Chapter 1

Introduction
During more than 40 years of spaceflight, a lot of things have changed. Today's Space
Shuttle is a luxury ship compared to the Mercury capsules that carried the first American
astronauts into space. Forty years ago, a lot of people might have had a hard time believing
that Americans and Russians would be living together in space on one Space Station. Space
probes have visited every planet except Pluto, and a mission there is currently being planned.
What should a future spacecraft engine be able to do? Certainly, one major goal
would be for it to allow spacecraft to travel through the solar system more quickly than they
can now. Today's spacecraft are still traveling at about the same speed as in 1962. One
possible way to change that would be the Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket
(VASIMR).Not only would VASIMR allow for faster space travel, it would have some pretty
incredible side benefits, as well. Researchers believe that VASIMR would be able to travel to
Mars much more quickly than a contemporary chemical-powered rocket, and then, once
there, to refuel on Mars for the return flight to Earth. The VASIMR engine could also even
help protect astronauts from the dangerous effects of radiation during their trip. In the lessdistant future, VASIMR could even help keep the International Space Station (ISS) in orbit
without requiring extra fuel to be brought up from Earth.
VASIMR is a plasma-based propulsion system. An electric power source is used to
ionize fuel into plasma. Electric fields heat and accelerate the plasma while the magnetic
fields direct the plasma in the proper direction as it is ejected from the engine, creating thrust
for the spacecraft. The engine can even vary the amount of thrust generated, allowing it to
increase or decrease its acceleration. It even features an "afterburner" mode that sacrifices
fuel efficiency for additional speed. Possible fuels for the VASIMR engine could include
hydrogen, helium, and deuterium

.
Figure 1.1: Artistic view of a VASMIR Space craft headed to Mars
1

Research on the VASIMR engine began in the late 1970s, as a spin - off from
investigations on magnetic diverters for fusion technology. A simplified schematic of the
engine is shown in Figure 2. Three linked magnetic stages perform specific interrelated
functions. The first stage handles the main injection of propellant gas and its ionization; the
second, also called the RF booster acts as an amplifier to further energize the plasma; the
third stage is a magnetic nozzle, which converts the energy of the fluid into directed flow.

Figure 1.2: Basic System Schematic of the VASIMR Engine

VASIMR is a radio frequency (RF,) driven device where the ionization of the second
stage by ion cyclotron resonance heating (ICRH), a well-known technique, used extensively
in magnetic confinement fusion research. Due to magnetic field limitations on existing
superconducting technology, the system presently favours the light propellants; however, the
helicon, as a stand -alone plasma generator can efficiently ionize heavier propellants such as
Argon and Xenon.

Figure 1.3: Power Flow Diagram

The performance of this concept can be examined in Figure 3. Electric power P is
partitioned into two legs by the power partition fraction f. RF generators convert electrical
into RF power with efficiency RF. The transmission lines and antennas also have their
efficiencies A; for simplicity we assume they are equal. Power transfer efficiencies for
the ionization and booster stages, i and b respectively, are not equal. Finally, plasma
output at the RF booster is further scaled by the magnetic nozzle efficiency N.

