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AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT II


(DESIGN OF 150 SEATER SUPERSONIC PASSENGER
AIRCRAFT)
A PROJECT REPORT
Submitted by
Batch 9
VINOTH KUMAR.T (22209101041)
SIVA PRAKASH. P (22209101035)
SHYAM SUNDAR. M (22209101034)
SARAN RAJ. S (22209101303)
I n partial fulfillment for the award of the degree
Of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
P.B. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING






ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025
NOVEMBER 2012

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this project report titled (150 SEATER SUPERSONIC PASSENGER
AIRCRAFT) is the bonafide work of
VINOTH KUMAR.T (22209101041)
SIVA PRAKASH. P (22209101035)
SHYAM SUNDAR. M (22209101034)
SARAN RAJ. S (22209101303)

Who carried out the work under my supervision



SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
Dr. P.N. KADHIRESH ME, Ph.D Mr.M.VIGNESH KUMAR M.E.
HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT INTERNAL GUIDE
Dept of Aeronautical Engg. Dept of Aeronautical Engg.
P.B College of Engineering. P.B College of Engineering.












CERTIFICATE FOR EVALUATION

College Name : 222 P.B. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Branch : AERONAUTICAL ENGG.
Semester : VII

The reports of the project work submitted by the above students in partial fulfillment for
the award of Bachelor of Engineering degree In Aeronautical Engineering of Anna University
were evaluated and confirmed to be the reports of the work done by the above students and then
evaluated.
S.NO
Name of the Students
Who have done
the project
Title of the project
Name of the
Supervisor with
Designation
1. VINOTH KUMAR. T
150 SEATER
SUPERSONIC
PASSENGER AIRCRAFT
Mr. M. VIGNESH
KUMAR M.E.
Asst. Prof.,
Internal guide
2. SIVA PRAKASH. P
3. SHYAM SUNDAR. M
4. SARAN RAJ. S








INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This project, though done by us would not have been possible, without the support of various
people,who by their co-operation have helped us in bringing out this project successfully.
We would like to express our faithful thanks to our Head Of The Department, Dr.
P.N.KADIRESH M.E., Ph.Dfor having extended all the department facilities without slightest
hesitation.
We would like to express our unbounded gratefulness to our Internal guide and project incharge,
Mr. M. VIGNESH KUMAR M. E., Asst. prof., Department of Aeronautical Engineering for
his extermely valuable guidance and encouragement throughout the project.
We thank all faculty members and supporting staff for the help they extended to us for the
completion of this project.

















CONTENT

1. ABSTRACT
2. INTRODUCTION
3. INPUT PARAMETER FROM ADP 1
4. V-n DIAGRAM
5. V-n MANEUVERABILITY ENVELOPE (WITHOUT GUST)
6. COMBINATION OF BOTH MANEUVERABILITY AND GUST ENVELOPE
7. STRUCTURAL DESIGN STUDY
8. LOAD ESTIMATION ON WING SCHRENKS CURVE
9. SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM FOR WING
10. LOAD ESTIMATION OF FUSELAGE
11. DETAILED STRUCTURAL LAYOUT
12. DESIGN OF WING COMPONENTS






13. MATERIAL SELECTION
14. CONCLUSION
15. BIBLIOGRAPHY










ABSTRACT


Our Project aim is to design a supersonic passenger aircraft. This design project
deals with flight gust and maneuverability envelope with calculation of critical points so as
to ensure safety flight. The structural, elemental, component analysis have been carried out
analytically as well as using software, drawings of wing, fuselage and landing gear have
been drawn with dimensions as per the design requirements. Design of fuselage has been
carried out in that stringer area and skin thickness have been calculated. Airplane
balancing has been carried out to ensure the safety c. g. position. Cockpit layout design has
been carried out as per the standards to ensure the safety ejection of seat and visibility
requirements. Necessary assumption, estimation and approximations have been made to
predict certain parameters to give optimum design.

















ABBREVIATION

A Area

Compressive area of the fuselage

Tension area of the fuselage


b Span
B.M Bending Moment
C Chord
C.G Centre of Gravity





Coefficient of lift

Maximum lift coefficient


FOS Factor of Safety
H Height of the fuselage
I Moment of Inertia

Reaction of the front spar

Maximum lift

Reaction of the rear spar

Reaction of the tail plane


M Bending Moment
N Reaction factor
n Load factor

Maximum load factor


q Shear flow
R Resultant
S Area of the wing
T Torque
Gust Velocity

Cruise Velocity

Dive Velocity





Positive Stall Velocity

Negative Stall Velocity


Weight of the aircraft

Weight of the aircraft

Weight of the fuselage

Weight of the wing


Angle of attack
Change in the angle of attack

Change in the lift coefficient


L Change in lift
Twist
Density

INTRODUCTION
The major objective of this Aircraft Design project-II is to enhance the knowledge in
continuation of the design project given in projectI. The basic approach towards the precedence
of the design project follows a sequence as listed:
V-n diagram for the design study
Gust and maneuverability envelopes
Critical loading performance and final V-n graph calculation






Structural design study Theory approach
Load estimation of wings
Load estimation of fuselage.
Detailed structural layouts
Design of some components of wings, fuselage
Preparation of a detailed design report with CAD and Pro-E drawings.
The approach is made by considering the values of historical trends and the values obtained in
Aircraft design project I followed by calculations at each and every level leading to the
accomplishment of the work.










INPUT DESIGN PARAMETERS

Dimensions of the aircraft

Length = 84.29m
Height = 15.2ft

Parameter of the wing

Wingspan = 40.46 m
Aspect ratio = 2.5
Wing area = 654.84 m^2
Wing loading = 410.95 kg/m2







Performance parameters

Cruise speed = 2340 km/hr
Maximum mach number = 2.173
Range = 6500 km
Operational ceiling = 16000 m
Endurance = 26 hours

Weight of the aircraft

Takeoff gross weight = 269107.04 kg
Empty weight = 3670 kg














V-n DIAGRAM- DESIGN STUDY



Introduction:
Airplanes may be subjected to a variety of loading conditions in flight. The
structural design of the aircraft involves the estimation of the various loads on the aircraft
structure and designing the airframe to carry all these loads, providing enough safety factors,
considering the fact that the aircraft under design is a commercial transport airplane. As it is
obviously impossible to investigate every loading condition that the aircraft may encounter, it






becomes necessary to select a few conditions such that each one of these conditions will be
critical for some structural member of the airplane.

