Simulation of surface roughness on the ow pattern in the

casting process
S.M.H. Mirbagheri
a,
*
, M. Shrinparvar
b
, H. Ashory
a
, P. Davami
a
a
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, P.O. Box 11365-9466, Tehran, Iran
b
Esfahan Steel Making Co., Iran
Received 9 October 2003; accepted 19 March 2004
Available online 10 May 2004
Abstract
In this investigation a mathematical model has been developed for simulation of the incompressible ow with free surface during
mould lling. The simulation 3D melt ow with free surface is based on the SOLA-VOF technique. In the model the eects of
variations parameters including heat and mass transfer as well as inuences of backpressure, and friction have been considered. The
solid and free boundary conditions have been modied and a new algorithm has been developed to calculate the eect of wallslip
ratio, during mold lling. In this algorithm, the eect of wallslip ratio on the lling pattern has been modeled with an experimental
function. In order to verify the computational results, a thin Al7.5 Si% alloy plate has been poured into a sand mould with a
transparent face to take into account the eect of surface roughness on ow pattern, the amount of erosion, and impact of the
molten metal on the sand mould, utilizing photography. The comparison between the experimental and the simulation results of
sequence lling shows a good consistency that conrms the accuracy of the model for predicting the erosion phenomenon in the
moulding materials.
2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Casting; Melting; Moulding; Simulation
1. Introduction
A few researches have been carried out to simulate
the eect of surface roughness during the lling of thin-
walled sand mold casting [1]. It has been observed that
when molten metal is poured, reduction in sand grain
nes number (gfn) and increase of surface roughness
could produce vortex ow. These vortexes are important
factor in mould erosion. Hence molten metal ow dur-
ing mold lling has a decisive inuence on the nal
casting quality. The uid ow phenomenon during
mould lling is a transient ow problem with the free
surface. There are a number of uid ow packages that
are able to model the free surface [1,2]. In earlier studies,
two computational uid dynamics techniques, namely
Marker And Cell (MAC) and SOLution Algorithm-
Volume Of Fluid (SOLA-VOF) have been found to be
suitable to treat uid ow problems [2,3]. SOLA-VOF
method has advantage that the surface tension and wall
adhesion could be evaluated from the orientation of free
surface [4,5]. Research in MAGMA Corporation and
RMRC Institute had developed their own versions of
the 3D models, based on VOF-3D and their particular
analytical algorithms, for solving the ow eld [6].
Mirbagheri et al. [7] modied the ASOLA-VOF (Ad-
vance Solution Algorithm) technique for lost foam
casting via global interpolation between new and old
time steps using a shape function. Lipinski [8] reviewed
advantage and disadvantages of various methods of
solving CFD codes. Regarding the published research
works, it still merits more study on the eect of surface
roughness on the lling stage in the casting process. In
