, the foods rich in proteins are called the
4body buildin( foods4. ;ence, proteins are of the !ost i!portant nutrients. Proteins are also
o,idi?ed in the body to pro#ide ener(y. In s!all intestine, proteins of food are bro+en do%n to
si!pler substances called a!ino"acids that are absorbed in blood, and ta+en to different parts,
and specific proteins are a(ain for!ed.
A. )*pe% of protein%
Proteins are classified on the basis of their physical and che!ical properties, their a!ino
acid structure or accordin( to their nutritional properties.
#. &h*%i'al and 'hemi'al propertie%
Based on the physical and che!ical properties proteins are classified into si!ple,
conDu(ated and deri#ed proteins.
a. !imple protein%
Si!ple proteins %hen hydrolysed by acids, al+alies, or en?y!es, yield only a!ino"acids.
These include albu!ins, (lobulins found %ithin all body cells and in blood seru!, +eratin,
colla(en and elastin in supporti#e tissues of the body and in hair and nails, (lobin in he!o(lobin
and !yo(lobin, ?in in corn, (liadin and (lutelin in %heat, le(u!in in peas, and lactalbu!in and
lacto"(lobulin in !il+.
0. $on9u,ated protein%
ConDu(ated proteins are the si!ple proteins co!bined %ith a non"protein substance.
;ence, they are called conDu(ated. These include the follo%in(.
i. 4ipo"protein% "they ser#e as #ehicles for the transport of fats in the blood.
ii. Nu'leo"prot'in%" they are the proteins such of the cell nuclei, #irus, etc.
iii. &ho%pho"protein%" they are the proteins such as casein in !il+ and o#o"#itellin in e((s.
iv. 1etallo"protein%" they are the proteins such as en?y!es that contain !ineral ele!ents.
v. 1u'oprotein% "they are the proteins found in connecti#e tissues, !ucin, and (onadotropic
hor!ones.
vi. $hromo"protein%" they are the proteins such as hae!o(lobin and #isual purple, and
vii. Flavo" protein%" they are the en?y!es that contain the #ita!in ribofla#ien.
'. Derived protein%
8eri#ed proteins are those proteins that are deri#ed as a result fro! the action of
en?y!es on si!ple and conDu(ated proteins. They include the substances li+e peptones peptide
and proteoses.
3. Amino a'id 'ontent of protein
There are t%enty "one a!ino" acids co!!only tound in dietary proteins. They are-
Alanine, Ar(inine, Cystine, Aspartic acid, Cysteine, =luta!ic acid, )orleucine, =lycine,
;istidine, Isoleucine, Leucine, Lysine, &ethionine, Phenylalanine, Proline, Serine, Threonine,
Tryptophan, Tyrosine, Valine and hydro,y proteine. The e,tent to %hich the a!inoacids are
present deter!ines the *uality of the protein in any food.
a. Non"e%%ential amino a'id%
The a!ino acids that can be synthesi?ed by the body itself throu(h !utual inter"
con#ersions, non"protein sources are the non"essential a!inoacids. The body can synthesi?e
only so!e of these t%enty one a!ino acids. These are then, synthesi?ed fro! an a#ailable
source of nitro(en and a carbon"structure.
0. .%%ential amino"a'id%
'ssential a!ino acids are those that the body can not synthesise at a rate sufficient to
!eet body re*uire!ents and ha#e to be supplied throu(h the diet. 'i(ht essential a!inoacids
are isoleucine, leucine, lysine, !ethionine, phenylalanine, trytophan, threonine and #aline.
Ar(inine and histidine are essential only for youn( infants till the ability to synthesise the! in the
body.
&i,ed diets contain a!ple a!ount of both essential and non"essential a!ino acids.
3. Nutritional qualitie%
Proteins !aintain life and pro!ote (ro%th. 8ifferent proteins fulfill there functions to
different le#els, and accordin( to this they are classified as co!plete, partially co!plete and
totally inco!plete proteins.
a. $omplete protein%
Co!plete proteins contain enou(h of the essential a!inoacids to !aintain body tissues
and to pro!ote a nor!al rate of (ro%th. '((, !il+ and !eat (includin( poultry and fish proteins
are all co!plete but are not necessarily identical in protein *uality.
0. &artiall* 'omplete protein%
Partially co!plete proteins can !aintain life but they lac+ in sufficient a!ounts of so!e
of the essential a!ino" acids for (ro%th. ;ence, they are na!ed as 4Partially co!plete
proteins4. Partially co!plete proteins are obtained fro! cereal and le(u!es.
'. )otall* in'omplete protein%
Totally inco!plete proteins are incapable of replacin( or buildin( ne% tissues and hence
cannot support life. Fein in co! and (elatin are e,a!ple of this type, as they are incapable of
per!ittin( life to continue.
B. Fun'tion% of protein%
I!portant functions of proteins are discussed here. &aintenance and (ro%th Protein is
essential for tissue synthesis as it is the chief solid !atter of all the body tissues. Proteins are
the chief constituents of the !uscles, or(ans, and endocrine (lands. They are the !aDor
constituents of the !atri, of bones and teeth, s+in, nails, hair, blood cells and seru!, ;ence, the
!ost .i!portant function is to supply the !aterials for the buildin( and the continuous
replace!ent of the cell protein throu(hout the life processes.
3. Re,ulation of 0od* pro'e%%e%
&any body processes are re(ulated by certain proteins. Body proteins ha#e hi(hly
speciali?ed functions in the re(ulation of body processes. Sa!e of these include nucleo"
proteins %hich help in the synthesis of body proteins. ;ea!o(lobin, an iron"bearin( protein that
is the chief constituent of red blood cells, perfor!s a #ital role in carryin( o,y(en to the tissues.
The bodyBs resistance to disease is !aintained in part by antibodies %hich are protein in nature,
these are called i!!uno"proteins. So!e en?y!es and hor!ones li+e insulin and thyroid are
also protein in nature. 'n?y!es help in process li+e di(estion, absorption, anabolis! and
catabolis!.
3. !our'e of ener,*
Proteins are a potential source of ener(y. 'ach (ra! of protein yield 1 calories if
o,idi?ed in the body. =enerally, protein foods are e,pensi#e and cheaper carbohydrates should
preferably be used for ener(y. ',cess of protein is con#erted into fat and stored in the body.
4. !tora,e form
Proteins are stored in youn( and pre(nant %o!en for future use %hen the de!and
increases.
5. Help in la'tation pro'e%%
Proteins help in the synthesis of !il+ proteins and anti bodies in lactatin( %o!en.
6. $atal*%t
Proteins help in the synthesis of en?y!es %hich act as catalysts to #arious che!ical
reactions in the body.
7. 1u%'le 'ontra'tion
The contractile proteins (!yosin, actin re(ulate !uscle contraction.
$. !our'e% of protein%
Proteins are one of the !ost i!portant nutrients and the sufficiency of protein in a diet is
an i!portant !easure of the ade*uacy and *uality of the diet. Ani!al foods such as !eat, fish
and e((s are e,cellent sources of proteins. They pro#ide the protein per portion of the food
eaten. >ther (ood sources of proteins are foods li+e !il+, cheese, soyabean, and sausa(es.
