Fundamental

Biblical Hebrew
and
Fundamental
Biblical Aramaic
ALSO FROM CONCORDIA
Hebrew and Greek Studies
Workbook and Supplementary Exercises
for Fundamental Biblical Hebrew
and Aramaic
Andrew H. Bartelt and Andrew E.
Steinmann
Intermediate Biblical Hebrew:
A Reference Grammar with Charts
and Exercises
Andrew E. Steinmann
Concordia Hebrew Reader: Ruth
John R. Wilch
Fundamental Greek Grammar
James W. Voelz
Religion and Resistance in Early Judaism:
Greek Readings in 1 Maccabees
and Josephus
John G. Nordling
Biblical Studies
Concordia Commentary Series:
A Theological Exposition
of Sacred Scripture
Leviticus, John W. Kleinig
Joshua, Adolph L. Harstad
Ruth, John R. Wilch
Ezra and Nehemiah, Andrew E.
Steinmann
Proverbs, Andrew E. Steinmann
Ecclesiastes, James Bollhagen
The Song of Songs, Christopher W.
Mitchell
Isaiah 4055, R. Reed Lessing
Ezekiel 120, Horace D. Hummel
Ezekiel 2148, Horace D. Hummel
Daniel, Andrew E. Steinmann
Amos, R. Reed Lessing
Jonah, R. Reed Lessing
Matthew 1:111:1, Jeffrey A. Gibbs
Matthew 11:220:34, Jeffrey A. Gibbs
Luke 1:19:50, Arthur A. Just Jr.
Luke 9:5124:53, Arthur A. Just Jr.
Romans 18, Michael Middendorf
(forthcoming May 2013)
1 Corinthians, Gregory J. Lockwood
Colossians, Paul E. Deterding
Philemon, John G. Nordling
2 Peter and Jude, Curtis P. Giese
13 John, Bruce G. Schuchard
Revelation, Louis A. Brighton
FUNDAMENTAL
BIBLICAL HEBREW
ANDREW H. BARTELT
FUNDAMENTAL
BIBLICAL ARAMAIC
ANDREW E. STEINMANN
Fundamental Biblical Hebrew 2000 Concordia Publishing House
Fundamental Biblical Aramaic 2004 Andrew E. Steinmann
Published by Concordia Publishing House
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FUNDAMENTAL
BIBLICAL HEBREW
ANDREW H. BARTELT
Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1. Spelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2. Noun Morphology: Gender and Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3. Prefixes: Article, Prepositions, the Conjunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4. Verb Morphology: The Perfect Aspect
(Afformative Verb Forms). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5. Verb Morphology: Variations of the Perfect Aspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6. Verb Morphology: The Imperfect Aspect
(Preformative Verb Forms) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7. Verb Morphology: Major Variations of the Imperfect Aspect . . . . . 54
8. Waw Consecutive (wayyiql) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
9. Noun Morphology: Absolute and Construct States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
10. Personal Pronouns, Pronominal Suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
11. Adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
12. Participles, Relative Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
13. Nominal Sentences of Existence; Possession; Interrogatives . . . . . . . 118
14. Imperative, Jussive, Cohortative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
15. Infinitives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
16. Object Suffixes, Review of Qal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
17. Derived Conjugations, Piel Conjugation (D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
18. Hiphil Conjugation (H) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
19. Niphal Conjugation (N) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
20. Pual (Dp) and Hithpael (HtD) Conjugations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
21. Hophal Conjugation (Hp), Hishtaphel, Qal Passive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
22. Geminate Verbs; Polel, Polal, Hithpolel; and Verbal Hendiadys . . . 210
23. Numerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
24. Masoretic Accents and Spelling, Sentence Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Appendices
I. Noun Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
II. Pronominal Suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
III. Regular (Strong) Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
IV. Irregular Verbs
A. I-Guttural Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
B. II-Guttural Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
C. III-Guttural Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
D. III-Alep Verbs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
E. I-Nun Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
F. I-Yo (Original I-Waw) Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
G. Hollow (II-Waw / Yo) Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
H. III-H Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
ix
Preface
T
he title of this textbook addresses at least two basic issues of scope
and purpose. Te term Biblical Hebrew indicates a focus on a specifc
corpus of Hebrew texts also known as the Hebrew Scriptures, the Tanak, or
the so-called Old or First Testament. Even within that limited corpus, however,
the reader fnds a wide spectrum of stylistic, historical, and even dialectical difer-
ences and distinctions, some of which still remain discussed and debated within
learned circles. Variations in spelling, oddities in morphology, archaic forms as
well as characteristics of later development, or the vast stylistic and even gram-
matical diferences between prose and poetry soon confront the beginning reader
of the biblical text. Nevertheless, there is signifcant consensus concerning basic