Chapter 2
Literature Review
The VASIMR engine has its roots in magnetic plasma confinement studies conducted
in the late 1970s at the Charles Stark Draper Laboratory and The Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT). A small NASA-funded experimental program began in the early 1980s at
the MIT Plasma Fusion Centre and was transferred to NASAs Johnson Space Centre in the
early 1990s. These initial studies demonstrated the efficiency of the plasma physics processes
at the heart of the engine and led to three US patents. These results were presented in
numerous scientific conferences and peer-reviewed publications and are widely available in
the scientific literature.
In cooperation with NASA, the project was privatized by Ad Astra Rocket Company
in 2005. Since that time, Ad Astra has continued the development of the technology
exclusively on private investment. Over the 25 years at NASA preceding privatization, the
total direct government funding for the project by the space agency was approximately
$6,000,000. Since the companys formation in 2005 with the exception of a small 2010
contract to support testing of a high-temperature superconducting magnet, totalling $142,000
Ad Astra has received no direct government funds for VASIMR development. At present,
via a Non-Reimbursable Space Act Agreement, Ad Astra and NASA/Johnson Space Centre
collaborate on several aspects of mutual interest relevant to technology and systems
integration with no exchange of funds.
In the development of the VASIMR technology, Ad Astra collaborated with research
teams at established, recognized scientific institutions and laboratories in the United States,
such as the Oak Ridge and Los Alamos National Laboratories, The Electric Propulsion
Laboratory at the University of Michigan, the Departments of Physics at Rice University, the
University of Texas at Austin, The University of Houston, as well as recognized research
institutions internationally, such as The Australian National University, The Alfvn
Laboratory in Sweden, The Irish National University, The University College Dublin and
many others. Several Master and award-winning Doctoral theses were successfully
completed on the controlling physics of the engine that laid the foundations for the present
system.
Within the normal constraints of US export control regulations, Ad Astra publishes
the results of its work regularly at professional conferences and peer-reviewed journals. At
the International Electric Propulsion Conference in September 2011, Ad Astra presented
recent testing results that demonstrate a system efficiency of 60% (thruster efficiency of
72%) at 210 kW and 4800 seconds specific impulse (Isp) with argon propellant. Recent
experiments with krypton, a heavier gas, are exploring the potential to further expand the
engines thrust/Isp envelope. Ad Astras most advanced engine configuration is the VX-200
(for VASIMR experiment at 200kW), a 200 kW test engine currently in operation at the
companys main laboratory in Houston. Ad Astra also operates a smaller test device, called
the VX-CR, at its sister facility in north-western Costa Rica. This test unit is used primarily
for component life-cycle evaluation, materials characterization and thermal management
studies. Ad Astra is currently designing the flight version of the VX-200, called the VF-200
(for VASIMR flight at 200 kW).
3

The technology of advanced high-temperature superconductors has also matured

significantly in the last decade with the development of commercially available high current
density BSCCO and YBCO conductors by companies such as Superpower Inc. and American
Superconductor. These developments have made lightweight, high-field magnets for
VASIMR applications feasible. Moreover, miniaturized cryocooler technology, such as the
Sunpower M series model, has already flown in space and are being considered by Ad Astra
as part of the cryogenic system for the flight magnet. Ad Astras VX-200 test engine features
the largest cryogen-free, high-field, low-temperature superconducting magnet in existence
today. This magnet was developed to meet Ad Astras specifications and has operated quite
successfully in the VX-200 engine since its integration in May of 2009. The company is
currently designing a high temperature flight version of this system.
As for electrical power, just like all other electric rockets, VASIMR needs
electricity, so questions related to the power source naturally rise to the top. While Ad Astra
is not in the business of developing space power sources, the company follows carefully the
progress in both of the leading space electric power options: solar and nuclear. What follows
is a brief discussion of both.
For its near-term, robotic commercial applications, Ad Astra foresees (within 5-10
years) high delta-v VASIMR flights manoeuvring payloads in the LEO to GEO regions of
space, powered by concentrator solar electric arrays. Combined with state-of-the-art support
and deployment mechanisms, these arrays should be able to provide power (out as far as
Mars) at a specific mass in the range of 2-7 kg/kW (the range depending on radiation
shielding requirements) much lower than the best nuclear space power systems developed
to date.
In the near term, using solar-electric power at levels of 100 kW to 1 MW, VASIMR
propulsion could transfer heavy payloads to Mars using only one to four first-generation
thrusters in relatively simple engine architectures. By optimizing the ratio of power to total
vehicle mass at an appropriate specific impulse, significant cost savings over chemical in
space propulsion can be realized. This application should be attractive for a methodical, costeffective, long-term plan of Mars exploration in which infrastructure and supplies are prepositioned at Mars by slow cargo flights in advance of faster human transits. This is a
capability that can be demonstrated first at relatively low power levels in support of robotic
exploration, and then grow as space electric power generation improves.
But such improvements point squarely to the need for advanced nuclear electric
power. In this realm, much remains to be done and development work is a long-term effort
that must not be delayed. Ad Astra has explored the scaling of the VASIMR technology to
multi-megawatt engines driven by nuclear electric power and conducted interplanetary
mission studies of very high power architectures. These studies yield a wide range of fast
interplanetary mission options with one-way trip times to Mars ranging from four to just over
one month, depending on the performance of the nuclear power source (generally specified in
kilograms/kilowatt). It is abundantly clear that the nuclear reactor technology required for
such missions is not available today and major advances in reactor design and power
conversion are needed. However, a number of serious research studies have been conducted
that point to reactor and power conversion designs that meet the kg/kW required for such a
mission. Again, much remains to be done, and closing the door on these possibilities on the
4

basis of the relatively primitive state of our present nuclear space technology would be highly
premature.