Velocity Load Factor (V-n) diagram:
The control of weight in aircraft design is of extreme importance. Increases in weight
require stronger structures to support them, which in turn lead to further increases in weight and
so on. Excesses of structural weight mean lesser amounts of payload, thereby affecting the
economic viability of the aircraft. The aircraft designer is therefore constantly seeking to pare his
aircrafts weight to the minimum compatible with safety. However, to ensure general minimum
standards of strength and safety, airworthiness regulations (Av.P.970 and BCAR) lay down
several factors which the primary structure of the aircraft must satisfy. These are the
Limit load, which is the maximum load that the aircraft is expected to experience in normal
operation.
Proof load, which is the product of the limit load and the proof factor (1.0- 1.25), and
Ultimate load, which is the product of the limit load and the ultimate factor (usually 1.5). The
aircrafts structure must withstand the proof load without detrimental distortion and should not
fail until the ultimate load has been achieved.
The basic strength and fight performance limits for a particular aircraft are selected by the
airworthiness authorities and are contained in the flight envelope or V-n diagram.

MANEUVERING LOADS
The greatest air loads on an aircraft usually comes from the generation oflift during
high-g maneuvers. Even the fuselage is almost always structurally sized by the lift of the wings
rather than by the pressures produced directly on the fuselage. Aircraft load factor (n) expresses
the maneuvering of an aircraft as a standard acceleration due to gravity.

IMPORTANT VELOCITIES:
The main velocities that r plotted in the V-n diagram are:

1 g Stall Velocity

Design Maneuvering Velocity

Design Cruise Velocity

Design Dive Velocity



1 g Stall Velocity:









Vs^2 = 2*269107.04/(1.225*1.232*654.84)

where,
= Density
(W / S) = Wing Loading = 410.95x 9.81 Nm-2(from ADP-I)
where,

CN max = 1.1CLmax
CD at CL max = 1.12
CN = 1.232

1-g Stall Velocity, Vs = 73.33m/s



DESIGN LIMIT LOAD FACTORS n lim pos and n lim neg:
The positive design limit load factor, n limpos, must be selected by the designer,
but must meet the following condition:


For transport aircraft, n lim pos= 2-2.5
n lim neg = -1.00
2.5 2.1 + (24000 / (269107.04+10000)
2.5 2.109
Hence our design satisfied the above condition.

The negative design limit load factor n lim neg , must be selected by the designer, but
must meet the following condition:

N lim neg 0.4nlimpos for normal and for utility category airplanes
Therefore,






1.00 0.4 2.109
1.00 -0.843
Hence our design satisfied the above condition.
-0.843< n < 2.5


DESIGN MANEUVERING SPEED VA :
The design maneuvering speed VA, must be selected by the designer, but must
satisfy the following relationship:



VA 73.332.109
VA 106.14 ms-1
And, we take our Maneuvering speed as 106.14 ms-1.

VA =106.14 ms-1

DESIGN CRUISE SPEED VC:
The design cruise speed VC, must be selected by the designer, but must satisfy the
following relationship:


kc= 28-33 for transport category,we take k=30

VC 30x410.95
VC 608.15 ms-1

VC = 608.15 ms-1

DESIGN DIVING SPEED VD:
The design diving speed must satisfy the following relationship:

VD 1.25 VC
VD 1.25*608.15
VD = 760.18 ms-1






























-2.5
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
0 200 400 600 800
n max(+)
n max( -)
V-N Maneuverability envelope
velocity (m/s)
load (n)







GUST AND MANEUVERABILITY ENVELOPES:

Gust envelope of an aircraft refers to the capabilities of a design in terms of
airspeed and load factor or altitude. The term is somewhat loosely applied, and can also refer to
other measurements such as maneuverability. When a plane is pushed, for instance by diving it at
high speeds, it is said to be flown "outside the envelope", something considered rather
dangerous.
Model Gust envelope for an Aircraft according FAR25 is given as fallows (reference Jan
Roskam ).

Gust velocity :
At altitude of below 20000 ft the gust velocity is (from Design of aircraft by
Thomas.C.Corke,
light
condition
Altitude (m) Gust velocity
(m/s)
k u (m/s)
High angle of
attack
<6100 20.12 7.059 0.518 10.43
Level flight <6100 15.24 3.518 0.34 5.25
Dive
condition
<6100 7.62 3.326 0.33 2.527
Construction of Gust load factor lines:-
The gust load factor lines are defined by the following equation:

lim = [1+(Kg U de V CL )/(GW/S)]

Where,
Kg = gust alleviation factor.
Kg = 0.88g / (5.3 + g)

Where,
g = 2(GW/S)/ C g C L
U de is derived gust Velocity.

VB is design speed for maximum gust intensity.
VC is design Cruising Speed.
VD is design Diving Speed.
CL Overall liftcurve slope in rad-1 (5.7295 rad-1 from airfoil data)
C Wing mean geometric chord in m (7.8 m)
STEP 1:

Calculation of gust alleviation factor:







g = 2(GW)/S)/CgCL

Kg = 0.88g / (5.3 +g)
= 0.88*35.09 / (5.3 +35.09)
Kg = 0.361
STEP 2:
Construction of gust load factor line for Speed (VB):

lim (positive) = [1+(KgUdeVCL)/498(W/S)]

Here, Ude = 23.826 m/s

lim (positive) = 2.360

STEP 3:
Construction of gust load factor line for Speed (VC):

lim (positive) = [1+(KgUdeVCL)/498(W/S)]

Here, Ude = 18.05m/s

lim (positive) = 2.030

STEP 4:
Construction of gust load factor line for Speed (VD):

lim (positive) = [1+(KgUdeVCL)/498(W/S)]

Here, Ude = 9.025m/s.

lim (positive) = 1.515

STEP 5:

Construction of gust load factor line for Speed VB,VC,VD for lim (negative):
For VB,

lim (negative) = [1+(KgUdeVCL)/498(W/S)](-1)
=
lim (negative) = 0.632

For VC,
lim (negative) = [1+(KgUdeVCL)/498(W/S)](-1)







lim (negative) = 0.236

For VD,
lim (negative) = [1+(KgUdeVCL)/498(W/S)](-1)
lim (negative) = 0.381



















-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
0 1000 2000 3000
Series1
Series2
gust envelope

velocity (m/s)
load (n)






STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Modern aircraft structures are designed using a semi-monocoque concept- a
basic load-carrying shell reinforced by frames and longerons in the bodies, and a skin-stringer
construction supported by spars and ribs in the surfaces
Proper stress levels, a very complex problem in highly redundant structures, are calculated using
versatile computer matrix methods to solve for detailed internal loads. Modern finite element
models of aircraft components include tens-of-thousands of degrees-of-freedom and are used to
determine the required skin thicknesses to avoid excessive stress levels, deflections, strains, or
buckling.
The goals of detailed design are to reduce or eliminate stress concentrations, residual stresses,
fretting corrosion, hidden undetectable cracks, or single failure causing component failure.
The structure of a pressurized fuselage which fulfills this criterion has to
guarantee neither that neither the crack in the skin becomes unstable nor that the stiffeners
perpendicular to the crack (i.e. the frames) fail statically. The two-bay-crack criterion is the
designing criterion for large areas in the upper and side shells of the pressurized fuselage of
medium and long range aircraft. These aircraft types have lower design service goals in flights
compared with short range aircraft with the result that the fatigue and damage tolerance criteria
have less influence on the design. To limit the implications on the weight due to the compliance
with the two-bay-crack requirement following precautions are possible:
selection of skin material with high residual strength
selection of frame material with high static strength
limitation of the allowable frame pitch


SCHRENKS CURVE:

With the Vn-diagram complete, the actual loads and load distribution on the wing can be
determined. Before the actual structural members can be sized and analyse, the loads they will
sustain must be determined. Aircraft loads estimation, a separate discipline of aerospace
engineering, combines aerodynamics, structures and weights.
Initially we have to calculate the lift produced by the wings. Once the lift on the wings is known,
the spanwise and chordwise load distributions can be determined.






According to classical wing theory, the spanwise lift or load distribution is proportional to the
circulation at each station. A vortex lifting line calculation will yield the spanwise lift
distribution. For an elliptical plan form wing, the lift and load distributions is of elliptical shape.
For a nonelliptical wing, a good semi-empirical method for spanwise load estimation is known
as Schrenks Approximation. This method assumes that the load distribution on an untwisted
wing has a shape that is the average of the actual planform shape and an elliptical shape of same
and area. The total area under the lift load curve must sum to the required total lift.

Fig. 4 Schrenks approximation for various Wing Planforms
To find the lift distribution in aircraft wing, the following procedure is followed:
1) Plan-form shape wing is plotted.
2) Ellipitic distribution is drawn using the formula











LOAD ESTIMATION ON WING SCHRENKS CURVE

In order to find the lift distribution on the wing, we use the Shrencks method. In
this method, the plan form of the wing is drawn with semi span along x-axis and chord along y-
axis. Then a quadrant of an ellipse whose area is equal to the area of the wing semi span is
drawn. The semi major axis of the ellipse is taken as the semi span. A curve joining the
midpoints of the plan form and the elliptical quadrant is drawn. This curve is known as the
Shrencks curve. This gives fairly accurate lift distribution.
Wing semi span = 40.46 m
Root chord = 24.33 m
Tip chord = 8.028 m
Area of plan form = 654.84 m
2

Therefore, the area of the elliptical quadrant is
a b /4 = 386 . 56 m
2
a = 24.33 m
From which, b = 20.23 m
X
m
Elliptical wing
m
Wing chord

m
SCHRENKS
CURVE
(m)
Local
Lift
0 20.607 24.33 22.46 0.923
2 20.507 22.84 21.67 0.948
4 20.203 21.36 20.78 0.972
6 19.683 19.88 19.78 0.994
8 19.931 18.4 19.16 1.041
10 17.917 16.92 17.41 1.029






12 16.592 15.43 16.01 1.037
14 14.876 13.55 14.413 1.033
16 12.634 12.47 12.552 1.006
18 9.436 10.95 10.213 0.929
20 3.182 9.51 6.346 0.567
20.23 0 8.028 4.014 0.5



SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM FOR WING
Spanwise Load intensity

Shear force Bending force
m N/m N N/m
0 6133.39 136456.1 -1423921
2 6299.51 124023.2 -1163442
4 6458.99 111264.7 -928154
6 6605.19 98200.56 -718688
8 6917.5 84677.8 -535810
10 6837.76 70922.61 -380209
12 6890.92 57193.93 -252093
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0 5 10 15 20 25
Elliptic cur
wing chrd
local lift
sch curve
spanwise distance (m)

y (m)
Schrenck curve






14 6864.34 43438.67 -151460
16 6684.93 29889.4 -78132.2
18 6173.26 17031.21 -31211.6
20 3767.74 7090.21 -7090.21
20.23 3322.52 0 0




0
20000
40000
60000
80000
100000
120000
140000
160000
0 5 10 15 20 25
shear force Diagram
shear for
span (m)
load
(m)
-1600000
-1400000
-1200000
-1000000
-800000
-600000
-400000
-200000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Bending moment diagram
Bend mmt
span (m)
load
(m)






BALANCE DIAGRAM FOR FUSELAGE
1.CREW 3. NOSE WHEEL 5. VERTICAL TAIL
2.FUSELAGE STRUCTURE 4. PASSENGER 6. FUEL


1 2 3 4 5 6

LOAD AND ITS DISTRIBUTION
To find out the loads and their distribution, consider the different cases. The
main components of the fuselage loading diagram are:
Weight of the fuselage
Engine weight
Weight of the horizontal and vertical stabilizers
Tail lift
Weight of crew, payload and landing gear
Systems, equipment, accessories







Symmetric flight conditions, steady and level flight : (Downward forces negative) Values for the
different component weights are obtained from aerodynamics design calculations.


SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT CALCULATION
Distance
(m)
Load
(N)
Shear force
(N)
Bending Moment
(Nm)
0 0
0 0
6 -2354.4
-2354.4 -14126.4
20 -1445014.27
-1445014 -2.9E+07
23 -132435
-1579804 -3.2E+07
27.30 -216642.07
532036 25693092
42 -2111839.69
315393.9 16595092
48 -188354.45
127039.5 7554092
58 -117720
9319.5 746332.1
S.No Components Distance From
reference
Line (m)
Weight
(N)
Moment
(Nm)
1 Crew 6 2354.4 14126.4
2 Fuselage structure 20 1445014.27 28.900*10^6
3 Nose wheel 23 132435 3046005
4 Fuel 42 216642.07 9.098*10^6
5 Wing structure 48 188354.45 9.041*10^6
6 Passenger 58 117720 6827760
7 Vertical tail 80 9319.5 745560
8 Total 2111839.69 57.67*10^6
c.g. from nose =27.30 m






80 -9319.5
0 0
84.29 0
0 0



-2000000
-1500000
-1000000
-500000
0
500000
1000000
0 6 20 23 27.3 42 48 58 80 84.29
Shear force diagram
Shear
length (m)





load (N)

-40000000
-30000000
-20000000
-10000000
0
10000000
20000000
30000000
0 20 40 60 80 100
Bending moment
Bend mom
length (m)



load (N)








DETAILED STRUCTURAL LAYOUT-
CAD MODEL






























DESIGN OF WING COMPONENTS

WING STRUCTURAL LAYOUT
SPECIFIC ROLES OF WING (MAINPLANE) STRUCTURE:
The specified structural roles of the wing (or main plane) are:
To transmit: wing lift to the root via the main span wise beam
Inertia loads from the power plants, undercarriage, etc., to the main beam.
Aerodynamic loads generated on the aerofoil, control surfaces & flaps to the main beam.
To react against:
Landing loads at attachment points
Loads from pylons/stores
Wing drag and thrust loads
To provide:
Fuel tank age space
Torsional rigidity to satisfy stiffness and aero-elastic requirements.
To fulfill these specific roles, a wing layout will conventionally compromise:
Span wise members (known as spars or booms)
Chord wise members(ribs)
A covering skin
Stringers







Basic Functions of wing Structural Members
The structural functions of each of these types of members may be considered
independently as:
SPARS
Form the main span wise beam
Transmit bending and torsional loads
Produce a closed-cell structure to provide resistance to torsion, shear and tension loads.
In particular:
Webs resist shear and torsional loads and help to stabilize the skin.
Flanges - resist the compressive loads caused by wing bending.
SKIN
To form impermeable aerodynamics surface






Transmit aerodynamic forces to ribs & stringers
Resist shear torsion loads (with spar webs).
React axial bending loads (with stringers).

STRINGERS
Increase skin panel buckling strength by dividing into smaller length sections.
React axial bending loads
RIBS
aintain the aerodynamic shape
Act along with the skin to resist the distributed aerodynamic pressure loads
Distribute concentrated loads into the structure & redistribute stress around any
discontinuities
Increase the column buckling strength of the stringers through end restraint
Increase the skin panel buckling strength.

WING BOX CONFIGURATIONS
Several basic configurations are in use now-a-days:
Mass boom concept
Box Beam(distributed flange) concept-built-up or integral
construction
Multi-Spar
Single spar D-nose wing layout
Mass Boom Layout
In this design, all of the span wise bending loads are reacted against by substantial booms or
flanges. A two-boom configuration is usually adopted but a single spar D-nose configuration is






sometimes used on very lightly loaded structures. The outer skins only react against the shear
loads. They form a closed-cell structure between the spars. These skins need to be stabilized
against buckling due to the applied shear loads; this is done using ribs and a small number of
span wise stiffeners.



BOX BEAM OR DISTRIBUTED FLANGE LAYOUT
This method is more suitable for aircraft wings with medium to high load intensities and differs
from the mass boom concept in that the upper and lower skins also contribute to the span wise
bending resistance






Another difference is that the concept incorporates span wise stringers (usually z section) to
support the highly stressed skin panel area. The resultant use of a large number of end-load
carrying members improves the overall structural damage tolerance.
Design Difficulties Include:
Interactions between the ribs and stringers so that each rib either has to pass below the
stringers or the load path must be broken. Some examples of common design solutions
are shown in figure
Many joints are present, leading to high structural weight, assembly times, complexity,
costs & stress concentration areas.
The concept described above is commonly known as built-up construction method. An
alternative is to use a so-called integral construction method. This was initially developed for
metal wings, to overcome the inherent drawbacks of separately assembled skin-stringer built-up
construction and is very popular now-a-days. The concept is simple in that the skin-stringer
panels are manufactured singly from large billets of metal. Advantages of the integral
construction method over the traditional built-up method include:
Simpler construction & assembly
Reduced sealing/jointing problems
Reduced overall assembly time/costs
Improved possibility to use optimized panel tapering
Disadvantages include:
Reduced damage tolerance so that planks are used
Difficult to use on large aircraft panels.







TYPES OF SPARS
In the case of a two or three spar box beam layout, the front spar should be located as far forward
as possible to maximize the wing box size, though this is subject to there being:
Adequate wing depth for reacting vertical shear loads.
Adequate nose space for LE devices, de-icing equipment, etc.
This generally results in the front spar being located at 12 to 18% of the chord length. For a
single spar D-nose layout, the spar will usually be located at the maximum thickness position of
the aerofoil section. For the standard box beam layout, the rear spar will be located as far
as aft as possible, once again to maximize the wing box size but positioning will be limited by
various space requirements for flaps control surfaces spoilers etc.
This usually results in a location somewhere between about 55 and 70% of the chord length. If
any intermediate spars are used they would tend to be spaced uniformly unless there are specific
pick-up point requirements









RIBS
In an aircraft, ribs are forming elements of the structure of a wing, especially in traditional
construction.
By analogy with the anatomical definition of "rib", the ribs attach to the main spar, and by being
repeated at frequent intervals, form a skeletal shape for the wing. Usually ribs incorporate the
airfoil shape of the wing, and the skin adopts this shape when stretched over the ribs.
There are several types of ribs. Form-ribs, plate-type ribs, truss ribs, closed-ribs, forged ribs and
milled ribs, where form-ribs are used for light to medium loading and milled ribs are as strong as
it can get.