Hebrew grammar of the so-called classical, monarchic, or pre-exilic period of
biblical Hebrew, and it is essentially such a consensus that is refected in the pre-
sentation in this textbook.
With that focus, this is also a fundamental approach. Te objective of this text-
book is to provide a basic understanding of grammar, including vocabulary, mor-
phology, and syntax, to facilitate reading of elementary to intermediate level bibli-
cal texts with the aid of a lexicon. While the presentation is consistent with the
insights of more technical grammars, many fne points are lef for the additional
refnement that comes with further study.
Alreadyespeciallyat a fundamental level, however, students should
be aware of two axioms of language study: all grammars leak (as one pundit
has put it), and all language teachers lie (especially at the fundamental level), or
at least they occasionally conceal the fact that all grammars leak! Tat is to say that
a fundamental approach focuses on the regular and normative with the full rec-
ognition that the realities of languages are flled with irregularities and deviations
from the norm, some of which can be explained and predicted, some of which
cannot. At the same time, such irregularities confrm both the existence and
the helpfulness of recognizing and learning the regular principles and patterns.
Exceptions prove the rules even as they probe the rules.
Tis textbook unashamedly follows a more traditional and deductive approach,
emphasizing the memorization of basic vocabulary, morphology, and paradigms.
While an artifcial and unnatural mode of learning a language, this method is both
time-tested and time-efcient in presenting and learning material in a systematic
manner and logical sequence.
On the other hand, there is an intentionally more inductive and user-
friendly manner to the presentation. Students will be engaged in the actual
x Fundamental Biblical Hebrew
biblical text already in chapter one. Examples and exercises move logically from
the known to the unknown, from regular to irregular forms, from general rules
to exceptions. Technical fne points are acknowledged but not overly emphasized.
An outline format provides a sense of order and is reproduced in summary form at
the end of each chapter to faciliate self-study and review.
Both students and instructors might note the following specifc features which
may add to the usefulness of this text:
1. Te chapters tend to treat a specifc grammatical topic in a com-
plete manner. For example, the defnite article is covered in one chapter,
presented in logical order from the regular to the irregular features.
Pronouns are discussed in a holistic way (Chapter 10), so that the stu-
dents quickly see the relationships between the independent pronouns
and the various uses of pronominal sufxes. Experience has shown this
form of organization to be extremely helpful also for later review and
reference.
2. Tus some chapters are longer than others and should not be per-
ceived as lessons in every case. Instructors can easily adjust to the
needs of a class, including multiple presentations on single chapters
as needed. Certain exercises and drills are prescribed at specifc points
within chapters.
3. Te presentation of verb forms begins with the fnite tenses (and not the
participle) to enable understanding of common sentence structure early
on. Beginning with the traditional paradigms of Qal (G) perfect and
imperfect (using the standard third-second-frst person format), the
student is immediately introduced to the so-called waw consecutive
(wayyiql) to facilitate reading narrative texts within a few lessons.
4. Since the vast majority of verb forms are in the Qal conjugation (68.8
percent, according to Waltke and OConnor, p. 361), this binyan is pre-
sented fully (moving from regular to irregular forms in logical and reg-
ularized sequence) as a template for understanding the distinctions in
form and translation of the other conjugations. While traditional termi-
nology is used (Qal, Piel, Hiphil, etc.), the student is also introduced to
the general Semitic descriptors (G, D, H, etc.).
5. Te vocabulary has been carefully selected on the basis of frequency and
biblical use. At the conclusion of the book, the student should be famil-
iar with most words in the 100+ frequency categories. Te number of
new words in each chapter is slightly smaller than in some textbooks
to reduce the burden of rote memorization of vocabulary, arguably the
most difcult aspect of learning Hebrew, especially for adult learners.
Words introduced in a chapter are ofen used in examples within the
presentation of that chapter, and no additional words are used in exam-
ples or in presentation that have not already been learned. Grouping of
Preface xi
vocabulary by idiomatic phrases, word pairs, or semantic felds has been
attempted where possible.
6. Te exercises, like the presentations in each chapter, are structured
to move from the regular to the irregular, from the known to the
unknown. Te drills are constructed with very specifc teaching objec-
tives in mind for every question, and they move logically to illustrate
specifc features. Teachers will quickly observe that drills can be used
as supplemental and inductive teaching tools, and that ofen a students
question will be answered by the next example. Tis also helps the