this study, a mathematical model has been developed
based on the SOLA-VOF technique. The model has
been modied to take into account the eect of surface
roughness during lling stages of mould cavity. The
*
Corresponding author. Fax: +98-21-6005717.
E-mail addresses: Mohamad@mehr.sharif.edu (S.M.H. Mirba-
gheri), mo_shirinparvar@esfahansteel.com (M. Shrinparvar).
0261-3069/$ - see front matter 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2004.03.012
Materials and Design 25 (2004) 655661
www.elsevier.com/locate/matdes
Materials
& Design
model was then tested on plate benchmark by Al
Si7.5% alloy. Comparison between the experimental and
the simulation results shows a good consistency, which
conrms the accuracy of the model.
2. Mathematical models
2.1. The governing equations
In simulation of the mould lling the uid ow phe-
nomenon is governed by mass, momentum and energy
conservation equations that can be described as follow
[9,10]:
(a) Momentum equations for liquid phase:
ou
ot
~v ru
oP
qox
g
x
tr
2
u; 1
om
ot
~m rm
oP
qox
g
y
tr
2
m; 2
ow
ot
~m rw
oP
qoz
g
z
tr
2
w; 3
where
~
V u
^
i v
^
j w
^
k is the velocity vector, P is
the pressure, g
x
; g
y
and g
z
are the body acceleration
components, q is density and m is viscosity.
(b) The continuity equation for the liquid zone is:
q
L
q
S
q
of
L
ot
_
~m rf
L
_
r ~m 0; 4
where f
s
q
s
f
l
q
l
q and f
S
f
L
1, f
S
; f
L
are solid
and liquid fractions, respectively.
(c) Heat transfer equation for the liquid or solid zone is:
qC
P
oT
ot
qC
P
~m rT r ~q: 5
(d) The heat transfer equation for the mushy region is:
qDH
f
of
L
ot
qDH
f
~v rf
L
r~q; 6
q
x
k
oT
ox
; q
y
k
oT
oy
; q
z
k
oT
oZ
;
where ~q q
x
^
i q
y
^
j q
z
^
k is the heat ux vector. The
most commonly method employed to describe free
surfaces is the VOF method. The VOF method en-
ables the tracking of the transition free surface with
arbitrary topology and deformation. In the VOF
technique, a step function F x; y; z; t is dened which
is the fractional volume of control element occupied
by uid [3,9,10]. The cells having F values between
zero and one (0 < F < 1) represents free surface.
F 0 indicates that the cell contains no uid and
F 1 corresponds to a cell full of uid. The position
of the interface, curvature and normal direction to
the free surface can all be determined from F values
and gradient of F in a control volume. The time de-
pendence of F is described by the following equations
[7,8]:
oF
ot
r ~mF 0: 7
2.2. Solution method
The main purpose of simulation of the lling process
is the calculation of the velocity prole, temperature
eld and the lling sequence. Therefore, the governing
Eqs. (1)(7) should be solved by the nite dierence
method (FDM). The solution method can be considered
in four steps: (1) system discreatization; (2) converting
dierential equations to FDM form; (3) semi-explicit
solution of the FDM approximation of momentum and
heat transfer equations in order to calculate velocity
prole and temperature eld in the domain system; (4)
determination of uid volume uxes across the faces of
the elements and free surface location by donoraccep-
tor ux approximation.
(a) The FDM approximation of the continuity equa-
tion:
(i) For full cell (F 1):
D
i;j;k