For full size and flying model aircraft wing structures that are usually made of wood, ribs can
either be in one piece (forming the airfoil at that rib's "station" in the wing), or be in a three-piece
format, with the rib web being the part that the one-piece rib consisted of, with capstrips for the
upper and lower edging of the rib, running from the leading edge to the trailing edge, being the
other two component parts.
For a typical two spar layout, the ribs are usually formed in three parts from sheet metal by the
use of presses and dies. Flanges are incorporated around the edges so that they can be riveted to
the skin and the spar webs Cut-outs are necessary around the edges to allow for the stringers to
pass through Lightening holes are usually cut into the rib bodies to reduce the rib weight and also
allow for passage of control runs fuel electrics etc.












RIB CONSTRUCTION AND CONFIGURATION
The ribs should be ideally spaced to ensure adequate overall buckling support to spar flanges.In
reality however their positioning is also influenced by
Facilitating attachment points for control surfaces, flaps, slats, spoiler hinges, power
plants, stores, undercarriage attachments etc.
Positions of fuel tank ends, requiring closing ribs
A structural need to avoid local shear or compression buckling.


RIB ALIGNMENT POSSIBILITIES
There are several different possibilities regarding the alignment of the ribs on swept-wing
aircraft:






(a) Is a hybrid design in which one or more inner ribs are aligned with the main
axis while the remainder is aligned perpendicularly to the rear spar
(b) Is usually the preferred option but presents several structural problems in the
root region
(c) Gives good torsional stiffness characteristics but results in heavy ribs and
complex connection






















STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF WING

Wing is the major lift producing surface. Therefore, the analysis has to be very accurate. The
structural analysis of the wing by defining the primary load carrying member Spars is done
below.
The configuration used in our aircraft is the Box Beam (distributed flange) concept-built-up
or integral construction.
This configuration is used in order to offer provision for our High Load Intensity of
11,000 Nm
-1
.
SPAR DEFINITION:
The maximum bending moment from previous section was found to be as 45949.8Nm. Therefore
we define 2 Spars with front spar at 20% of chord and rear spar at 70% of chord. The
position of the three spars from the leading edge of the root chord is given below as follows:
Front spar - 20% of chord = 1.262 m
Rear spar - 70% of chord = 4.417 m
Bending moment M = Max BM * FOS * n
= 1423921.02 1.5 2.109
= 4504574.14 Nm
The Structural load bearing members in the wing are the Spars and Stringers. The bending
moment carried by the Spars is 70% and that of Stringers is 30% of the total Bending Moment.
Bending Moment taken by Spars is = 0.7 x 4504574.14 = 3153201.89 N






The cross section of the spar chosen here is an I-section.For each spar we are determining the
following parameters:
1) Centroid
2) Moment of Inertia
3) Bending Moment
4) Bending Stress
FRONT SPAR
1 Height of the spar = 89 mm
2 Breadth of the spar = 67 mm
3 Thickness of the spar = 11 mm
Cross Section of Front Spar






To find out the centroid, the following calculations are made.

Element
Area(A)
(c

)
x
(cm)
y
(cm)
Ax
(c

)
Ay
(c

)
Ax
2

(c

)
Ay
2

(c

)
I
cx

(c

)
I
cy

(c

)
1 737 33.5 5.5 24689.5 4053.5 827098.5 22294.25 7431.41 275699.41
2 737 33.5 43.5 24689.5 32039.5 827098.5 32059.50 275699.41 7431.41
3 737 33.5 83.5 24689.5 61539.5 827098.5 5138548.25 7431.41 275699.41
Total 2211 74068.5 97632.5 2481294.75 5192902.0 290562.23 558830.23






5)
Front Spar Calculations
Centroid = X =

= 33.5 mm ; Y=

= 44.15 mm

I
xx
= I
cx
+ Ay
2
AY
2
I
xx
= (290562.22+5192902-4309730.94)
I
xx
= 1173733.28 mm
4

I
yy
= I
cy
+ Ax
2
A X
2
I
yy
= (558830.21+2481294.75-2481294.75)
I
yy
= 558830.21 mm
4
The FRONT SPAR carries 35 % of the BM carried by the Spars. Thus,
Front spar BM = 0.35 x 3153201.89 N-mm
= 1576600.94 N mm

POINTS COORDINATES (y) (cm) BENDING STRESS (N/cm
2
)
A 89 1.532
B 78 1.343
C 78 1.343
D 11 0.189
E 11 0.189
F 0 0







Front Spar Bending Stress
Bending Stress,
z
= (M
x
/ I
xx
) y
The bending stress at various points whose co-ordinates are determined with centroid as
the origin are calculated from above formula and tabulated.

Bending Stress diagram for I-Section

REAR SPAR
Height of the spar = 44.5mm
Breadth of the spar = 33.5 mm
Thickness of the spar = 5.5 mm


Cross Section of Rear Spar
A
B
C
D
E
F







To find out the centroid, the following calculations are made:

Element
Area(A)
(m

)
x
(mm)
y
(mm)
Ax
(m)
Ay
(m

)
Ax
2

(m

)
Ay
2

(m

)
I
cx

(m

)
I
cy

(m

)
1 184.25 16.75 2.75 3086.18 506.68 51693.64 1393.39 464.46 17231.21
2 184.25 16.75 22.25 3086.18 4099.56 51693.64 91215.2 17231.21 464.46
3 184.25 16.75 41.75 3086.18 7692.4 51693.64 321159.26 464.46 17231.21
Total 552.75 9258.54 12298.64 155080.92 413767.95 18160.13 34926.88

Rear Spar Calculations
Centroid X =

= 16.74 mm ; Y=

= 22.24 mm
I
xx
= I
cx
+ Ay
2
AY
2






I
xx
= (18160.13+155080.92-552.75*22.249^2)
I
xx
= -100158.82mm
4

I
yy
= I
cy
+ Ax
2
A X
2
I
yy
= (34926.88+413767.95-552.75*(16.74)
2
)
I
yy
= 293799.02 mm
4

Rear Spar carries 25 % of the spar Bending Moments.
Rear Spar Bending Moment = 0.25*3153201.89
=1126143.33 N-mm
Bending Stress
z
= (M
x
/I
xx
)y
The bending stresses at various points are obtained as:
Rear Spar Bending Stress

POINTS COORDINATES (y) (cm) BENDING STRESS (N/cm
2
)
A 44.5 -8.984
B 39 -7.874
C 39 -7.874
D 5.5 -1.110
E 5.5 -1.110
F 0 0
