student in self-study and review.
7. Sentences used both as examples and as translational exercises are care-
fully written to teach biblical style and idiom while meeting the spe-
cifc learning objectives of each chapter. Tis has proven to be more
helpful than fnding actual biblical quotations, which, while psychologi-
cally helpful in presenting real biblical texts, do not always achieve the
most efective pedagogical results.
8. A supplemental exercise book with additional and annotated bibli-
cal readings provides a workbook for completing all the exercises (in
larger format), allowing the exercises in the textbook to remain clean
for students to use as review, if desired. Te workbook will also contain
an answer key, a composite list of each chapter summary, and a
larger version of the noun and verb paradigm charts from the appendi-
ces in the textbook.
xiii
Acknowledgments
T
his work is dedicated to all students of the Hebrew Scriptures, past,
present, and future, as they share the joy of being engaged by the bibli-
cal text through its original language. As those who introduced me to
the fundamentals of biblical Hebrew and who taught with such a wonderful
and contagious enthusiasm for both language and text, I am grateful to Roddy
Braun, Herbert Spomer, Merlin Rehm, and John Ribar, participants at that time
in the great educational enterprise known as Concordia Senior College. Tose
who honed those basic skills into scholarly tools include Ronald Clements and
especially Henry St. John Hart, whose love for both the language and his learn-
ers remains legendary in the lore of Cambridge. Recognition is due those at the
University of Michigan who placed Hebrew into the larger world of the Ancient
Near East: George Mendenhall, Charles Krahmalkov, Piotr Michalowski, Peter
Machinist, and especially David Noel Freedman, whose dedication to a close and
careful reading of texts highlights the importance of appreciating both basic struc-
tures and sophisticated nuances of grammar and style.
Above all, I would honor my teachers, colleagues, and friends at
Concordia Seminary, who share also the profound message of Gods salvation
in yea hamma, which is the truth that the text conveys. Among so many
I would note especially Horace Hummel, Paul Raabe, Paul Schrieber, and James
Voelz, whose encouragement has taken the form of both personal motivation
and professional model through his well received and much used Fundamental
Greek Grammar, to which this work stands as both complement and compliment.
Of those directly involved in this project I would hold in highest esteem
the hundreds of students from whom I have learned much in the teaching of
biblical Hebrew, especially those who have served in the living laboratory
as these materials were produced and tested. For some, those pages are prob-
ably long lost from a loose-leaf binder; for many, I hope, this book will serve
as a more permanent replacement. Especially helpful, also in feld testing these
materials and ofering numerous suggestions, are colleagues Stephen Stohlmann
of Concordia University, St. Paul, and Mark Meehl of Concordia University,
Seward.
Closer to home, William Carr has made signifcant contributions toward both
presentation and pedagogy, as has Philip Penhallegon, who has also come to know
with patience and good cheer the very close reading of text that is the editorial
process. Tis project would not have been completed without his valuable assis-
tance, and I owe him a special debt of gratitude and my highest respect for his
xiv Fundamental Biblical Hebrew
careful and diligent work. I would also extend to Marilyn Kincaid a hearty th
rabbh for her encouragement and energetic ima trh from the perspective of
the synagogue.
Finally, I would express my appreciation for the support and patience of those
involved with Concordia Academic Press, to Charles Arand and Ken Wagener,
and especially to Wilbert Rosin, whose steady guidance has played a major role in
bringing this project to publication.
Above all others, it is to my family, to Lucy, Marybeth, Allison, and Amy, whose
patience and prayer, love and loyalty, support and sacrifce are treasured beyond
measure, that I ofer my loving thanks even as I repent of the time too ofen taken
from them.
May God grant wisdom and insight to all whose study of biblical Hebrew will
provide greater understanding of Gods torah and truth, of His goodness and grace,
of His prophetic Word and of that prophetic Word made sure in the Word Made
Flesh.
1
Introduction
L
earning biblical Hebrew is, indeed, fundamental for anyone who takes seri-
ously the text of the Hebrew Scriptures. Every student of literature knows the
basic importance of utilizing the primary sources and original texts,
but those who understand such scripture as an authoritative Word of God have
a particular interest in the particularities of that text. Luthers comments regard-
ing the need for knowing and using the biblical languages in pastoral ministry
are well known but worth repeating:
Let us, then, foster the languages as zealously as we love the Gospel. . . . Let
us ever bear this in mind: we shall have a hard time preserving the Gospel
without the languages. The languages are the sheath in which this sword of
the Spirit is contained. They are the case in which we carry this jewel. . . .
Although faith and the Gospel may be preached by ordinary ministers