A!on( the #e(etable food, pulses and nuts are the richest sources of protein %ith
a!ounts often e,ceedin( those present in ani!al foods. Peanuts, (reen beans, (reen peas,
le(u!es, different types of pulses and cereals contribute an appreciable a!ount of protein.
Foods li+e potatoes, #e(etables, fruits and fruit Duices, fats and oils, su(ar and Da((ery,
contribute a #ery !ea(re percenta(e of proteins for the daily diet.
/:. 4ipid% ;Fat%<
The ter! 4Lipids4 includes fats, fat li+e substances and oils. Lipids are the or(anic
co!ponents !ade of carbon, hydro(en and o,y(en. Besides these essential co!ponents,
phosphorus and nitro(en !ay be present. Fats are considered to be the !ost concentrated
source ener(y. Certain lipids are an ener(y source of for the cell, others are structural
co!pounds and still others function as hor!ones. Thus, fat is an i!portant co!ponent of diet
and ser#es a nu!ber of functions in the body. All the fats and oils are natural or(anic
co!pounds %hich are found in plants and ani!als and ser#e as stora(e !aterial. The oil refers
to those %hich re!ain li*uid at roo! te!perature and the others bein( called as fats. Thus, %e
can say that all the fats are insoluble in %ater.
A. )*pe% of lipid%
Lipids are usually classified into three (roups- si!ple lipids, co!pound lipds and deri#ed
lipids.
#. !imple lipid%
Si!ple lipids consist !ainly of tri(lycerides (Tri(lyceride contains three fatty acids also
+no%n as neutral fats. In a tri(lyceride the three !olecules of fatty acids can be of the sa!e
acid (si!ple tri(lyceride or of different acids (!i,ed tri(lyeride. Si!ple lipids are esters of
(lycerol and fatty acids. They are defined as !ono"carbo,ylic acids that tend to be !ore soluble
in or(anic sol#ents than in %ater. Fatty acids are stored in tissues and are consu!ed in the diet
lar(ely as (lycerides.
3. $ompound lipid%
Co!pound lipids contain other co!ponents (Such as carbohydrate, phosphate and< or
nitro(enous co!pounds in addition to the three fatty acids co!bined %ith one !olecule of
(lycerol. Co!pound lipids include phospho"lipids, (phos"phatidic acids, lecithins, cephalins,
plas!alo(ens, and sphin(o!yelins (lycolipids and lipo"proteins.
Phospholipids are those tri(lyecerides %hich ha#e a phosphate co!ponent in the!. The
body contains a lar(e nu!ber of phospholipids. They are (enerally for!ed in tissues and blood.
The tissues of the ner#ous syste!s and the li#er are e,ceptionally rich in phospholipids.
Phospholipids help in e!ulsifiyin( fats %hich !a+es their di(estion !uch easier.
Cerebrosides present in the brain are tri(lycerides %hich contain a carbohydrate
co!ponent in the!, in addition to the fatty acid and (lycerol.
Lipo proteins are co!pound lipids containin( a protein !olecule in the tri(lycerids.
3. Derived lipid%
8eri#ed lipids include fatty acids. alcohols, carotenoids, and fat soluble #ita!ins li+e
Vita!ins A,8,' and C.
B. Fun'tion% of lipid%
Fat is an i!portant co!ponent in the diet and ser#es a nu!ber of functions in the hu!an
body such as body co!position, ener(y insulation, protein of #ital or(ans.
#. Bod* 'ompo%ition
All the body cells contain so!e a!ount of fat. $ith the process of a(in( the proportion of
fat in the body (enerally increases as that of protoplas!ic tissue decreases. Cell !e!branes
contain lipids that facilitate the transfer of nutrients. Cerebrosides, (alactose containin( lipids,
are the co!pounds of the !yelin sheath of ner#es and the %hite !atter of the brain.
=an(liosides, (lucose and (alactose containin( lipids are the constituent of brain tissue and of
the synoptic !e!branes.
3. .ner,*
Fats are the richest source of ener(y. >ne (ra! of fat (i#es : calories of ener(y %hich is
!ore than double the a!ount obtained fro! e*ual a!ounts of carbohydrates and proteins. Any
e,cess of ener(y in the body is stored in the for! of fat. Fats are stored in adipose tissue, under
the s+in, around the or(ans and in the abdo!inal ca#ity.
3. /n%ulation
The layer of fat Dust under the s+in helps in !aintainin( the body te!perature. The sub"
cutaneous layer of fat is an effecti#e insulator and reduces losses of body heat in cold %eather.
4. &rote'tion of vital or,an%
The #ital or(ans such as the +idneys ha#e a thin layer of fat around the! %hich protects
the! a(ainst physical inDury. Thus, they pro#ide a paddin( of fats.
5. !atiet* value
Sateity #alue of fats is closely related to the pro#ision of ener(y. Fats reduce (astric
!otility and re!ain in the sto!ach lon(er, the onset of hun(er sensations is delayed.
6. A0%orption of fat"%olu0le vitamin%
So!e of the fat soluble #ita!ins li+e A,8,', and C and carotene need fats for their
proper utili?ation in the body. The body can suffer fro! deficiency of these #ita!ins if enou(h fat
is not present in the diet.
7. &alata0ilit*
Fats i!port palatability to the diet. Fats in !eats, poultry and fish and the oils in fruits
lend the characteristic fla#ours that %e enDoy.
8. .%%ential fatt* a'id%+
Fat supplies linoleic acid. Linoleic acid is an essential fatty acid, %hich can not be
synthesi?ed in the body and !ust be present in the diet. In the body linoleic acid is rapidly to
arachidonic acid, the physiolo(ically functionin( poly unsaturated fatty acid. The poly"
unsaturated fatty acids are constituents of phospho"lipids and thus ha#e a role in re(ulatin( cell
per!eability. In the absence of linoleic acid, in the diet, there is (ro%th retardation, s+in lesions,
and li#er de(eneration.
=. &ho%pho"lipid%
Fats pro#ide phospholipids. All cells contain phospholipids, but brain ner#ous tissues
and li#er are especially rich in the!. The phospho"lipid le#el in the body is not reduced e#en in
star#ation, %hich su((ests the #ital role that they !ust play in !etabolis!. Phospholipids are
po%erful e!ulsifyin( a(ents and ha#e an affinity for %ater. ;ence, they are i!portant and
essential for di(estion and absorption of fats and they facilitate the upta+e of fatty acids by the
cells.
Phospho"lipids also for! a si(nificant proportion of the blood lipo"proteins.
#0. $hole%terol
Cholesterol is a co!ponent of cell !e!brane and furnishes the nucleus for the
synthesis of pro"#ita!in 8, adreno"cortical hor!ones, steroid se, hor!ones and bile salts. Pro"
#ita!in 8 on e,posure to sunli(ht can be con#erted to #ita!in 8 in the body. The concentration
of cholesterol is hi(h in the li#er, the adrenal, the %hite and (rey !atter of the brain and the
peripheral ner#es. It is present in s!all a!ounts in al!ost all body tissues and constitutes an
i!portant part of blood lipo"proteins. It is synthesi?ed by the li#er to !eet body needs re(ardless
of dietary inta+e.