MATERIALS SELECTION
8.1. Materials used in aircraft manufacturing: For many years, aircraft designers
could propose theoretical designs that they could not build because the materials needed
to construct them did not exist. (The term "unobtainium" is sometimes used to identify
materials that are desired but not yet available.) In the early days of flight, before World
War I, aircraft were constructed entirely of wood and canvas. They were shaped and
joined by skilled craftsmen, many of whom were drawn from other woodworking trades.
Every aircraft was unique, reflecting many different thoughts and constant design
changes. The beginning of World War I brought a sudden demand for thousands of
aircraft. This meant that factories had to accommodate large-scale manufacture and
assembly of aircraft components by unskilled workers. Small companies grew into
major manufacturers capable of producing many different types of aircraft in large
numbers. The techniques for building aircraft evolved gradually during the years
between the wars. Wood and canvas changed to aluminum as the principal structural
material while designs improved and records were set and broken. Monoplanes (single
wing aircraft) were becoming more popular than biplanes (two wing aircraft). More
power-ful and reliable aircraft engines were continually being developed to increase
pay-loads and ranges. Because of the increased reliability and improved comfort, aircraft
became a more acceptable form of freight and passenger transport.
Material requirement for aircraft building:
1.small weight
2.high specific strength
3.heat resistance
4.fatigue load resistance






5.crack and corrosion resistance
Raw Materials:
The principal material used in modern air-craft manufacturing is aluminum sheet, billet,
and castings, but the use of composite materials is rapidly increasing. Composite
materials are structural materials made up of two or more contrasting components,
normally fine fibers or whiskers in a bonding resin. Composites such as carbon epoxies,
graphite, fiberglass, carbon fiber reinforced plastics (CFRP), boron fiber reinforced
plastics (BFRP), and glass reinforced plastics (GRP) enable manufacturers to build
aircraft that are lighter and stronger than aluminum models.Steel alloys, titanium,
stainless steel, and magnesium castings are also used, but in much smaller quantities.
Composites: For many years, aircraft designers could propose theoretical designs that
they could not build because the materials needed to construct them did not exist. (The
term "unobtainium" is sometimes used to identify materials that are desired but not yet
available.) For instance, large space planes like the Space Shuttle would have proven
extremely difficult, if not impossible, to build without heat-resistant ceramic tiles to
protect them during re-entry. And high-speed forward-swept-wing airplanes like
Grumman's experimental X-29 or the Russian Sukhoi S-27 Berkut would not have been
possible without the development of composite materials to keep their wings from
bending out of shape. Composites are the most important materials to be adapted for
aviation since the use of aluminium in the 1920s. Composites are materials that are
combinations of two or more organic or inorganic components. One material serves as a
"matrix," which is the material that holds everything together, while the other material
serves as reinforcement, in the form of fibers embedded in the matrix. Until recently, the
most common matrix materials were "thermosetting" materials such as epoxy,
bismaleimide, or polyimide. The reinforcing materials can be glass fiber, boron fiber,
carbon fiber, or other more exotic mixtures.
Fiberglass is the most common composite material, and consists of glass fibers
embedded in a resin matrix. Fiberglass was first used widely in the 1950s for boats and
automobiles, and today most cars have fiberglass bumpers covering a steel frame.






Fiberglass was first used in the Boeing 707 passenger jet in the 1950s, where it
comprised about two percent of the structure. By the 1960s, other composite materials
became available, in particular boron fiber and graphite, embedded in epoxy resins. The
U.S. Air Force and U.S. Navy began research into using these materials for aircraft
control surfaces like ailerons and rudders. The first major military production use of
boron fiber was for the horizontal stabilizers on the Navy's F-14 Tomcat interceptor. By
1981, the British Aerospace-McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier flew with over 25
percent of its structure made of composite materials.
Making composite structures is more complex than manufacturing most metal
structures. To make a composite structure, the composite material, in tape or fabric
form, is laid out and put in a mould under heat and pressure. The resin matrix material
flows and when the heat is removed, it solidifies. It can be formed into various shapes.
In some cases, the fibers are wound tightly to increase strength. One useful feature of
composites is that they can be layered, with the fibers in each layer running in a different
direction. This allows materials engineers to design structures that behave in certain
ways. For instance, they can design a structure thatwill bend in one direction, but not
another. The designers of the Grumman X-29 experimental plane used this attribute of
composite materials to design forward-swept wings that did not bend up at the tips like
metal wings of the same shape would have bent in flight. The greatest value of
composite materials is that they can be both lightweight and strong. The heavier an
aircraft weighs, the more fuel it burns, so reducing weight is important to aeronautical
engineers. Despite their strength and low weight, composites have not been a miracle
solution for aircraft structures. Composites are hard to inspect for flaws. Some of them
absorb moisture. Most importantly, they can be expensive, primarily because they are
labour intensive and often require complex and expensive fabrication machines.
Aluminium, by contrast, is easy to manufacture and repair. Anyone who has ever gotten
into a minor car accident has learned that dented metal can be hammered back into
shape, but a crunched fiberglass bumper has to be completely replaced. The same is true
for many composite materials used in aviation. Modern airliners use significant amounts






of composites to achieve lighter weight. About ten percent of the structural weight of the
Boeing 777, for instance, is composite material. Modern military aircraft, such as the F-
22, use composites for at least a third of their structures, and some experts have
predicted that future military aircraft will be more than two-thirds composite materials.
But for now, military aircraft use substantially greater percentages of composite
materials than commercial passenger aircraft primarily because of the different ways that
commercial and military aircraft are maintained. Aluminium is a very tolerant material
and can take a great deal of punishment before it fails. It can be dented or punctured and
still hold together. Composites are not like this. If they are damaged, they require
immediate repair, which is difficult and expensive. An airplane made entirely from
aluminium can be repaired almost anywhere. This is not the case for composite
materials, particularly as they use different and more exotic materials. Because of this,
composites will probably always be used more in military aircraft, which are constantly
being maintained, than in commercial aircraft, which have to require less maintenance.
Thermoplastics are a relatively new material that is replacing thermosets as the matrix
material for composites. They hold much promise for aviation applications. One of their
big advantages is that they are easy to produce. They are also more durable and tougher
than thermosets, particularly for light impacts, such as when a wrench dropped on a
wing accidentally. The wrench could easily crack a thermoset material but would
bounce off a thermoplastic composite material. In addition to composites, other
advanced materials are under development for aviation. During the 1980s, many aircraft
designers became enthusiastic about ceramics, which seemed particularly promising for
lightweight jet engines, because they could tolerate hotter temperatures than
conventional metals. But their brittleness and difficulty to manufacture were major
drawbacks, and research on ceramics for many aviation applications decreased by the
1990s.