U
n1
i;j;k
U
n1
i1;j;k
Dx

V
n1
i;j;k
V
n1
i;j1;k
Dy

W
n1
i;j;k
W
n1
i;j;k1
Dz
M
i;j;k
0; 8
where M
i;j;k
is equal to zero for signal phase (liquid
or solid) and for mushy zone is nonzero [9,11].
(ii) For surface cell (0 < F < 1):
D
i;j;k
for free surface is satised by setting the surface
cell pressure (P
cell
) equals to the value obtained by a
linear interpolation between gas pressure at the
surface (P
S
) and pressure inside the uid (P
N
) [4,11]:
D
i;j;k
dP 1 gP
N
gP
S
P
cell
; 9
g
d
c
d

d
c
d
c
d
s
1
_

d
s
d
c
_
1
; S
slope
scale

;
d
s

d
w
0:5 F
i;j;k
if F
i;j;k
> 0:5S
d
w
0:51 S

8SF
i;j;k
_
if F
i;j;k
60:5S
_ _
;
d
w

Dx if UNV of surface i;
Dy if UNV of surface j;
Dz if UNV of surface k;
_

_
slope
max
oFyz
oz
or
oFyx
ox
_ _
if UNV of surface j;
max
oFzy
oy
or
oFzx
ox
_ _
if UNV of surface k;
max
oFxz
oz
or
oFxy
oy
_ _
if UNV of surface i;
_

_
656 S.M.H. Mirbagheri et al. / Materials and Design 25 (2004) 655661
scale
minDy=Dz or Dy=Dx if UNV of surface j;
minDz=Dy or Dz=Dx if UNV of surface k;
minDx=Dz or Dx=Dy if UNV of surface i;
_