$. !our'e% of lipid%
Fats are obtained fro! #e(etable as %ell as ani!al sources.
#. :e,eta0le %our'e%
So!e seeds li+e !ustard and sesa!e (til are rich in oils %hich can be e,tracted fro!
the!. )uts li+e peanuts, coconut and al!ond also contain a considerable a!ounts of fat. Corn,
cotton seed, safflo%er and soya oils are (ood sources of linoleic acid. Fruits, #e(etables
le(u!es, cereals and flours are lo% in fat.
3. Animal %our'e%
&il+, e(( yol+ and ani!al fats li+e butter, and lard are so!e of the fats of ani!al ori(in.
Fish is so!e%hat lo%er in fat than is !eat. Fish that ha#e a coloured flesh are
so!e%hat hi(her in fat than those %ith %hitish flesh.
All of the fat in the e(( is in the yol+, about one"third of this bein( in the for! of phospho"
lipids.
$hole !il+, crea!, ice"crea! and %hole"!il+ cheese furnish appreciable a!ounts of fat.
>nly ani!al foods furnish cholesterol. Li#er, e(("yol+, +idney. brains, s%eet"breads, are
rich sources. &uch s!aller concentrations are found in %hole !il+, crea!, butter, cheese and
!eat.
:. :itamin%
Vita!ins are necessary for !etabolic reactions in the body. Today a nu!ber of #ita!ins
are +no%n and their che!ical structures identified. Vita!ins are (enerally classified into fat"
soluble cate(ories. Vita!ins ha#e i!portant functions in !any of the #ital process of life. They
are classified into fat soluble, and %ater soluble based on their solubility.
A. Fat "!olu0le vitamin%
Fat soluble #ita!ins include #ita!in A, 8, ' and C. Functions and sources of these
#ita!ins are !entioned belo%.
#. :itamin A
Vita!in A consists of carbon, hydro(en and o,y(en. In its pure for! #ita!in A is a pale"
yello% crystalline co!pound. It occurs naturally in the hu!ans and has been synthesi?ed so
that it is a#ailable co!!ercially. It is soluble in fat and fat sol#ents. ;u!an body can con#ert a
considerable proportion of the carotenoids in the foods they eat into #ita!in A. Thus, carotenes
are synthesi?ed by plants and are the ulti!ate source of all #ita!in A
a. Fun'tion%
Vita!in A is an i!portant co!ponent in the diet and perfor!s a nu!ber of functions in
the hu!an body. They are briefly e,plained here.
i. :i%ion
Vita!in A is necessary for the !aintenance of nor!al #ision in the di! li(ht (ni(ht
#ision. The retina of the eye contains t%o +inds of li(ht receptors- the rods for #ision in di! li(ht
and cones for #ision in bri(ht li(ht and colour #ision. The rods produce a photosensiti#e
pi(!ent, @hodopsin or #isual purple and the cones produce Iodopsin or #isual #iolet. In both
these pi(!ents #ita!in A in the for! of retinaldehyde is the prosthetic (roup, but the proteins to
%hich the aldehyde is attached are different $hen li(ht stri+es the pi(!ents, chan(es occur in
the che!ical structure and the pi(!ents split into their co!ponent parts retinaldehyde and
protein. The chan(es initiate a ner#e i!pulse that is then trans!itted to the brain by %ay of optic
ner#e. @e(eneration of rhodopsin occurs in the dar+, but so!e retinaldehyde is lost in each
cycle so that a constant supply fro! the blood !ust be present.
ii. .pithelial ti%%ue%
Vita!in A is i!portant and is re*uired for healthy epitheliu! co#erin( the body e,ternally
(s+in or linin( the !ucous !e!branes. In case of defficiency it affects the synthesis of
constitutents !ucous such as the !uco proteins and the !uco"polysaccharides resultin( in
abnor!al s+in de#elop!ent. The !e!branes that line the eyes, the !outh and the (astro
intestinal, respiratory, and (enito urinary tracts help to !aintain their inte(rity and pro#ide
resistance to bacterial in#asion. Thus #ita!in A pro#ides protection a(ainst infection.
iii. Growth fun'tion%
Vita!in A is re*uired for proper (ro%th of the body. Vita!in A is essential for nor!al
s+eletal and tooth de#elop!ent. $ith a deficiency of #ita!in A bones do not (ro% in len(th and
the nor!al process does not ta+e place.
iv. >ther fun'tion%
Vita!in A influences the synthesis of both seru! and !uscle proteins and its apparent
effect on cell differentiation !ay be related to a role in 8)A and @)A !etabolis!. 8e#elop!ent
of anae!ia is said to occur as a result of chronic #ita!in A deficiency. ;ence, it can be
su((ested that #ita!in A !ay be necessary for nor!al iron !etabolis!.
0. !our'e%
>nly ani!al foods contain #ita!in A as such, li+e, fish li#er oils, !il+, butter, (hee, curd,
cheese, e(("yol+, li#er and fruit fortified !ar(arines. The li#er oil of certain fish li+e cod, halibut
and shar+ are the richest sources of Vita!in A.
Vita!in A is not present as #ita!in A in #e(etable foods but these substances contain
carotenes %hich are con#erted to A in the body. Carotene is also +no%n as pro"#itan!in A.
=reen leafy #e(etables- spinach, turnip tops, beet (reens, a!aranth, coriander lea#es,
curry lea#es, dru!stic+s. =reen ste! #e(etables, aspara(us, broccoli, Gello% #e(etables-
Carrots, s%eet potatoes, pu!p+in. Gello% fruits- &an(oes, papaya, to!atoes, peaches,
In (eneral, the dar+er the colour of the (reen #e(etables, (reater is their carotene
content.
3. :itamin D
Vita!in 8 is a co!pound of carbon, hydro(en and o,y(en. Pure #ita!in 8 has been
isolated and is also +no%n as the anti"rachitic #ita!in. Vita!in 8 is a (roup of co!ple, alcohol
co!ponents but is (enerally spo+en of as one substance. The t%o i!portant acti#e for!s of
#ita!in 8 of nutritional si(nificance are-
Vita!in 8/ +no%n as er(ocalciferol and #ita!in 80 +no%n as cholecalciferol. The
precursor of #ita!in 8 in the body is a pro"#ita!in, that is, 9 "dehydrocholesterol %hich is found
in the s+in. This reacts %ith ultra"#iolet rays of the sunli(ht to for! chole calciferol, the acti#e
for! of #ita!in 8.
a. Fun'tion%
Vita!in 8 play an i!portant role in the (ro%th of hu!an body and in the utili?ation of
calciu! and phosphorus.
i. Growth
Vita!in 8 is re*uired for nor!al (ro%th in the hu!an body. It increases the calciu! and
phosphorus absorption fro! the (astro"intestinal tract by !a+in( its !e!branes !ore
per!eable to these salts. It i!pro#es the calcification of bones by re(ulatin( the a!ount of
calciu! and phosphorus that is a#ailable.
ii. ?tili@ation of 'al'ium and pho%phoru%
Cereals contain phytic acid and calciu! co!bines %ith phytic acid in the body to for!
calciu! phytate. This is an insoluble co!pound and cannot be absorbed by the body. Phytate
en?y!e hydrolyses the phytic acid hence pre#entin(, the for!ation of calciu! phytate. Vita!in
8 increases the acti#ity of this en?y!e. Thus, it helps to !a,i!i?e the utili?ation of calciu! and
phosphorus.