Titanium: Aluminium was widely used in subsonic aircraft. Aerotechnics of supersonic
speeds faced with elevated temperatures of the aircraft skin for which aluminium can not






be applied due to low heat resistance. Structural materials reliably operating in
complicated combination of force and temperature fields under the influence of
corrosive media, radiation and high pressures were required. Titanium and its alloys
meet this requirement. Currently a greater amount of titanium is incorporated in to
aircraft. This is connected with the fact that the share of the composite materials with
which aluminium intensively interacts and corrodes in the new airplanes is being
increased. Titanium is not subjected to these processes and results in increasing the life
of components. Three major trends of titanium application for aircraft building:
Material Selection:
The wing spars are composed of a high strength unidirectional graphite/epoxy composite
material chosen for its high strength and low weight. The fuselage bulkheads are made
of a high strength aluminium alloy. This arrangement was chosen through a trade study
to determine the optimum balance between overall structural weight and cost. Because
of its stealth and torsional strength characteristics, a high modulus graphite/epoxy was
also selected for the aircraft skin. A further use of advanced composites is the placement
of 1/2-inch Kevlar armour around the engines. This was done to improve survivability
since the aircraft spends much of its time at low levels where critical systems must be
protected from battle damage. The usages of materials on the aircraft are summarized in
the following table and weight distribution graph.



Material Selection








Material Usage Advantages Disadvantages
High strength
unidirectional
graphite/epoxy
Spar caps High strength, low
weight
High cost, low impact
resistance, difficult to
manufacture
High modulus 45
graphite/epoxy
Skin (w/foam core),
Shear web, Wing ribs
High strength, low
weight, low surface
roughness, stealth
characteristics
High cost, low impact
resistance, difficult to
manufacture
Aluminum 7075-T6 Bulkheads, Longerons Low cost, ease of
manufacture, good
sturctural efficiency
Low strength, not
weldable
Stainless steel (AM-
350)
Landing gear Relatively low cost,
high strength,
corrosion resistance
High weight
Nickel (Hastelloy B) Nozzles and ducting Temperature
resistance
Low structural
resistance
Kevlar

Internal armor High strength, low
weight, high impact
resistance
High cost, difficult to
manufacture








In the design of any part of the aircraft it is essential to know accurately the properties of
the material used. The aim of this exercise is to determine crucial properties such as
Young's modulus, poisson's ratio, shear strength, yield strength, ultimate strength.
Young's modulus: It is the ratio of stress to strain and is constant for and isotropic
material in all directions.
Poisson's ratio: It is the ratio of transverse strain to longitudinal strain on application of
longitudinal stress
. Yield strength: It is the maximum stress the material can take in the elastic region of
loading. Ultimate stress: It is defined as the maximum stress the material can withstand
beyond which it will completely fail.
Shear strength: It is the maximum shear stress the material can withstand beyond
which it will completely fail.
There are two standards followed for testing a specimen. They are 1. American Standard
for Testing Materials (ASTM) 2. Indian Bureau of Standards (IBS) The Aluminium
specimens were tested in a Universal Testing Machine.
Aluminium 7075-T6; 7075-T651:
Subcategory: 7000 Series Aluminium Alloy; Aluminium Alloy; Metal; Nonferrous
Metal Composition: A Zr + Ti limit of 0.25 percent maximum may be used with this
alloy designation for extruded and forged products only, but only when the supplier or
producer and the purchaser have mutually so agreed. Agreement may be indicated, for
example, by reference to a standard, by letter, by order note, or other means which allow
the Zr + Ti limit. Aluminium content reported is calculated as remainder. Composition
information provided by the Aluminium Association and is not for design. Material :
General 7075 characteristics and uses (from Alcoa): Very high strength material used for
highly stressed structural parts. The T7351 temper offers improved stress-corrosion
cracking resistance. Applications: Aircraft fittings, gears and shafts, fuse parts, meter
shafts and gears, missile parts, regulating valve parts, worm gears, keys, aircraft,






aerospace and defense

Aluminium alloy 6061: Aluminium alloy 6061 is one of the most extensively used of
the 6000 series aluminium alloys. It is a versatile heat treatable extruded alloy with
medium to high strength capabilities.

Composition
Typical composition of aluminium alloy 6061
Component Amount (wt.%)
Aluminium Balance
Magnesium 0.8-1.2
Silicon 0.4 0.8
Iron Max. 0.7
Copper 0.15-0.40
Zinc Max. 0.25
Titanium Max. 0.15
Manganese Max. 0.15






Chromium 0.04-0.35
Others 0.05

Component Amount(wt.%)
Aluminium Balance
Magnesium 0.8-1.2
Silicon 0.4-0.8
Iron Max.0.7
Copper 0.15-0.40
Zinc Max.0.25
Titanium Max.0.15
Maganese Max 0.15
Chromium 0.004-0.35
Others 0.05

Physical Properties
Density: 2.7 g/cm3
Melting Point: Approx 580C
Modulus of Elasticity: 70-80 GPa
Poissons Ratio: 0.33
Temper Ultimate Tensile
Strength (MPa)
0.2% Proof
Stress (MPa)
Brinell
Hardness (500kg
load, 10mm ball)
Elongation
50mm dia (%)

0 110-152 65-110 30-33 14-16
T1 180 95-96 16
T4 179 min 110 min






T6 260-310 240-276 95-97 9-13

Thermal Properties Co-Efficient of Thermal Expansion (20-100C): 23.5x10-6
m/m.C
Thermal Conductivity: 173 W/m.K