_
and; d
c
is the distance between the cell centers, d
w
is
the width of the cell surface and d
s
is the distance
from the center of the surface cell to the uid sur-
face. UNV is unit normal vector of surface and S is
the surface ratio [11].
(b) Finite dierence approximation of free surface func-
tion is
28
:
F
n1
i;j;k
F
n
i;j;k

dt
VC
i;j;k
1
Dx
AR
i1;j;k
U
n1
i1;j;k
F
i1;j;k
_
_
AR
i1;j;k
U
n1
i1;j;k
F
i1;j;k
_

1
Dy
AT
i;j1;k
V
n1
i;j1;k
F
i;j1;k
_
AT
i;j1;k
V
n1
ij1;k
F
i;j1;k
_

1
DZ
AF
i;j;k1
W
n1
i;j;k1
F
i;j;k1
_
AF
i;j;k1
W
n1
i;j;k1
F
i;j;k1
_
_
;
10
dt dt
n
dt
n1
=2:
2.2.1. Donoracceptor ux approximations
A free surface or interface cell (i; j; k) is dened as a
cell containing a F with nonzero value. This cell has at
least one neighboring cell (i 1; j; k), (i; j 1; k), and
(i; j; k 1), that contains a zero value of F 0. In a
surface cell, it is assumed that the free surface can have
only one orientation (horizontal or vertical plates in 3-D
space), which for that orientation all the liquid is on one
side or the other of the surface. That is, the liquid mainly
located adjacent to one of the six sides of the cell. Some
surface orientations results in cells with nonzero values
of F and no empty neighbors cell, (i 1; j; k), (i; j 1; k)
and (i; j; k 1). These are treated as full cells. The free
surface orientation could be track with a cell ag array,
NF i; j; k, as shown in Table 1, [12].
Donoracceptor method is a convectional algorithm.
The basic idea is to use information at F downstream as
well as upstream of a ux boundary to establish a crude
interface shape, and then to employ this shape in com-
puting the ux. The VOF method diers somewhat from
its predecessors in two respects. First, it uses informa-
tion about the slope of the surface to improve the uxing
algorithm. Second, the F function is utilized to dene a
surface location and orientation for the application of
various kind boundary conditions, including surface
tension forces. The basic method as developed for use in
the VOF technique may be understood by considering
the amount of F to be uxed through the right-hand
face of a cell during a time step of duration (dt) as shown
in Fig. 1, where the shaded region represents the amount
of melt in each cell and the striped region represents the
amount of melt to be uxed. Fluxes across other cell
faces are completely analogous. The total ux of uid
and void volume crossing this cell face per unit cross-
sectional area in X direction is 8
x
udt, where u is the
normal velocity at the face. The sign of u determines the
donor (D) and acceptor (A) cells, i.e., the cells losing and
gaining volume, respectively. For example, if u is posi-
tive the upstream is the donor cell and the downstream
the acceptors cell. The amount of F uxed across the cell
face in one time step is dF times the face cross-sectional
area [4,11,13], where:
F
R
x
Min F
Min
F
ex
; F
Max
: 11
And the maximum ux form the donor is
F
Max
Dx
D
F
n
D
: 12
And the minimum ux from either (acceptordonor)
cell (AD) is
F
Min
u j jF
n
AD
: 13
The extra possible ux from a computational cell is
F
Posi:
u j j 1
_
F
n
AD
_
: 14
Table 1
Denitions of NF array values
Flag Cell type Neighbour cell conditions Free surface orientation
NF 0 Fluid No void cells adjacent Does not bisect
NF 8 Void No uid in cell
NF 1 Surface Fluid cell to the left Mainly parallel to Y direction
NF 2 Surface Fluid cell to the right
NF 3 Surface Fluid cell to the bottom Mainly parallel to X direction
NF 4 Surface Fluid cell to the top
NF 5 Surface Fluid cell to the back Mainly parallel to Z direction
NF 6 Surface Fluid cell to the front
NF 7 Isolated All adjustment cells are void Indeterminate orientation
S.M.H. Mirbagheri et al. / Materials and Design 25 (2004) 655661 657
All of the void from the donor cell must remove be-
fore lling of acceptor cell, this extra possible ux is
reduced by the amount of void in the donor cell
F
Void
Dx
D
1
_
F
n
D
_
: 15
As this may turn out to be more than is available,
than extra ux must be greater than zero.
F
Ex
Max F
Posi:
F
Void
; 0:0: 16
The subscript (AD) refers to either (A) acceptor or
(D) donor cell depending on the surface orientation. To
determine whether F
AD
is F
D
or F
A
, as shown in algo-
rithm of Fig. 2. The Min statement of Eq. (11) prevents
uxing more uid per unit area than the donor cell
contains. But the Max statement of Eq. (16) prevents
uxing of more voids per unit area than the donors cell
contains.
2.2.2. Interface within a surface cell
Following the calculation of the new F values the
CFD code sweeps the mesh redening the new cell types
and assigning appropriate ags NF
i;j;k
. At the same time
the approximate orientation of the uid in each surface
cell is determined, and a pressure interpolation neighbor
cell is assigned. Determination of whether the uid is
mostly horizontal or vertical in a surface cell relies on
estimating the local slope of the uid/void interface. It is
assumed that the interface is a straight-plane segment
partitioning the cell. The slope is estimated by intro-
ducing six of surface-height function [11,13].
2.2.3. Computing procedures
The computation procedures are as follows:
(i) Semi-explicit approximations of (1)(3) are used
to compute the rst guess for new time-level velocities
using the initial conditions or previous time-level values
for all advective, pressure, and viscous accelerations.
(ii) To satisfy the continuity equation, Eqs. (8)(9),
pressure is iteratively adjusted in each cell and the ve-
locity changes induced by each pressure change (dP)
(from Eqs. (12)(14)) are added to the velocities com-
puted in step (1), the pressure change (dP) for full cell,
surface cell and interior void cell is calculated from
[4,11]:
dP
i;j;k
D
i;j;k
b
i;j;k
D
i;j;k
dt
q
1
Dx
1
Dx
l
_ _ _