0. !our'e%
Food sources rich in #ita!in 8 include li#er oil, e(( yol+, !il+, !il+ fat, butter and (hee.
Co!!on #e(etable foods do not contain #ita!in 8. ',posure to sunli(ht pro#ides a cheap %ay
of per!ittin( the production of #ita!in 8 in the body itself. ',posure to sunli(ht, fortified foods,
fish"li#er oils, and co!!ercial #ita!in 8 preparations are the sources of #ita!in 8.
3. :itamin .
Vita!in ' is a tat"soluble #ita!in, consists of a (roup of che!ical substances called
4Tocopherols4. There are si, different tocopherols %hich are collecti#ely called #ita!in '. It
occurs as a yello% #iscous oil, insoluble in %ater, but soluble in fat sol#ents.
8. Fun'tion%
The !etabolic roles of"#ita!in ' in the hu!an body are poorly understood. ;o%e#er, the
principal functions !ay be enu!erated.
i. Anti"o2idant
The principal role of #ita!in ' appears to be as an anti"o,idant. By acceptin( o,y(en,
#ita!in ' helps to pre#ent the o,idation of polyunsaturated fatty acids and phospholipids
thereby helpin( to !aintain the inte(rity of cellular !e!branes.
ii. !parin, effe't on vitamin A
Vita!in ' plays and i!portant role in the protection of #ita!in A, carotene and ascorbic
acid fro! o,idation in the di(esti#e tract and in the body cells. By acceptin( o,y(en itself, it
helps to pre#ent the o,idation of #ita!in A. In the body tissues #ita!in ' plays another i!portant
role by reducin( the o,idation of the polyunsaturated fatty acids, thereby, helpin( to !aintain the
inte(rity of the cell !e!branes. Thus, the protecti#e property of #ita!in ' enhances the efficient
use of #ita!in A and ascorbic acid.
iii. A'tivator of en@*me%
It is belie#ed that #ita!in ' also functions as an acti#ator in certain en?y!atic reactions.
h. !our'e%
The principal sources of #ita!in ' in the diet are #e(eetable oils (co!, soya, cotton
seeds, safflo%er. The hydro(enated fats fro! these oils, %hole (rains and dar+ (reen leafy
#e(etables, nuts and le(u!es. Foods of ani!al ori(in are lo% in #ita!in ', li#er, heart, +idney,
!il+ and e((s are the ani!al sources of this #ita!in. ;u!an !il+ pro#ides ade*uate #ita!in '
for the infant, but co%s !il+ contains #ery little of this #ita!in.
4. :itamin (
Vita!in C is an i!portant fat soluble #ita!in. Vita!in C is found in nature in t%o for!s-
C. and C/ occurs in (reen lea#es and is produced by bacterial synthesis Vita!in C is often
called the 4Coa(ulation #ita!in4, because it has anti"he!orrha(ic properties.
a. Fun'tion%
Anti"he!orrha(ic and synthesis of other proteins arelhe !aDor functions of #ita!in C.
i. Anti"hemorrha,i' propert*
Vita!in C is also called as 4Coa(ulation #ita!in4 due to its anti"he!orrha(ic properties.
This #ita!in is essential for the synthesis of pro"thro!bin, the precursor of thro!bin, one of the
factors needed for nor!al coa(ulatory function of the blood. A blood clot is !ade up of fibrin, a
protein %hich is deposited as fine threads to tor! a net %or+. The for!ation of fibrin tro!
fibrino(en re*uires thro!bin and the for!ation of thro!bin fro! pro"thro!bin re*uires calciu!
and Vita!in C. Vita!in C !ay be an essential part of the en?y!e syste! in#ol#ed in the
production of the blood clottin( factor.
ii. !*nthe%i% of other protein%
It is assu!ed that #ita!in C is re*uired for the synthesis of other proteins containin( r"
carbo,y (luta!ic acid %hich ha#e been identified in bone and +idney. ;o%e#er, the functions of
these proteins ha#e not been identified.
0. !our'e%
Vita!in C !ainly occurs in plants (reen lea#es of plants such as spinach and also
cabba(e, cauliflo%er, soyabean and #e(etable oils are (ood sources of #ita!in C. Cereals, fruits
and other #e(etables are poor sources. Ani!al products contain !uch less #ita!in C, but por+
li#er is a (ood source.
Since, this #ita!in is present in a lar(e #ariety of co!!only eaten plant foods and it can
be synthesi?ed in the intestinal tract by bacteria and because of its insolubility in %ater, the
nor!al person does not usually suffer fro! #ita!in C deficiency.
B. Aater %olu0le vitamin%
B"co!ple, #ita!ins, and #ita!in C are the %ater soluble #ita!ins. B"Co!ple, #ita!ins
include Thia!ine (B., @ibofla#in (B/, )iacin, Pyrido,ine (B3B Pantothenic acid, Biotin, B./,
Folic acid.
B"$omple2 vitamin%
The %ater soluble #ita!in B has been described as a lar(e (roup of co!pounds, %hich
ha#e been desi(nated as the #ita!in B co!ple,. &ainly, these #ita!ins co!bine %ith specific
proteins to function as parts of the #arious en?y!e syste!s %hich are concerned %ith the
brea+do%n of carbohydrate, protein and fat in the body. ;ence, they are interrelated and are
inti!ately in#ol#ed in the !echanis!s %hich release ener(y, carbondio,ide and %ater as the
end"products of !etabolis!.
=enerally the %ater soluble #ita!ins are not stored in the body. ',cess are lar(ely
e,creted, thus eli!inatin( the possible ties for to,icity that e,ist %ith o#er dosa(e of fat soluble
#ita!ins. So!e of B"co!ple, #ita!ins are essential in hu!an nutrition and they !ust be
pro#ided in our daily !eals. Three of these are included in the allo%ance for diet they are
Thia!ine (B., @ibofla#in (B/ and )iacin.
a. )hiamine ;:itamin B#<
Thia!ine is an i!portant !e!ber of the B"(roup of #ita!ins. It is also +no%n as the
4anti"beriberi4 substance or 4anti"neurotic substance4.
i. Fun'tion%
The functions of thia!ine are discussed here.
;a< A% 'oen@*me
Thia!ine acts as a co"en?y!e by tea!in( up %ith an en?y!e in the body to for! %hat
is +no%n as co"en?y!e.
;0< Help% in 'ar0oh*drate meta0oli%m
Thia!ine acts as a catalyst in the o,idation process, %hich prepares (lucose in the body
to supply ener(y thus thia!ine helps carbohydrate !etabolis! in the inter!ediary sta(es. If
there is enou(h thia!ine, the process proceeds nor!ally, other%ise there is an accu!ulation of
one of the inter!ediary products of carbohydrate !etabolis! i.e. pyru#ic acid in the blood.
Such a condition leads to a poor functionin( of the (astro"intestinal tract and !ay be
related to a loss of appetite %hich in turn leads to thia!ine deficiency.