without the languages, still such preaching is sluggish and weak, and the
people finally become weary and fall away. But a knowledge of the language
renders it lively and strong, and faith finds itself constantly renewed through
rich and varied instruction.
1
Te Hebrew language itself has a long and noble history, though modern lin-
guistic research has dispelled the romantic notion fostered at least since Jerome
that God communicated a hebraica veritas through a special language of revela-
tion. Quite the opposite is true, with even greater theological signifcance. Not
unlike koine Greek, biblical Hebrew was a common and popular language, very
much integrated into the everyday realities of life and woven into the fabric of a
particular social-cultural history that, in turn, was set within the larger context of
the ancient world.
As a Semitic language, biblical Hebrew is part of a vast family of ancient Near
Eastern languages that is ofen divided into East Semitic or Akkadian (Babylonian
and Assyrian) in the Mesopotamian areas and into West Semitic that includes
the languages of Canaan. Further dividing into quadrants, the Mesopotamian lan-
guages make up a northeastern group, with various forms of Arabic to the south-
east and southwest. From the northwest quadrant of this entire region comes the
family of Northwest Semitic that divides into Ugaritic, Aramaic, and Canaanite.
Te Canaanite subgroup includes Hebrew, along with Phoenician, Moabite,
Ammonite, Edomite, and some lesser-known dialects.
Within the Bible itself, the few references to Hebrew describe persons or
a social group. Te language of Jerusalem and Judah is once called only the tongue
1 Martin Luther, To the Councilmen of All Cities in Germany That They Establish
and Maintain Christian Schools in Luthers Works, American Edition, vol. 45,
ed.Walther I. Brant (Philadelphia: Muhlenberg, 1962), 359ff. passim.
2 Fundamental Biblical Hebrew
(lip) of Canaan (Isaiah 19:18) or otherwise simply Judahite (as distinct from
Aramaic, 2 Kings 18:26, 28 = Isaiah 36:11, 13). Students should consult standard
reference works for further detail concerning the history and place of the Hebrew
language, including inscriptional evidence and the ancient poetry which refects
the oldest form of the language within the biblical corpus.
Te importance of learning Hebrew for biblical studies cannot be over-
stated. Both Judaism and Christianity share a common bond in claiming the
Hebrew Scriptures as their own. Even for Christians, these texts (including the
chapters in Ezra and Daniel written in Aramaic) comprise about 75 percent of
the Bible, and knowledge of this First Testament is simply fundamental to
understanding the Jewish religious claims of the frst century that came to be
called Christianity (from the Greek word for messiah) and for understand-
ing the Jewish writings that became the New Testament. Indeed, anyone who
would understand the Scriptures as authoritative certainly must recognize
that they were not written in English. Such students will rejoice at the insight
gained in reading the biblical text in the very language and words of Moses and
the prophets.
In addition to the obvious awareness that any translation only approximates the
original, students will also quickly realize that diferences in various translations,
from questions of vocabulary or nuance to variants in the ancient manuscripts,
can only be addressed through access to the original sources. So also word studies,
concordance work, and other textual research cannot yield any signifcant results
without reference to the actual biblical text in its original language and without an
understanding of basic principles and practices of translation. To be sure, numer-
ous scholarly tools, reference works, biblical helps, and a host of modern transla-
tions can aid the Bible reader, but those who would be true students and interpret-
ers of the text are soon aware of the limitations of a translation-bound approach.
Although so ofen taken for granted, clear communication through careful
use of language is ofen more difcult than it may appear, and students of even
ancient languages may well discover a new appreciation and understanding for
their own mother tongue, as well as for the art of translation and of the transfer-
ence of message and meaning from source to receptor, both within and across
linguistic, cultural, and chronological barriers. Indeed, it is ofen at the level of
simple translation that much of the interpretive work is appreciated and already
achieved.
Finally, the study of biblical language draws us into the realities and the partic-
ularities of the biblical world, even into the very lives of those to whom God chose
to reveal His plan of salvation, for them and for all. Indeed, the fact that God chose
an ancient language of real people in a particular time and place is signifcant in
itself, but it is also consistent with His mode of revelation and communication
throughout history. Difcult though it may seem to bridge the gap from ancient
language to modern reader, God used, and still uses, ordinary words to speak the
most extraordinary message, the common to communicate the most uncommon,
even as He chose to send His divine Word in human body and blood.
3
1
Spelling
1 The Hebrew Alphabet
The Hebrew alphabet consists of 22 consonantal signs (read from right
to left). (See table below, D, p. 4).