Chapter 3
Construction and Working
The main components of a typical VASMIR engine is shown in figure 4.The chief
components of the system are
1. RF (radio frequency) generators
2. Helicon Coupler ionizes propellant
3. Low Temperature Superconducting Magnets generates magnetic field which
controls plasma
4. ICRH (ion cyclotron resonance heater) antenna superheats plasma
5. Fuel storage tank and injectors

Figure 3.1: Construction of VASIMR

3.1 RF Generators
In the most advanced prototype VX-200, it utilizes two solid-state RF generators
developed by Nautel Limited of Canada especially for this application. The helicon section
RF generator converts power supplied at 375 VDC into approximately the industrial standard
of 6.78 MHz RF with an efficiency of greater than 92% at up to 40 kW. The specific mass of
the helicon section RF generator is less than 1 kg/kW.
The ICH section RF generator converts power supplied at 375 VDC into 500 kHz RF
with an efficiency of greater than 98% at up to 170 kW. The specific mass of the ICH section
5

RF generator is less than 0.5 kg/kW. These RF generators are not located within the vacuum
chamber, but transmit the RF into the vacuum chamber and the VX-200 through highvoltage, high-power RF feedthroughs. The components of the generators were not designed
to operate in vacuum to ensure their availability for testing with the VX-200.

Figure 3.2: RF Generators used for VX200

3.2 Helicon Coupler
The helicon stage is the stage when actual propulsion of the engine starts. It gives
high temperature of the gas passing in the vacuum space between the two ends of the coil.
The helicon is the helical antennae with width of 11cm spread over the length of 16cm. a very
high quality glass tube is inserted in the helicon antenna which can bear high temperatures.
Figure 6 shows the actual helicon antenna mounted in the open space between the magnetic
mirrors. The helicon stage is usually operated at 30kw power.

Figure 3.3: Actual helicon Antenna and 3D view

3.3 Low Temperature Superconducting Magnets
The VASIMR relies on magnetic fields to limit plasma contact with the surrounding
materials as well as to provide the field strength necessary for ion cyclotron resonance at a
6

frequency that does not excessively excite electrons and limits the cyclotron radius. The gyro
radius should be much less than the plasma radius, which corresponds to a field strength of
greater than 1 T. In order to have an efficient electric propulsion device, the magnet must
consume a small amount of power compared to thrust power. The only feasible method to
generate such a strong magnetic field in space is with a superconducting magnet. The VX200 is utilizing a state-of-the-art low temperature superconducting magnet designed and
developed by Scientific Magnetics, LLC of the United Kingdom specifically for the VX-200.
The magnet is shown in figure 4. The space flight VASIMR will utilize a high temperature
superconducting magnet so that the heat-rejection systems that chill the magnet can operate
with a high efficiency.

Figure 3.4: Low temperature superconducting magnet with alignment fixtures mounted
to the ends
3.4 ICRH Antenna
ICRH antenna shakes and twists magnetic field, launching waves. The wave
amplitude proportional to plasma diameter and density (sets minimum plasma size and
power). Difference in ion and electron response results in perpendicular electric field that
rotates at input power frequency. Where ion cyclotron frequency matches applied frequency,
ions are accelerated, transferring wave energy to ion kinetic energy (perpendicular).
Phenomenon of resonance heating is achieved here. The ions or plasma is heated to cyclotron
frequency which is the frequency of the charged particle moving perpendicularly to direction
of uniform magnetic field. Since motion is always circular, the cyclotron frequency is well
defined.