;'< For 0od* fun'tionin,
Ade*uate inta+e of thia!ine is also necessary for the nor!al functionin( of all the
syste!s.
;d< >ther fun'tion%
In addition to its coen?y!e function, thia!ine !ay be in#ol#ed in so!e aspect of the
function of ner#e cell !e!branes or in so!e %ay influence the action of neuro"trans!itters such
as acetyl"choline or serotonin.
ii. !our'e%
All the ani!al and plant tissues contain thia!ine in a s!all *uantity, but the only rich
sources are the seeds of plants li+e cereals, nuts, peas, beans and other pulses and in addition
yeast. All (reen #e(etables, roots, fruits, flesh foods and dairy products (e,cept butter contain
si(nificant a!ounts of this #ita!in but none of the! are rich sources.
0. Ri0oflavin ;:itamin B3<
@ibofla#in is present in the free state in foods, or in co!bination %ith phosphate, or %ith
protein and phosphate. It is present in body tissues as the co"en?y!e, or as fla#oproteins.
i. Fun'tion%
The follo%in( are the functions of ribofla#in.
;a< $on%tituent of 'oen@*me%
@ibofla#in is a constituent of t%o en?y!es in the body. @ibofla#in !onophosphate or
fla#in !ononucleotide (F&) and fla#in adenine dinucleotide (FA8. Both these co"en?y!es act
as hydro(en acceptors. These en?y!es are re*uired for the co!pletion of se#eral reactions in
the ener(y cycle. @ibofla#in unites %ith en?y!es to help cells use o,y(en"an essential step in
the process of con#ertin( sources of ener(y in the body into ener(y itself.
ii. !our'e%
@ibofla#in is %idely found in plant and ani!al foods, the richest source bein( dried yeast.
Its !aDor sources are !eats, especially li#er, !il+, e((s, (rains and (reen #e(etables. Cereals
and flours are ordinarily lo% in ribofla#in. Fruits, roots and tubers are poor sources of ribofla#in,
and fats and oils are practically de#oid of this #ita!in. Li#er contains si,teen ti!es !ore
ribofla#in per .55 (!. as co!pared to !il+. 'specially (ood sources of natural #ita!in are yeast
e,tract.
'. Nia'in
)iacin is a %ater"soluble #ita!in belon(in( to the B"co!ple, (roup. It is one of the !ost
stable of the #ita!ins. It can be easily synthesi?ed co!!ercially. It occurs naturally in the body
in the for! of an a!ide, nicotina!ide (niacina!ide.
i. Fun'tion%
Follo%in( are the functions of niacin.
;a< A% 'oen@*me%
Li+e other B"co!ple, #ita!ins, niacin is an i!portant constituent of co"en?y!es in#ol#ed
in (lycolysis, tissue respiration, and fat synthesis. )icotina!ide adenine dinucleotide ()A8
contains nicotina!ide, ribose, t%o phosphate (roups, and adenine also +no%n as
diphosphopyridine nucleotide (8P) or co"en?y!e I. )icotin"a!ide adenine dinucleotide,
phosphate ()A8P contains three phosphate (roupin(s also +no%n as triphosphopyridine
nucleotide (TP) or co"en?y!e ll.
;0< .ner,* 'onver%ion
)iacin alon( %ith thia!ine and ribofla#in is concerned %ith #ital processes of translatin(
of sources of ener(y into ener(y in e,pandable for! (usable ener(y. )iacin is concerned %ith
the utili?ation of (lucose and the synthesise of fats. This is its !ost i!portant contribution to
(ood nutrition.
;'< Help% in meta0oli%m
)iacin is an inte(ral part of o,idation and reduction !echanis! needed for the
!etabolis! of carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
;d< Buildin, and repairin, ti%%ue%
In carryin( .hrou(h its functions as a buildin( stone of proteins, tryptophan enters into
the buil1in( and repairin( of body tissues.
;e< &rote'tive fun'tion
)iacin protects the body a(ainst sy!pto!s of pella(ra" s+in leisions, infla!!ation of the
!uscous !e!brances of the !outh, ton(ue and intestinal tract and psychic chan(es.
ii. !our'e%
A diet %ith ade*uate proteins also pro#ides enou(h niacin %hich %ill supply tryptophan
for con#ersion to niacin and protein. @ich foods are (enerally, (e,cept !il+, rich sources of
niacin. )early, one half of the niacin in the food supply is pro#ided by !eats, poultry and fish
and one"fourth is pro#ided by flour and cereal products. Lesser but i!portant a!ounts are
a#ailable fro! le(u!es and nuts, peanuts are particularly (ood sources. $hole (rains are fair
sources of niacin but !ost of this is in a bound for! %hich !ay not be co!pletely a#ailable.
Potatoes, le(u!es and so!e (reen leafy #e(etables contain so!e fair a!ounts of niacin, but
!ost fruits and #e(etables are poor sources.
d. :itamin B6
This #ita!in is found in three acti#e for!s "pyrido,ine
(in plant products pyrido,al and pyrido,a!ine (in ani!al products
i. Fun'tion%
Follo%in( are the functions of the #ita!in B3.
;a< A't a% 'o"en@*me
Pyrido,al phosphate is the co"en?y!e for a lar(e nu!ber of en?y!e syste!s, !ost of
%hich are in#ol#ed in a!ino acid !etabolis!.
;0< Help in ,l*'o,enol*%i%
Pyrido,al phosphate is also re*uired for (lyco(en phosphorylase, an en?y!e by %hich
(lyco(en is bro+en do%n to (lucose is also re*uired for the for!ation of antibodies and for the
synthesis of a precursor %hich are a part of the hae!o(lobin !olecule.
;'< $onverter
Vita!in B3 plays an i!portant role in the con#ersion of tryptophan to niacin. Vita!in B3
plays an i!portant role in the con#ersion of linoleic acid to arachidonic acid. Vita!in B plays an
i!portant role in the inter con#ersions of a!ino"acids.
ii. !our'e%
The principal source of #ita!in B3 is !eat, poultry, and fish. Potatoes, s%eet potatoes
and #e(etables are fair sources of niacin, $hole (rains are (ood sources of pyrido,ine, but
!ost of this is lost in the !il+in( of the (rains.
e. &antotheni' a'id
Pantothenic acid is probably synthesi?ed by the intestinal bacteria and is a co!ponent of
co"en?y!e, A (CoA. The re*uire!ents of this #ita!in by the hu!an body are not +no%n
precisely.
i. Fun'tion%
Pantothenic acid functions in the body in the for! of a coen?y!e A. Co"en?y!e A is a
co!ple, !olecule consistin( of a sulphur"containin( co!pound, adenine ribose, phosphoric
acid and pantothenic acid.
Co"en?y!e A is also in#ol#ed in the synthesis of fatty acids, cholesterol and other
sterols, and porphyrin in the hae!o(lobin !olecule.
ii. !our'e%
Pantothenic acid is %idely distributed in ani!al foods and in %hole (rains and le(u!es.