/
A. Six letters have both a hard (stop) and a soft (spirant) sound:
= bgdkpt, known as the b
e
g
a
d k
e
p
a
t letters
A dot (dagesh lene) marks the hard sound
(used following a consonant or no sound).
The absence of the dagesh lene marks the soft sound
(following a vowel).
B. Five letters have a final form, used at the end of a word:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
C. Four letters are distinguished as guttural letters (sound is made
in the back of the throat, from the Latin guttur), which cause some
special problems in spelling and pronunciation:
( )
NOTE: Re shows one of the problems of the guttural letters, to be
discussed below ( 3 F, p. 10).
4 Hebrew Chapter 1
D. Summary of Consonantal Alphabet
sign name transliteration sound
dagesh
lene
final
form guttural
alep (glottal stop)
be van
b bed
gimel g dog
g get
dale these
d dog
h h hay
waw w
way
(also v, vav)
zayin z zebra
e Bach
e get
yo y yet
kap ache ( )
k key
lame l lad
mem m mad
nun n now
samek s sip
ayin (guttural stop)
peh p phone
p pot
ade pots
qop q unique
re r rat ( )
in sad
in shine
taw thin
t top
Spelling 5
COMPLETE DRILL 1A
2 Vowels (See vowel chart below, D, p. 6)
A. Vowels are divided into three families:
a / (e) i / (o) u
B. Within each family there are long and short vowels. Long vowels
can shorten; short vowels can lengthen.
1. a family:
short: paa ( )
long: qme ( )
2. (e) / i family:
short: segl ( )
req ( )
long: r ( )
3. (o) / u family:
short: qme-p ( )
qibb ( )
long: lem ( )
NOTE: The name of each vowel is a Hebrew word represented
in transliteration. Hereafter, the vocalic diacritical marks will
be omitted for simplicity.
C. Some long vowels are marked by vowel letters called mater letters
(from matres lectionis, Latin for mothers [helpers] of reading).
Such letters do not function as consonants but simply indicate a
long vowel.
used with a family vowels
used with e / i family vowels (and sometimes a)
used with o / u family vowels
NOTE: Vowels marked with mater letters are unchangeable. They
will not ordinarily shorten.
6 Hebrew Chapter 1
D. Vowel chart
vocal shewa
short
vowels
long
vowels
with
mater
letter
vowel
family regular
composite
(with
gutturals)