Figure 3.5: Twisted loop antenna

Figure 3.6: Actual ICRH antenna used

Chapter 4
Physics behind VASIMR
The basic principles used in VASIMR relate to plasma physics and advancements in
plasma generation and maintenance. But of them two important concept of concern is
magnetic mirror and the magnetic nozzle.
4.1 Magnetic Mirror
A magnetic mirror happens anytime a charged particle is reflected from a
denser magnetic field region. This mirror effect will only occur when a particle has the
appropriate velocity and angle of approach.
A charged particle with some velocity will experience a Lorentz force which will
cause it to corkscrew along a magnetic field line. This motion has a radius of gyration (a gyro
radius) along the magnetic field line. As it moves, it can enter a region of denser magnetic
field lines. The combination of the radial component of the fields and the azimuthal motion of
the particle, results in a force pointed towards away from the dense field. It is this force that
can reflect the particle.

Figure 4.1: Magnetic Mirror

Figure 4.2: Magnetic Nozzle

4.2 Magnetic Nozzle

The magnetic nozzle serves to expand and direct the plasma flow, increasing its
directed axial energy and minimizing plume impingement on surrounding spacecraft
structure. Simply speaking the concept is that when particles see an expanding magnetic field
they are accelerated axially at the expense of their rotational motion. The theory of magnetic
nozzle is still in the early stage and poorly understood. The conventional nozzle half angle
theory is assumed to be true here. Therefore the best half angle of nozzle was chosen
15degrees. Estimated nozzle dimensions were used in the design.

Chapter 5
Propellants for VASIMR
There are four different propellants which can be used in a VASIMR engine namely
Argon Xenon Hydrogen and Neon. These four gases their properties and conditions at which
they can be converted to plasma is given in table 1.

Table 5.1: Propellants and Properties

Different properties and parameters are shown in
the table above. After seeing and considering all the
possible properties of all gases any one can be used. But the
weight and cost factors also plays a role and on that Argon
is the best contender. Hydrogen is also being proposed due
to its radiation shielding properties.

Chapter 6
VASIMR Laboratory Experiment
The first VASIMR experiment was conducted at MIT starting in 1983 on the
magnetic mirror plasma device. Important refinements were introduced to the rocket concept
in 1990s, including the use of the "helicon" plasma source, which replaced the initial plasma
10

gun originally envisioned and made the rocket completely "electrode less"an extremely
desirable feature to assure reliability and long life.
In 1995, the Advanced Space Propulsion Laboratory (ASPL) was founded at NASA
Johnson Space Centre, Houston in the building of Sonny Carter Training Facility. The
magnetic mirror device was brought from MIT. The first plasma experiment in Houston was
conducted using a microwave plasma source. The collaboration with University of Houston,
University of Texas at Austin, Rice University and other academic institutions was
established.

Figure 6.1: VASIMR experiment setup

In 1998, the first helicon plasma experiment was performed at the ASPL. The
decision was made regarding the official name of VASIMR and VASIMR experiment (VX).
VX-10 in 1998 ran up to 10 kW helicon discharge, VX-25 in 2002 ran up to 25 kW and VX50up to 50 kW of RF plasma discharge. In March, 2000, the VASIMR group was given a
Rotary National Award for Space Achievement / Stellar Award.

Figure 6.2: Johnson Space Centre Facility

By 2005 major breakthroughs were obtained at the ASPL including full and efficient
plasma production, and acceleration of the plasma ions in the second stage of the rocket. The
VASIMR engine model VX-50 proved to be capable of 0.5 N of thrust. Published data on the
VX-50 engine, capable of processing 50 kW of total radio frequency power, showed ICRF
11

(second stage) efficiency to be 59% calculated as: 90% NA coupling efficiency 65% NB ion
speed boosting efficiency. It was hoped that the overall efficiency of the engine could be
increased by scaling up power levels.
Ad Astra Rocket Company (AARC) was incorporated in Delaware on January 14,
2005.The 100 kilowatt VASIMR experiment was successfully running by 2007 and
demonstrated efficient plasma production with an ionization cost below 100 eV. VX-100
plasma output was tripled over the prior record of the VX-50. In the same year, the AARC
moved out from the NASA facility to its own building in Webster.
On October 24, 2008 the company announced that the plasma generation aspect of the
VX-200 enginehelicon first stage or solid-state high frequency power transmitterhad
reached operational status. The key enabling technology, solid-state DC-RF powerprocessing, has become very efficient reaching up to 98% efficiency. The helicon discharge
uses 30 kWe of radio waves to turn argon gas into plasma. The remaining 170 kWe of power
is allocated for passing energy to, and acceleration of, plasma in the second part of the engine
via ion cyclotron resonance heating.