1
Dx
r
_

1
Dy
1
Dy
t
_

1
Dy
b
_

1
Dy
1
Dz
front
_

1
Dz
back
___
1
;
17
dP
i;j;k
1 gP
N
gP
S
P
i;j;k
for surface cell; 18
dP
i;j;k

6
m1
wP
m

6
m1
w
m
_
P
i;j;k
for interior void cell: 19
In this model, cells that are partially full and sur-
rounded by uid are classed as void interior cells. In
Eq. (18), P
N
is the pressure in the interpolation
neighbor cells. P
s
is the gas pressure acting on the free
Fig. 2. The employed algorithm to determine the donoracceptor cell.
Fig. 1. Example of the 3D surface shapes used in the advection of F :
(a) donoracceptor congurations, where the dashed line indicate the
left boundary of the total volume being advected; (b) where ADD. If
the uid surface parallel to ow, then the F value of the donor cell is
used to dene the fractional area of cell face that is to be uxed;
(c) where ADA. If the uid surface is tangential to the ow, than an
extra amount of uid CF is uxed between the dashed line and the ux
boundary; (d) where ADA. If the upstream cell is empty, then all the
uid lying between the dashed line and the ux boundary moves into
the acceptor cell.
658 S.M.H. Mirbagheri et al. / Materials and Design 25 (2004) 655661
surface. For interior cell w 1, if the neighboring cell
contains uid, and w 0 if it does not. An iterative
scheme should be applied because of the change in cell
pressure during each time step. (iii) The F function
dening uid regions must be updated to give the new
uid conguration. (iv) Finally, temperature in each
cell is calculated by means of Eqs. (5) and (6), and then
solid fraction or liquid fraction of metal in each cell is
determined. Repetition of the above steps will advance
a solution through any desired time interval. At each
step, of course, suitable boundary conditions must be
imposed at all meshes and free surface boundaries.
When the fraction of liquid in any cell falls below a
certain value (f
L
< 0:35), that cell is treated as a solid
obstacle and motionless [9].
3. Modeling the eect of wall roughness
At the sandliquid interface as shown in Fig. 3 the
velocity of uid diminishes to zero. It is also worth noting
that as the velocity approaches zero, the rate of change in
velocity reaches a maximum. As the stress tensor is a
function of this rate, it follows that the stress tensor
reaches its maximum such as an interface. In practice, the
velocity distribution is changed by surface force, wall
roughness and turbulence. In an attempt to model this
distribution, the stress tensor at the wall can be approxi-
mated with Von Karmans law. A simpler method is to
create a theoretical boundary layer between the solid and
the liquid, where the velocity distribution is not modeled.
The velocity of the uid at the interface between the liquid
and the boundary layer becomes a function of the wall-
friction. As shown in Fig. 3, the boundary layer is an ar-
ticial layer that inherits its velocity andpressure fromthe
adjacent uid. Therefore, interface that occurs between
the mould wall and molten metal is called the wall
boundary. The momentum boundary condition at this
interface is dened and modeled by a theoretical bound-
ary layer. In the one of typically model, the velocity of
boundary layer is a function of the internal ow. The
simplest function is dened by a wallslip ratio. It ratio
can range fromminus one, which is a slip interface, to plus
one, which is a full-slip interface.
In this investigation a new model has been devel-
oped based on the experimental results. The proposal
model capable of considering the eect of sand grain
nesse number, shear stress on the mould cavity walls
and temperature. This model can be simulated with an
articial boundary layer, then, any wall cell that is
found adjacent to the uid is dened as a wall
boundary cell. Fortunately pressure and velocity of
each cell of articial layer can be stored in the adja-
cent wall cell (layer boundary), because the pressure
and velocity of this cell is not used. The velocity of a
wall boundary cell are calculated with an experimental
function as following:
f
r

0:0 if T < T
s
;
exp

sij
gfn
p
TTs
_ _
if T
s
< T < T
l
;
_
s
ij
s
xy
s
V

ma
x
A
q
DV
Dt
DxDyDz
DxDy
s
ij
s
yx
s
U
q
DU
Dt
DxDyDz
DxDz
;
f
r
is a wallslip ratio, gfn is grain nesse number of sand
and s is shear stress. A similar method is used for the
others shear stress slip-ratios.
4. Results and discussion
To understand the uid dynamics of mould lling, a
vertical benchmark plate was built that allowed for di-
rect observation of the mold lling through a Pyrex
window. The silica sand with AFS 50 gfn and sodium
U
i;j;k

0:0 if F
i1;j;k
Pe;
f
r
F
R
U
R
F
L
U
L
F
F
V
F
F
BK
V
BK
F
T
W
T
F
B
W
B
if F
i1;j;k
< e;
_
20
V
i;j;k

0:0 if F
i;j1;k
Pe;
f
r
F
R
U
R
F
L
U
L
F
F
V
F
F
BK
V
BK
F
T
W
T
F
B
W
B
if F
1;j1;k
< e;
_
21
W
i;j;k