( e )

aep-
paa
( )

paa
(a)
father
(dad)

qame
( )
father

(h)
father
A

aep-
segol
( )

segol
( e )
bet

ere
( )
they
( )
( )
they
(E) / I

ireq
( i )
bit

( )
unique

aep-
qame
( )

qame
aup
( o )
bottle

olem
( )
bone

( )
bone
(O) / U

qibbu
( u )
but

ureq
( )
tune
Spelling 7
E. The shewa symbol ( ) marks two different shewas, which serve
two functions:
1. The vocal shewa indicates a true shewa, i.e., an inarticulate
vowel sound.
a. The regular vocal shewa is used after consonants except
the gutturals.
EG 1 de / / rm
b. Following a guttural letter, a composite shewa is used.
(1) This sign is also called a reduced vowel or a aep
vowel.
EG 2 / / m
(2) Although there is a composite shewa for each of the
vowel families, the a family is the most common.
NOTE: Gutturals prefer a vowels.
2. The silent shewa is used to mark the empty space after a closed
syllable (see below, 3 A). Words that end with a consonant
do not show a silent shewa at the end, except in the case of
final kap ( ).
EG 3 mi / p
EG 4 mal /
COMPLETE DRILL 1B AND 1C
3 Spelling
A. Syllables
1. All syllables begin with a consonant.
2. Syllables are either open or closed:
a. An open syllable ends in a vowel: Consonant + vowel (Cv)
EG 5 The first syllable of
( / = d / r )
8 Hebrew Chapter 1
b. A closed syllable ends in a consonant: CvC
EG 6 The second syllable of
( / = d / r )
3. As a general rule,
a. an open syllable will have a long vowel;
b. a closed syllable will have a short vowel (but see accent
rules, below, C).
B. Accent
1. The accented syllable (in a multi-syllable word) is called the
tonic syllable (accent = tone).
2. Most words are accented on the final syllable (ultima).
(Such an accent is called milra : from below, i.e., from the
end of the word. Words accented elsewhere than the final
syllable are called mill: from above, i.e., from the beginning
of the word.)
3. For now, accent marks will be used only if the accent is not on
the last syllable.
NOTE: Words are accented on the last syllable unless
otherwise noted.
4. As a general rule,
a. an accented syllable will have a long vowel;
b. an unaccented syllable will have a short vowel (unless it is
also open, see below, C).
C. Summary of vowels and accents in syllables:
1. A syllable that is either open or accented will likely have a long
vowel.
2. A syllable that is both closed and unaccented will (always!)
have a short vowel.
long vowel short vowel
open syllable
or
accented syllable
closed syllable
and
unaccented syllable
Spelling 9
3. A metheg (a secondary accent marked as a short vertical line)
is used to mark an open syllable and to indicate that the vowel
( ) is qame and not qame-aup.
EG 7 = b / re / (h)
not bor / (h)
D. The most significant exception to these principles is the segolate
class of nouns, with an accented first syllable (and a dominance
of the vowel segol). This is due to their historical development
from two-syllable nouns (when Hebrew had case endings) to
monosyllabic nouns and back to two-syllable nouns:
malku malk malk melek = (a family)
sipru sipr sipr sper = (e / i family)
boqru boqr boqr bqer = (o / u family)
COMPLETE DRILL 2
E. Dagesh: There are two dageshes:
1. Dagesh lene hardens a bgdkpt letter (see above, 1 A, p. 3).
This has to do only with pronunciation and not with spelling.
2. Dagesh forte indicates a doubled consonant.
EG 8 is really /
a. Dagesh forte hides a closed syllable with a silent shewa:
EG 9 is really /
cf. = /
NOTE: It is really the first of the two (double) letters (with
its silent shewa) that is written as the dagesh forte.
b. If a dagesh forte falls in a bgdkpt letter, the doubled
consonant will also be pronounced hard. Thus a dagesh
forte in a bgdkpt letter also functions as a dagesh lene.
EG 10 is really /
NOTE: Technically, this should be pronounced di / br,
but in reality, both bgdkpt letters are heard as hard.
10 Hebrew Chapter 1
F. Guttural letters cause some special problems:
1. Guttural letters cannot be doubled. (They will never have a
dagesh forte.)
In this regard, re ( ) acts as a guttural.
2. Guttural letters followed by a vocal shewa will use a composite
shewa in place of the regular shewa.
3. A mappiq (another type of dot) is used to mark a h ( ) that
is used as a consonant instead of as a mater letter.
EG 11 has three consonants, with a short vowel
in the second, closed syllable: g / ah
EG 12 has only two consonants, with a final
mater vowel (in an open syllable): g / (h)
4. Guttural letters generally prefer a family vowels.
a. An a vowel often replaces the expected vowel of a
certain pattern:
EG 13 The segolate noun is of the same pattern
as .
b. A furtive paa usually appears before a final gut-
tural, especially e ( ) or ayin ( ), for the sake of
pronunciation.
EG 14 / la
EG 15 ra
EG 16 n / a
COMPLETE DRILL 3
Spelling 11
Vocabulary, Chapter 1
father (m) king (m)
man, husband (m) justice, judgment (m)
earth (f) boy, lad (m)
son (m) scroll (m)
morning (m) servant, slave (m)
word, thing, matter (m) evening (m)
day (m) Torah, instruction,
law (f)
night (m)
Summary, Chapter 1
I. Consonants
A. bgdkpt letters:
B. Final forms:
C. Gutturals: ()
II. Vowels
A. a / (e) i / (o) u families
B. Short / long / mater letters
C. Shewa
1. Vocal (open syllable, will follow bgdkpt with dagesh
lene)
2. Silent (fills space after a closed syllable and a short vowel,
will follow a bgdkpt without dagesh lene)
III. Spelling
A. Syllables: open and closed
B. Accent: on last syllable unless noted
C. Vowels:
1. Long vowel: open or accented syllable
2. Short vowel: closed and unaccented syllable
D. Dagesh
1. Lene hardens bgdkpt letters.
2. Forte doubles all but gutturals (and re [ ]).
12 Hebrew Chapter 1
Exercises, Chapter 1
Drill 1
A. Practice writing each consonant, including final forms.
1. Learn the name of each letter and the transliteration symbols.
2. Insert dagesh lene in those letters in which it may appear.
3. Know which letters are gutturals.
B. Name each letter and write in transliteration.
(1) (6)
(2) (7)
(3) (8)
(4) (9)
(5) (10)
C. Write in Hebrew letters.
(1) dr (6) k
(2) ym (7) om(h)
(3) khn (8) yelm
(4) (9) arhm
(5) r (10) yirl
Spelling 13
Drill 2
Read out loud, identify each letter (consonants and vowels), and divide
into syllables, noting whether syllables are open or closed:
(1) (6) (11)
(2) (7) (12)
(3) (8) (13)
(4) (9) (14)
(5) (10) (15)
Drill 3
Divide into syllables.
Identify every shewa as silent or vocal.
Identify every dagesh as lene or forte.
(1) (5) (9)
(2) (6) (10)
(3) (7) (11)
(4) (8) (12)
14 Hebrew Chapter 1
Reading Exercise
Practice reading Deuteronomy 5:1:




FUNDAMENTAL
BIBLICAL Aramaic
ANDREW E. STEINMANN
Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
2. Basic Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
3. Phonology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
4. Nouns and Adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
5. Prepositions, Pronominal Suffixes, and the Relative Pronoun . . . 300
6. The Verbal System and the G Perfect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
7. G Perfect: Weak Verbs and Pronominal Suffixes for Verbs . . . . . . . . 310
8. G Imperfect and Jussive: The Strong Verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
9. G Imperfect: Weak and Unusual Verbs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
10. G Participle, Imperative, and Infinitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
11. Pronouns and Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
12. D Stem: The Strong Verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
13. D Stem: Weak Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
14. H Stem: The Strong Verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
15. H Stem: Weak and Unusual Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
16. Reflexive/Passive Conjugations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
17. Passive Conjugations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
18. Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Appendix: The Strong Verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Topical Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Scripture Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
281
Preface
T
he study of the Bible is not truly comprehensive without a knowledge of
Aramaic. While many learn Greek and Hebrew to read the Scriptures
in their original languages, the study of Aramaic, unfortunately, is ofen
neglected. Perhaps the additional efort to learn Aramaic is considered too high a
price to pay to read a few chapters in Ezra and Daniel. Perhaps the limited avail-
ability of instructors trained to teach this biblical language proves problematic.
Tis grammar cannot, by itself, overcome these obstacles. However, it is hoped
that it will make the entire Scriptures more accessible to those who seek to study
Gods Word.
Te goal of this grammar is a modest one: to enable undergraduate and semi-
nary students who possess a working knowledge of biblical Hebrew to obtain
reading profciency in biblical Aramaic. While it is not designed to introduce other
Aramaic dialects, such as Old Aramaic, Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, Palmyrene, or
Nabatean, it is written so the advanced student may continue on to explore other
ancient Aramaic dialects. To that end, periodic references are made to the histori-
cal developments in ancient Aramaic.
To reach the goal of reading profciency, this grammar concentrates on biblical
Aramaic, primarily emphasizing the grammatical features the student will need
to understand. Each of the eighteen chapters can serve as a one-hour lesson for
students who already read Hebrew. Tis allows the student to fnish the grammar
and to read the biblical texts in a typical semester of about ffeen weeks. All the
exercises, with the exception of the beginning exercise in chapter 3, are drawn
directly from the Bible, exposing the student to biblical Aramaic while learning
the grammar. Te only variation from the text is an occasional substitution of a
qer form for a ke form. Te reading of biblical passages will be challenging at
frst and will require the instructor to review the passages with students. However,
such exercises will build student confdence in handling Aramaic. In addition, the
vocabulary introduces all words that occur fve times or more in the Aramaic texts
of the Bible. Words occurring less frequently, but necessary to complete the exer-
cises, are given in the exercises themselves.
Because many students will learn Aramaic only to read the Bible and may
never buy another Aramaic grammar, this grammar is designed not only to be
a teaching tool but also a reference book. Tus the student will fnd a complete
strong verb paradigm in the back of the text, as well as a topical index and an index
to Scripture passages cited in the text or assigned in the exercises.
282 Fundamental Biblical Aramaic
It is hoped that this grammar will be used fruitfully by those who wish to
explore the full counsel of God in the languages that He has used to communicate
His word of Law and Gospel to us.
283
Acknowledgments
I
would like to thank those who have helped produce this book, including stu-
dents who studied Aramaic with me, especially Emily Carder, Ryan Markel,
Kevin Austin, Paul Elliott, Adam Gless, and Aldebaran Schneefock.
I would also like to thank those at Concordia Publishing House who saw this
project through to completion, especially the Rev. Mark Sell, for his vision that a
complete set of grammars for biblical languages is needed for students, and Dawn
Weinstock, who handled many of the production details.
295
4
Nouns and Adjectives
1 Declension of Nouns
A. In Aramaic there is no formal distinction between nouns and
adjectives, though the vowel patterns peil and pail are more closely
associated with adjectives (e.g., frightening; wise).
B. Some patterns in nouns indicate various classes.
pa l profession judges
(cf. Ezra 4:9)
preformative or place dwelling
(cf. Ezra 7:15)
suffixed or abstract concept kingdom
(Dan 5:9, 20, 21)
suffixed (plural ) gentilic noun Chaldeans
(Dan 2:10; 4:4; 5:7)
C. As in Hebrew, nouns and adjectives exist in one of two genders:
masculine or feminine. They also may have three numbers: singular,
dual, and plural.
D. Like Hebrew, the dual is normally reserved for numbers, nouns
denoting time, and items that are thought of as naturally occurring
in pairs. The dual ending for both masculine and feminine nouns
and adjectives is ( for dual determined nouns, see 2). Only
a few duals are used in biblical Aramaic. They are:
two thousand (ke)
(two) hands
the two days
two hundred
(two) feet
(two) horns
the dominion
296 Aramaic Chapter 4
the heavens
(upper and lower sets of) teeth
two (construct state)
two (absolute state)
E. Nouns and adjectives exist in three states in Aramaic: absolute,
construct, and determined. The absolute and construct states are
familiar from Hebrew. The determined state corresponds to the noun
with an article in Hebrew. The endings for these three states are:
Masculine Feminine
singular absolute [none]
construct [none]
determined
plural absolute
construct
determined
It should be noted that the feminine suffix is sometimes spelled
and the determined suffix is sometimes spelled .
The declension of masculine and feminine nouns from the root
is:
Masculine Feminine
singular absolute
construct
determined
plural absolute
construct
determined
Some nouns are feminine but do not show a feminine ending.
Most of these are nouns that naturally come in pairs (e.g.,
hand), though some do not fall into this category (e.g.,
stone). A few nouns and adjectives have irregular plurals:
fathers
Nouns & Adjectives 297
women (singular does not occur in biblical Aramaic)
great
names
2 Determined State of Nouns
Nouns in the determined state are generally equivalent to Hebrew
nouns with the prefixed article. Thus means the king,
means the kings, the queen, and the queens.
Occasionally, Aramaic will use the number (one) to denote lack of
determination. A few examples are:
a letter Ezra 4:8
a scroll Ezra 6:2
a statue Dan 2:31
an hour (a while) Dan 4:16
a stone Dan 6:18
one side Dan 7:5
The determined state also is used for vocatives; thus also can
mean your majesty (O king). Compare the analogous use of
in Hebrew (Judg 3:19; 1 Sam 17:55; 23:20, etc.). Perhaps the most famil-
iar use of the determined state as a vocative is = , which
means Father! (Mark 14:36; Rom 8:15; Gal 4:6).
3 Genitives
A. Construct chains are similar in Aramaic and Hebrew. Occasionally,
the final noun in the chain is indeterminate (in the absolute state),
making all elements of the chain indeterminate (e.g.,
property fine [Ezra 7:26]). More often, however, the final
element in the chain is determinate (i.e., in the determined state,
having a pronominal suffix or a proper noun), making all the
elements in the chain determinate (e.g., the house
of God [Ezra 4:24, etc.]). In general, nothing can interrupt a
construct chain, but some exceptions do exist. Most common is the
use of a construct noun before a prepositional phrase, such as