Li#er, yeast, e(( yol+, and !eat are particularly (ood sources. Fruits, #e(etable, and !il+
contain s!aller a!ounts.
f. Biotin
Biotin is a %ater"soluble substance. It can be easily o,idi?ed in the body. This #ita!in is
synthesised in the intestines. The ad!inistration of the anti"biotics interference %ith the
synthesis. A#idin, a protein found in ra% e(("%hite co!bines %ith biotin and pre#ents its
absorption. The precise daily re*uire!ents of biotin are not +no%n.
i. Fun'tion%
Follo%in( functions are of !ore si(nificance.
;a< A't a% a 'o"en@*me
Biotin is a co"en?y!e of a nu!ber of en?y!es that participate in carbo,ylation,
decarbo,ylation and de"a!ination reactions. For instance, Biotin is re*uired in the synthesis of
fatty acids.
;0< DNA and RNA 'on%tituent%
Biotin is essential for the introduction of C>/ in the for!ation of purines, these
co!pounds bein( essential constituents of 8)A and @)A.
;'< Help in 'ar0oh*drate meta0oli%m
$ithin the CrebBs cycle (TCA cycle, biotin is also re*uired for the con#ersion of
succinates to fu!arate and o,alo"succinate to +eto(lutarate.
ii. !our'e%
Biotin is found in !inute *uantities in foods li+e li#er, +idney, pancreas, !olasses, !il+,
yeast and e(( yol+. The precise daily re*uire!ents of biotin is not +no%n.
,. :itamin B#3
This #ita!in is the only cobalt"containin( substance essential to life. This #ita!in is
absorbed fro! the ileu! only in the presence of a !uco"protein en?y!e produced by the (astric
!ucosa.
i. Fun'tion%
Vita!in BI/ ha#e the follo%in( functions.
;8< Help in 'ell fun'tionin,
Vita!in BI/ functions in all cells, but especially those of the (astro"intestinal tract, the
ner#ous syste! and the bone !arro%. $ithin the bone !arro% a #ita!in BI/ co"en?y!e E
participates in the synthesis of 8)A.
;0< !*nthe%i% of nu'lei' a'id and nu'leo"protein%
Vita!in BI/ is stored in the li#er and helps in the synthesis of nucleic acid and nucleo"
proteins.
;'< 1aturation of red 0lood 'ell
Vita!in BI/ is essential for the !aturation of red blood cells in the bone !arro%.
;d< 1eta0oli%m of nervou% ti%%ue
Vita!in BI/ is essential for the !etabolis! of ner#ous tissue.
;e< $he'k perni'iou% anameia
Presence of #ita!in BI/ in the diet helps to pre#ent pernicious ane!ia. Pernicious
ane!ia results %hen there is deficiency of #ita!in BI/ in the diet.
ii. !our'e%
Vita!in BI/ occurs in !inute concentrations in ani!al tissues but is absent in plants
foods. Li#er and +idney contain 15 "25 u( per .55 (!. &il+, e((s cheese and !uscle !eats
contain ."2 u( per .55 (!.
h. Foli' a'id
Folacin is the ter! used for folic acid, pteroyl (luta!ic acid and other co!pounds ha#in(
the acti#ity of folic acid. ',tra a!ounts of folic acid in diet are e,creted in the urine and faeces.
i. Fun'tion%
Follo%in( three i!portant functions are of si(nificance.
;a< $onver%ion into a'tive form
Folic acid is transfor!ed into biolo(ically acti#e folic acid by ascorbic acid.
;0< !*nthe%i%
Folic acid also participated in the synthesis of purines, pyri!idines and nucleoproteins.
;'< $he'k% anemia
Its deficiency in !an is not li+ely to occur fro! dietory defects but !ay be secondary to
condition li+e !e(aloblastic ane!ia to infancy and pre(nancy.
;d< DNA %*nthe%i%
Folacin is essential to 8)A synthesis, and thus, to(ether %ith #ita!in BI/B re(ulates the
for!ation of nor!al red blood cells in the bone !arro%.
ii. !our'e%
Folic acid is found in foods both in the free for! and in the conDun(ated for!. Li#er,
+idney, deep (reen leafy #e(etables are food sources of this #ita!in. $heat, cereals pro#ides a
fair a!ount of it. @oot #e(etables dairy foods, por+ and li(ht (reen #e(etables are poor sources
of this #ita!in.
i. A%'or0i' a'id
Ascorbic acid also +no%n as #ita!in C is one of the !ost i!portant %ater soluble
#ita!ins. Ascorbic acid is a co!" pound and is closely related to the !ono"saccharide su(ars. It
can be prepared at lo% cost fro! (lucose. Loss of this #ita!in often results fro! stora(e,
processin( and coo+in(.
i. Fun'tion%
So!e of the i!portant functions are e,plained in detail.
;a< Formation of 'olla,en
>ne of the principal functions of Ascorbic acid is the for!ation of colla(en, an abundant
protein that for!s the inter"cellular substance in cartila(e, bone !atrices, dentin, and the
#ascular epitheliu!.
;0< Aound healin,
Ascorbic acid helps in %ound healin( and the ability to %ithstand the stress of inDury and
infection.
;'< 1eta0oli' pro'e%%
Ascorbic acid helps in the nor!al !etabolis! of the a!ino"acid, tyrosin and in the
function of the adrenal (land.
;d< A0%orption of iron
Ascorbic acid helps in the easy absorption of iron fro! the (astrointestinal tract by the
reduction of ferric iron to ferrous iron.
;e< A% an anti"o2idant
Ascorbic acid is an i!portant anti"o,idant and thus has a role in the protection of
#ita!ins A and ' and the poly saturated fatty acids fro! e,cessi#e o,idation.
;/< >ther fun'tion%
Ascorbic acid plays an i!portant role in synthesis of !ucopoly saccharides, !icroso!al
dru( !etabolis! leu+ocyte function and synthesis of anti infla!!atory steroids by the adrenal
(landE
ii. !our'e%
Fruits and #e(etables are the !ain sources of ascorbic acid. Citrus fruits (oran(es,
(rapes, le!ons and li!es berries, #e(etables, (reen pepper, cabba(e, chilies, !an(oes, a!la,
to!atoes are (ood sources. 8ry le(u!es, contain s!all a!ount of ascorbic acid their ascorbic
acid content increases durin( (er!ination.
&il+, e((s, !eat and poultry, as they are consu!ed, do not ha#e any #ita!in C
(Ascorbic acid. ;u!an !il+ contains four to si, ti!es as !uch ascorbic acid as co%Bs !il+ to
protect the infant fro! scur#y. Li#er contain a s!all a!ount of ascorbic acid, but it is nor!ally
lost in coo+in(.
:/. Aater
$ater is an i!portant constituent of our diet. It is interestin( to note that about 927 of an
infantBs body and 357 of an adult body is co!posed of %ater. Loss of .2 to /57 %ater !ay
pro#e to be fatal.
A. Fun'tion% of water.
$ater is one of the !aDor structural constituents of our body. All the tissues of our body
includin( teeth and bone, contain %ater.
#. Help% in meta0oli%m
There are #arious !etabolic processes (physico"che!ical chan(es ta+in( place in our
body. $ater acts as a !ediu! for these reactions. The %aste production of the body are
e,creted in the for! of urine and perspiration and %ater is the !ediu! for both of these.