0:0 if F
i;j;k1
Pe;
f
r
F
R
U
R
F
L
U
L
F
F
V
F
F
BK
V
BK
F
T
W
T
F
B
W
B
if F
1;j;k1
< e;
_
22
Fig. 3. Schematic of velocity prole at boundary layer.
S.M.H. Mirbagheri et al. / Materials and Design 25 (2004) 655661 659
silicate bonded used for molding. The schematic of ge-
ometry, dimensions and gating system ratios are shown
in Fig. 4. Three thermocouples are assembled on the top
and walls of the mould cavity. Finally molten metal was
poured, and thermocouples record cavity air tempera-
ture, and data was saved in a PC computer utilized by
an Analog To Digital (ATD) card, HG818L of advan-
tage, which was, in turn connected to a data acquisition
system. Also location of thermocouples T1and T2 were
on bottom and top of cavity and T3 was in middle of
sand mould just under mould wall surface temperature
variation in Fig. 5 shows that temperature of cavity air
increases during cavity lling. But when cavity lling is
completed, suddenly window of glass was broken and
molten metal was discharged. This is because, the ther-
mocouples could not record the rest of solidication. In
order to observe the melt ow during mold lling a
high-speed camera through Pyrex window has recorded
sequences casting (photography technique). The exper-
imental results of the photography are presented in
Fig. 6(a). As it is observed, in the front of ingate (mould
right corner) there is a darkness area due to erosion
mould. Also sand particles are visible at this area on the
casting part surface. But Fig. 6(b) shows results of
simulation of benchmark mild cross-section for sand
mould with AFS 50 based on data in Table 2. The
predicted lling sequences and temperature distributions
are the same as observed in Fig. 6(a).
Fig. 4. Schematics of geometry and dimensions of benchmark plate.
Fig. 5. Record of temperature during mould lling stage by three
sensors T1, T2 and T3.
Fig. 6. Eect of sand roughness (50 AFS) on ow pattern in the
Al7.5% alloy casting process: (a) photography results; (b) simulation
results.
660 S.M.H. Mirbagheri et al. / Materials and Design 25 (2004) 655661
The inspection the experimental results obtained by
images of high-speed camera and cast nominal surface
show that there are sand particles in the mould right
corner (front of ingate). This subject proves pheromone
of mould erosion. Simulation results in Fig. 6(b) shows a
vortex occurring in the sand mould corner (front of in-
gate) that is agreement with experimental results. The
cooling rate on the ow pattern shows a vortex in the
mould cavity due to the mould wall roughness and re-
duction of temperature. This vortex produces two sep-
arately hot zones, one is adjust to ingate and other is at
the top of ingate. Therefore distribution of temperature
is completely dependent on the ow pattern and it can
alter the solidication sequence and the location of riser.
On the other hand, ow pattern is dependent on the type
and the location of the ingate. Thus, it could aect on
the design riser and casting part quality. It is worth
noting that there is a good agreement between the sim-
ulation and experimental results as presented in Figs.
6(a) and (b), which conrms the accuracy of the pro-
posed model.
5. Conclusions
(i) A computational uid dynamics code has developed
in this work, which can determine the combined ef-
fects of heat transfer and uid ow during the lling
stage of the metal casting. It can predict the ow
pattern, the lling sequence, and the temperature
distribution in the metal and in the mould during
the lling and solidication period of casting with
complex shapes. This code can be used to analyze
a casting design by computer, and provides useful
information for casting design, including, uid ow
pattern, lling sequence, eect of mould walls
roughness on the behavior of free surface, tempera-
ture distribution and solidication map.
(ii) Comparison between experimental results obtained
from photographs of high-speed camera, and
simulation results veries the validity of model
predictions.
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Table 2
Vertical plate Al alloy casting-simulation data
Parameters Data
Material: Al7.5%Si Al 92.50, Si 7.50 (wt%)
Pouring temperature 750 5 (C)
Heat of fusion 100.0 (cal/gr.)
Viscosity 0.023 (cm
2
/s)
Wall roughness (gfn) AFS 50
Transformation temperature T
L
620 3, T
S
582 3 (C)
Thermal conductivity K
l
K
s
0:42, K
Mo
0:01
(cal/s cmC)
Specic heat C
l
p
C
S
p
0:27, C
sand
p
0:23
(cal/gr. C)
Density (gr./cm
3
) q
L
2:5, q
S
2:6, q
Sand
1:61
S.M.H. Mirbagheri et al. / Materials and Design 25 (2004) 655661 661