Table 6.1: VASIMR development stage

Based on data released from previous VX-100 testing, it was expected that the VX200 engine would have a system efficiency of 6065% and thrust level of 5 N. Optimal
specific impulse appeared to be around 5,000s using low cost argon propellant. One of the
remaining untested issues was potential vs. actual thrust; that is, whether the hot plasma
actually detached from the rocket. Another issue is waste heat management. About 60% of
input energy ends up as useful kinetic energy. A large portion of the remaining 40% will be
secondary ionizations cost from plasma crossing magnetic field lines and exhaust divergence.
A significant portion of that 40% would end up as waste heat. Managing and rejecting that
waste heat is critical to allowing for continuous operation of the VASIMR engine.

Chapter 7
Performance Characteristics

12

VX-200 plasma engine at full power, employing both stages with full magnetic field
Between April and September 2009, tests were performed on the VX-200 prototype with
fully integrated 2-tesla superconducting magnets. They successfully expanded the power
range of the VASIMR up to its full operational capability of 200 kW.
During November 2010, long duration, full power firing tests were performed with
the VX-200 engine reaching the steady state operation for 25 seconds thus validating basic
design characteristics. The system demonstrated 100% propellant usage.

Figure 7.1: Indication of 100% propellant usage

For the VX200 the thruster performance at 200 kW was 72 9% i.e. the ratio of
effective jet power to input RF power, with an Isp = 4900 300 seconds. And the thrust
increases steadily with power to 5.8 0.4 N.

Figure 7.2: Thruster Efficiency Vs Exaust

Velocity

Figure 7.3: Thrust Vs Input RF

Power

The high-power design was developed to test critical technologies and to provide
performance measurements at power levels, magnetic field strengths, and configurations
applicable to a flight unit. The VX-200 demonstrated the capability to operate with a total of
13

200 kW DC power input into RF generators and coupled to the plasma for a short pulse proving that the technology does function at high power.
The first stage, or helicon stage, generated an argon plasma with a minimum cost to
make the ions of 87 eV per ion at approximately 28 kW input power and 107 mg/s argon flow
rate. An average ion kinetic energy of 12 eV with only the helicon powered was calculated
from plasma flux and force measurements near the thruster exit. The second stage, or ion
cyclotron heating (ICH) stage, was operated from zero to 81 kW with the helicon at a fixed
power of approximately 28 kW.
Extensive measurements of the plasma flux, momentum, and ion kinetic energy in the
far- field plume with the ICH stage operating at approximately 135 kW demonstrated a half
angle of 24 degrees for 90% of the momentum and 30 degrees for 90% of the plasma flux
with the second stage operating.
The thrust efficiency and specific impulse increased from approximately 10% and 800
s to 54% and 3500 s, respectively, with increasing ICH power. The data show no saturation in
the process that converts ion cyclotron frequency RF waves into ion energy. A semiempirical model of the efficiency as a function of specific impulse matches the trends of the
experimental data and predicts approximately 64% thrust efficiency at 6000 s and 200 kW.
On December 8, 2008, Ad Astra signed an agreement with NASA to arrange the
placement and testing of a flight version of the VASIMR, the VF-200, on the International
Space Station (ISS). As of June 2012, its launch is anticipated to be in 2015. Since the
available power from the ISS is less than 200 kW, the ISS VASIMR will include a tricklecharged battery system allowing for 15 min pulses of thrust.
Testing of the engine on ISS is valuable because it orbits at a relatively low altitude
and experiences fairly high levels of atmospheric drag, making periodic boosts of altitude
necessary. Currently, altitude reboosting by chemical rockets fulfills this requirement. The
VASIMR test on the ISS may lead to a capability of maintaining the ISS or a similar space
station in a stable orbit at 1/20th of the approximately $210 million/year present estimated
cost.

Chapter 8
Advantages Of VASIMR
14

VASIMR has the following advantages in comparison to other electric propulsion

systems existing today
1. Aiming for Isp of 3000 50000 that too variable specific impulse.
2. Exhaust velocities from 30 500km/sec.
3. Shorter trip times, heavier payloads.
4. No moving parts or electrodes.
5. No contact between plasma and components because of magnetic field.
6. Efficiency ~ 80% and improves with power.
7. Hydrogen propellant (abundant).
8. Much lower fuel consumption and cost.
9. Highly scalable to high power designs.
10. Radiation shielding by using hydrogen as fuel.
11. High performance in low earth orbit.
Other in space propulsion systems and their application range and issues are explained in
the figure 17 below.