3. A't a% a 'arrier
$ater is a carrier for the products of di(estion helpin( in transportin( the! to the #arious
cells in the body.
3. 1aintain% 0od* temperature
$ater helps in !aintainin( the body te!perature by distributin( the heat in the body.
4. 4u0ri'ant
$ater is aft i!portant lubricant for the #arious or(ans. &ucous that lubricates the
di(esti#e tract and the respiratory tract, sali#a %hich !a+es it possible for us to s%allo% the
"food, all contain %ater as an i!portant constituent.
B. !our'e% of water
The body suffers loss of %ater due to e,cretion in urine, faeces and perspiration. So!e
of the %ater is also lost %ith the air that %e e,hale. To !a+e up the losses one has to ta+e %ater
in the diet. Fats, carbohydrates and proteins all contain %ater in so!e for! or the other.
Besides these, the #arious che!ical reactions (oin( on in our bodies also release %ater
%hich can be used. About ..2 litres of %ater per day is sufficient to co#er the losses fro! the
body and !eet its re*uire!ents.
://. 1ineral .lement%
A lar(e nu!ber of !inerals are present in the hu!an body. &inerals are those ele!ents
that re!ain lar(ely as ash %hen plants or ani!al tissues are burned. &acronutrients are those
that are re*uired in appreciable a!ounts and account for !ost of the body content of !inerals.
&icro nutrients (Trace ele!ents are re*uired in !inute a!ounts. The functions and sources of
i!portant !inerals are e,plained here.
A. $al'ium
The body contains !ore calciu! than any other !ineral. Calciu! and phosphorus
account for 92 percent of total !ineral ele!ents in the body.
#. Fun'tion%
Calciu! and phosphorus are !ainly present in bones and teeth and the re(ulation of
certain body processes. The need for calciu! in the buildin( of the s+eleton is, (reater durin(
the years of (ro%th. The nor!al functionin( of heart !uscles, ner#es and the blood clottin(
processes all depend on the presence of calciu!.
3. !our'e%
&il+ and !il+ products are e,cellent sources of calciu!. =reen leafy #e(etables such as
carrot lea#es, !int, spinach, a!aranth and !ustard lea#es are ne,t to the dairy products in their
calciu! content. Citrus fruits, le(u!es, !eat, (rain and nuts pro#ide the least calciu!.
B. &ho%phoru%
Phosphorus is an i!portant constituent in e#ery body tissue. The total a!ount
constitutes about one percent of the body %ei(ht. The a!ount of phosphorus in the body is
e,ceeded only by calciu!. In bones the proportion of calciu! to phosphorus is about /-.. In
body fluids and soft tissues the proportion of phosphorus is !uch hi(her than that of calciu!.
#. Fun'tion%
Phosphorus is one !ineral that perfor!s a nu!ber of i!portant functions. It co!bines
%ith calciu! to for! a co!pound, %hich (i#es stren(th and ri(idity to bones and teeth. It also
helps in its !aintenance. A series of phosphorus co!pounds are for!ed in the utili?ation of
carbohydrates in the body. It is #ital to the funda!ental processes of !etabolis! in the body.
Phosphorous is a constituent of the nucleo"proteins.
3. !our'e%
Phosphorus is %idely distributed in both plant and ani!al foods. 8iets rich in protein and
calciu!, pro#ide sufficient phosphorus. '((s, !il+, !eat, poultry, fish and flour are e,cellent
sources of phosphorus. $hole (rain cereals, and flour pro#ide phosphorus in (ood a!ount.
Ve(etables and fruits are lo% in phosphorus content.
A part of the phosphorus in cereals, pulses and nuts is present as phytin that is not
a#ailable to the body. Phytin also interferes %ith the absorption of iron and calciu!.
$. &ota%%ium
Potassiu! is !ostly found in cells of the body. The re!ainin( is distributed in the e,tra
cellular fluid. Plas!a also contains s!all a!ounts of potassiu!. Potassiu! is present in lar(e
a!ounts in the di(esti#e Duices. ',cess potassiu! is e,creted fro! the +idneys.
#. Fun'tion%
Potassiu! !aintains os!otic pressure and fluid balance %ithin the body cells. It is
needed for the synthesis of proteins. It is necessary for the en?y!atic reactions %ithin cells.
So!e of it is bound to phosphates. In the bound for! potassiu! is necessary for the con#ersion
of (lucose to (lyco(en. 8urin( (lyco(enolysis (brea+do%n of (lyco(en the potassiu! (ets
released.
3. !our'e%
&eat, poultry and fish are (ood sources. Fruits, #e(etables and %hole (reen cereals are
also (ood sources of this !inerals. Bananas, potatoes, to!atoes, carrots, celery, oran(e Duice,
(rape fruit contain potassiu! in appreciable a!ounts.
D. !odium
Sodiu! is present in !any foods in the for! of sodiu! chloride. The absorption of
sodiu! chloride %hich is an inor(anic salt in the diet occurs in the (astro"intestinal tract rapidly
and is practically co!pleted there. The +idneys re(ulate the sodiu! le#el in the body. $hen the
sodiu! inta+e is hi(h, e,cretion is also hi(h. If sodiu! is restricted in the diet, the e,cretion of
sodiu! by the healthy +idney is absent and thus sodiu! is conser#ed co!pletely in the body.
#. Fun'tion%
Sodiu! !aintains nor!al os!otic pressure and %ater balance as it is the principal
electrolyte in e,tra"cellular fluid. It is essential for the !aintenance of the p; of the (astro"
intestinal secretions. The re(ulation of the per!eability of the cell !e!brane is due to sodiu!.
The sodiu! helps to !aintain electrolyte differences bet%een intracellular and e,tra"cellular
fluids.
3. !our'e% of %odium
Co!!on salt or sodiu! chloride is the chief source of sodiu! in the diet. It is found in
ani!al foods, such as !il+, e((s, !eat, fish, poultry and in #e(etables, such as spinach,
fenu(ree+, pulses, celery. &ost of the cereals fruit and le(u!es are poor sources of sodiu!.
.. $hlorine
This is present in the body as the chloride ion. It is present in e,tracelluar fluid as sodiu!
chloride. It is found %ithin the cells as potassiu! chloride. Chloride ions are present in red blood
cells. It is an essential constituent of the (astric Duice.
/#. Fun'tion%
Chlorine is i!portant for the re(ulation of os!otic pressure. Chloride helps to !aintain
the %ater balance and p; balance. They acti#ate sali#ary a!ylase chloride the acid !ediu! for
acti#ation of the (astric en?y!es and di(estion in the sto!ach.
3. !our'e%
&ost of the chloride ta+en is fro! the co!!on salt used durin( food processin( and
preparation.
F. 1a,ne%ium
The a!ount of !a(nesiu! present in the body is less than that of calciu! and
phosphorus. The dietary absorption of !a(nesiu! is about 15 percent. A hi(h calciu! inta+e
increases the re*uire!ent for !a(nesiu! as %ell. ',cess is e,creted fro! the +idneys.
#. Fun'tion%
&a(nesiu! is re*uired for all li#in( cells. It is a catalyst for nu!erous biolo(ical reactions
in#ol#in( the release of ener(y. It is a constituent of bone. It is essential for nor!al !etabolis!
of calciu! and phosphorus. Its presence in e,tra" cellular fluid re(ulates the trans!ission of
ner#e i!pulses.