Electrical Properties Electrical Resistivity: 3.7 4.0 x10-6 .cm
KEVLAR:
Kevlar is the registered trademark for a para-aramid synthetic fiber, related to other
aramids such as Nomex and Technora. Developed at DuPont in 1965, this high strength
material was first commercially used in the early 1970s as a replacement for steel in
racing tires. Typically it is spun into ropes or fabric sheets that can be used as such or as
an ingredient in composite material components.
Currently, Kevlar has many applications, ranging from bicycle tires and racing sails to
body armor because of its high tensile strength-to-weight ratiofamously: "...5 times
stronger than steel on an equal weight basis..." When used as a woven material, it is
suitable for mooring lines and other underwater applications.
FIBERGLASS:
Fiberglass, (also called fibreglass and glass fibre), is material made from extremely
fine fibers of glass. It is used as a reinforcing agent for many polymer products; the
resulting composite material, properly known as fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) or
glass-reinforced plastic (GRP), is called "fiberglass" in popular usage. Glassmakers
throughout history have experimented with glass fibers, but mass manufacture of
fiberglass was only made possible with the invention of finer machine tooling. In 1893,
Edward Drummond Libbey exhibited a dress at the World's Columbian Exposition
incorporating glass fibers with the diameter and texture of silk fibers. This was first
worn by the popular stage actress of the time Georgia Cayvan.
What is commonly known as "fiberglass" today, however, was invented in 1938 by
Russell Games Slayter of Owens-Corning as a material to be used as insulation. It is






marketed under the trade name Fiberglas, which has become a genericized trademark. A
somewhat similar, but more expensive technology used for applications requiring very
high strength and low weight is the use of carbon fiber.
MATERIALS USED IN COMPAREABLE AIRCRAFTS
Materials and Processes
Validating structural materials is especially important to the any fighter aircrafts because
new material technologies were incorporated to maximize aircraft performance. F-22
Raptor The overall percentage of composites in the F-22 (approximately 25%) is
historically high, though not unprecedented. However, the extensive application of
Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) technology and high temperature bismaleimide (BMI)
composite materials directly resulted in the high weight/performance efficiency the
Raptor demonstrates. The use of metallics technologies such as titanium Hot Isostatic
Pressed (HIP) castings and electron beam welding allowed the airframe designers to
incorporate complex features into a single component without the weight of fastened
assemblies. The continuing challenge is to reduce material and component costs through
a constant reassessment of emerging technologies. Recently developed machining
technologies, for instance, have allowed the inlet canted frame lip to be changed from a
casting to a lower cost machined component with no appreciable weight penalty.
Traditional aircraft materials such as aluminium and steel make up about 1/5 of the F-
22's structure by weight. The high performance capabilities of the F-22 requires the
significant use of titanium (42 % of all structural materials by weight) and composite
materials (24 % by weight), which are both stronger and lighter weight than traditional
materials, and offer better protection against corrosion. Titanium also offers higher
temperature resistance.

Airframe Structural Materials By Weight

Titanium 64 (Ti-64) 36%







Thermoset Composites

24%

Aluminum (Al)

16%

Other Materials*

15%

Steel

6%

Titanium 62222 (Ti-62222)

3%

Thermoplastic Composites

>1%


Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) Casting Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) casting is a process
where metallic castings are subjected to very high temperatures in a static pressure
environment (more than 10,000 pounds per square inch). The effect is to collapse, or
"heal", voids (gas pockets) that otherwise may be present. On the F-22, structural
titanium castings are HIP'ed to eliminate any voids that are present from the casting
process. HIP casting is used on six large structures on the F-22: the rudder actuator
housing (one for each rudder), the canopy deck, the wing side-of-body (SOB) forward
and aft fittings (four total, two for each wing), the aileron strongback (one for each
aileron, two total), and the inlet canted frame (one each for the left and right inlets).
Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) The F-22 is the first aircraft to take advantage of
Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) of composite parts. RTM is a method of composite parts
fabrication well suited to economically fabricating complex shaped details repeatedly to
tight dimensional tolerances. Large composite parts traditionally are formed by applying
and pressurizing hundreds of layers of fabric that contain a pre-embedded resin, and






curing, or 'baking,' them in an autoclave. This is a very time consuming and labor
intensive process.
The process employs fibrous "preforms" that are formed under vacuum from stacks of
fabric and placed in metal tooling that matches the shape of the part. The tool is then
injected with heated resin under pressure. The benefit of the matched metal tooling to
RTM is a high level of part reproducibility, consistency in assembly operations, and
consequently, economies of scale.
Composite Pivot Shaft (CPS) The composite pivot shaft is an application of Automated
Fiber Placement (AFP) technology, employed with unique tooling approaches to
incorporate a composite structure in place of a titanium one in a flight-critical
application - the F-22's horizontal stabilizers. AFP technology makes possible the exact
fiber positioning required to achieve the complex geometry of the pivot shaft, which is a
10-inch diameter cylinder at one end; and a rectangular spar at the other approximately
four inches wide; with a offset in the transition area. Its shape can be likened to that of
an oversized hockey stick. Alliant Techsystems is the contractor for the composite pivot
shaft, which is laid out using computerized fiber placement machines. The pivot shaft is
composed of more than 400 plys (layers) of composite tow tapes ranging from 1/8 of an
inch wide to 1/2 inch wide. The shaft is cured in stages to prevent internal cracking and
no wrinkles, as there is no allowances for voids in the shaft. After layup, the shafts are
nondestructively inspected and tested. The composite pivot shafts take up to 60 days to
produce, but they save 90 pounds per shipset (two shafts) over titanium, which is an
extremely large amount of weight to take out of an aircraft at one time. Also, because of
the high temperatures in the engine bay area of the fighter, it is constructed mostly of
titanium, and any weight is difficult to engineer out of that area. When the first F-22 was
rolled out in April 1997, four shipsets of flightworthy composite pivot shafts had already
been produced. A plan is in place to use thicker tow tapes, which should greatly reduce
production time for the shafts.
Electron Beam (EB) Welding An automated process called electron beam (EB)
welding is helping Boeing and Aerojet, its supplier, build lighter-weight titanium






assemblies for the aft fuselage. EB welding takes place in a vacuum chamber and uses a
stream of electrons to weld titanium parts together. Performing the welding in a vacuum
prevents exposure to oxygen, which can create an undesirable brittle surface during the
process. Electron beam welding is able to weld thick titanium parts (i.e., more than an
inch) considerably better than other methods.

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