the kingdoms under all the heavens (Dan 7:27)
298 Aramaic Chapter 4
B. Use of
The genitive relationship may also be expressed in Aramaic by the
use of the relative pronoun (see chapter 5, 3).Two nouns in the
determined state are linked by this pronoun, forming the equiva-
lent of a construct chain. Thus
lions den (construct chain)
lions den (use of ; lit. the den that is
the lions )
4 Adjectival Modification
Adjectives decline in both genders and in all three states. As in Hebrew,
attributive adjectives follow the noun that they modify. Predicate adjec-
tives are always in the absolute state and may precede or follow the
noun they modify. They will agree in number and gender (but not nec-
essarily in state).
Vocabulary, Chapter 4
god; God (when this
Aramaic word is plural, it
always refers to pagan gods)
temple, palace
wise
furnace lord
Babylon fire
, interior bronze, copper
relative pronoun iron
decree, law great; much, many; very
(m),
(f)
one heaven, sky
Nouns & Adjectives 299
Exercises, Chapter 4
Translate

(Dan 2:47) (1)

(Dan 2:47) (2)

(Ezra 5:13) (3)

(Ezra 6:3) (4)

(Dan 4:7) (5)

(Dan 3:6) (6)

(Ezra 5:14) (7)

(Dan 2:18) (8)

(Dan 5:8) (9)

(Dan 2:32) (10)

(Dan 2:31) (11)


(Dan 5:4) (12)

(Ezra 7:12) (13)