3. !our'e%
8airy products, e,cludin( butter, pro#ide enou(h !a(nesiu!. Flour and cereal products,
dry beans, soya beans, peas and nuts are (ood sources. =reen leafy #e(etables are e,cellent
sources of it because !a(nesiu! is a part of chlorophyll.
G. /ron
Iron is the chief a!on( the trace ele!ents re*uired for the body. The total content of iron
is #ery s!all in the body. It is %idely distributed throu(hout the body. The !aDor portion of it is
found in the blood as hae!o(lobin. &uscle tissue contains about 0 percent of iron as !yo(lobin
and the rest is stored in the li#er, spleen, +idney and bone narro%.
#. Fun'tion%
Iron is essential for the o,idation in the body. It is a constituent in co!pounds necessary
for the transport of o,y(en to the cells and for o,idation in the cells. In the body iron is present in
the blood or li#er. The hae!o(lobin of blood is a co!pound of hae!e, an iron co!pound and
4(lobin4, a protein. The synthesis of hae!o(lobin is based on iron in the body.
Iron is also a constituent of plas!a %here iron is bound to a protein called transferrin.
Iron is present in the !uscle cells or t%o co!binations, as !yo(lobin and as a constituent of
hae!e en?y!es.
Iron containin( en?y!es in !uscles !a+e the o,idation of carbohydrates, fat and protein
%ithin the cell. It carries o,y(en to the cells in hae!o(lobin and !a+es o,idation possible in the
cells throu(h the iron "containin( en?y!es.
3. !our'e%
'(( yol+ and or(an !eats are (ood sources of iron. Li#er is an e,cellent source of iron.
&eat, Da((ery, raisins and dried fruits are also a (ood source of iron. A!on( food (rains baDra is
a (ood source. Fresh and canned fruits and other #e(etables contain #ery little iron. Spices
such as !ustard, cu!inseed, fenu(ree+, celery seeds and coriander contain liberal a!ounts of
iron but their consu!ption in daily diet is #ery little so they do not !a+e a si(nificant
contribution.
H. 1an,ane%e
&an(anese is a trace ele!ent %hich is re*uired in s!all a!ounts in the diet. It is poorly
absorbed fro! the s!all intestine. &an(anese is transported by the blood as a loosely bound
protein co!pound +no%n as trans!an(anin. It is e,creted as a constituent of bile !ost of it is
a(ain re"absorbed and retained in the body. The a!ount e,creted by urine is #ery s!all.
#. Fun'tion%
&an(anese acti#ates a nu!ber of en?y!es that helps in the for!ation of urea. It for!s
the en?y!e peptidases responsible for the hydrolysis of proteins in the intestine. &an(anese is
associated %ith s+eletal de#elop!ent, lipid !etabolis!, control of ner#ous irritability.
3. !our'e%
)uts, le(u!es, %hole"(rain cereals contain !an(anese. Ani!al foods are poor sources
of this !ineral.
/. $opper
The tissues of the body contain it in traces but the hi(hest a!ount is found in the brain
and li#er. The a!ount found in the adult body is about .55 !(. About :2 per cent of copper
present in blood plas!a is found fir!ly bound in a protein co!ple,, ceruloplas!in, and the
re!ainin( 2 percent loosely bound to another protein, albu!en. &ost of the copper is e,creted
throu(h the bile in faecal !atter.
#. Fun'tion%
Copper is re*uired for #arious functions includin( the for!ation of the pi(!ent !elanin in
the s+in. It helps in the transport of electrons. It !aintain the stren(th of the !yelin sheath
co#erin( the ner#es. Copper helps in the synthesis of phospho"lipids. It is necessary for the
for!ation of hae!o(lobin in the blood alon( %ith iron. It is a constituent of en?y!es in#ol#ed in
the o,idation of fatty acids. It is necessary for healthy hair.
3. !our'e%
'#en the poor pro#ide enou(h copper for hu!an re*uire!ents. A!on( rich sources are
or(an !eals, shell fish, %hole(rain cereals, le(u!es and nuts. &il+ is a poor source.
B. /odine
About one"third of the iodine present in adults occurs in the thyroid (land. Iodine is
in(ested in foods as inor(anic iodides and as or(anic co!pounds. 8urin( the process of
di(estion, iodine is split fro! or(anic co!pound and is absorbed as inor(anic iodides. The
iodine is released into the circulation durin( cellular o,idation. About one third of the iodine thus
released is retained to be used a(ain or thyroid hor!one and the re!ainder is e,creted throu(h
urine.
#. Fun'tion%
It is a constituent of the thyroid (land %hich controls the rate of ener(y utili?ed in the
body or the basal !etabolic rate. Iodine is essential for synthesis of the thyroid hor!one,
thyro,ine. Thyro,ine is bound to the (lobulin and is stored as thyro(lobulin in the (land.
Thyro,ine re(ulates the rate of o,idation %ithin the cells thereby sti!ulatory physical and !ental
(ro%th, functionin( of ner#e and !uscle tissue, circulation of blood and !etabolis! of all
nutrients.
3. !our'e%
Iodine is (enerally supplied by food and %ater, fro! the soil rich in iodine. The !ost
i!portant dietary source of iodine is iodised salt. Sea%eed, salt %ater fish and shell"fish contain
i!portant a!ounts of iodine. The iodine content of e((s, dairy products, and !eats depends
upon the iodine content of the ani!als diet. Ve(etables (ro%n on iodine"rich soils near the sea
coast are (ood sources of iodine, those (ro%n on iodine poor soils, contain little iodine.
(. Cin'
It is found in traces in all body tissues. The hi(hest concentration of it occurs in the li#er,
pancreas, +idneys and brain. It is also present in the red blood cells and blood seru!. Finc is
poorly absorbed fro! the intestine and !ost of it is e,creted in the faeces. A s!all a!ount of
this is also e,creted in the urine. A hi(h calciu! and phytate inta+e interferes %ith the absorption
of ?inc.
#. Fun'tion%
Finc is re*uired for protein synthesis and also 8)A and @)A synthesis in body cells.
Finc accelerate the process of healin( of %ounds. It co!bines %ith the hor!one insulin but it is
not re*uired for the acti#ity of insulin.
3. !our'e%
Finc is %idely distributed in both ani!al and #e(etable foods. @ich sources include li#er,
hi(h proteins foods, %hole (rain cereals, beef, la!b and por+. Le(u!es, peanuts and peanut
butter are (ood sources, but fruits and !ost #e(etables are poor sources. The ?inc in plant
proteins is less a#ailable than that in ani!al proteins.
4. Fluorine
It is one of the !ost acti#e ele!ents. Traces of fluorine are present in bones, teeth,
thyroid (land and s+in. It protect the teeth fro! decay.
#. Fun'tion%
A proper inta+e of fluorine is #ery essential to pre#ent dental caries. Fluorine is re*uired
for nor!al !ineralisation of bones.
3. !our'e%
The !ain sources of fluorine is the drin+in( %ater. It occurs in traces in !any foods but
so!e foods such as seafish, cheese are rich sources of fluorine.
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