Figure 8.1: Comparison with other Inspace Propulsion Systems

Chapter 9
Dissadvantages of VASIMR
15

Even though the system in itself proves to be very promising future inspace
propulsion system, but it faces many drawbacks in field of techological development and
testing. Mainly the following
1. Requires low temperature superconducting magnet and this requires low
temperature cooling systems.
2. The strong magnetic field could interfere with other equipment, and could also
cause torque effect in the system due to magnetic interactions.
3. Maintaining vacuum for testing the system is a problem because of the plasma
occupying the vacum which was created.
4. Power source to run the RF Generators is a serious problem.
5. For proposed long distance travels development in field of nuclear power is a
must.

Chapter 10
Potential Future Applications

16

VASIMR is not suitable to launch payloads from the surface of the Earth due to its
low thrust-to-weight ratio and its need of a vacuum to operate. Instead, it would function as
an upper stage for cargo, reducing the fuel requirements for in-space transportation. The
engine is expected to perform the following functions at a fraction of the cost of chemical
technologies:
1. drag compensation for space stations
2. lunar cargo delivery
3. satellite repositioning
4. satellite refueling, maintenance and repair
5. in space resource recovery
6. ultra fast deep space robotic missions

Figure 10.1: VASIMR on ISS

Other applications for VASIMR such as the rapid transportation of people to Mars
would require a very high power, low mass energy source, such as a nuclear reactor (see
nuclear electric rocket). NASA Administrator Charles Bolden said that VASIMR technology
could be the breakthrough technology that would reduce the travel time on a Mars mission
from 2.5 years to 5 months.
In August 2008, Tim Glover, Ad Astra director of development, publicly stated that
the first expected application of VASIMR engine is "hauling things [non-human cargo] from
low-Earth orbit to low-lunar orbit" supporting NASA's return to Moon efforts.
10.1 Use as a space tug or orbital transfer vehicle
The most important near-future application of VASIMR-powered spacecraft is
transportation of cargo. Numerous studies have shown that, despite longer transit times,
VASIMR-powered spacecraft will be much more efficient than traditional integrated
chemical rockets at moving goods through space.

17

An orbital transfer vehicle (OTV)essentially a "space tug"powered by a single

VF-200 engine would be capable of transporting about 7 metric tons of cargo from low Earth
orbit (LEO) to low Lunar orbit (LLO) with about a six month transit time.
NASA envisages delivering about 34 metric tons of useful cargo to LLO in a single
flight with a chemically propelled vehicle. To make that trip, about 60 metric tons of LOXLH2 propellant would be burned.
A comparable OTV would need to employ 5 VF-200 engines powered by a 1 MW
solar array. To do the same job, such OTV would need to expend only about 8 metric tons of
argon propellant. Total mass of such electric OTV would be in the range of 49 t (outbound &
return fuel: 9 t, hardware: 6 t, cargo 34 t). The OTV transit times can be reduced by carrying
lighter loads and/or expending more argon propellant with VASIMR throttled up to higher
thrust at a less efficient (lower Isp) operating condition. For instance, an empty OTV on the
return trip to Earth covers the distance in about 23 days at optimal specific impulse of 5,000 s
(50 kNs/kg) or in about 14 days at Isp of 3,000 s (30 kNs/kg).
The total mass of the NASA specs' OTV (including structure, solar array, fuel tank,
avionics, propellant and cargo) was assumed to be 100 metric tons (98.4 long tons; 110 short
tons)allowing almost double the cargo capacity compared to chemically propelled vehicle but
requiring even bigger solar arrays (or other source of power) capable of providing 2 MW.As
of October 2010, Ad Astra Rocket Company is working toward utilizing VASIMR
technology for space tug missions to help "clean up the ever-growing problem of space
trash." They hope to have a first-generation commercial offering by 2014.

18

Chapter 11
Conclusion and Scope for Future Work
VASIMR prototype have demonstrated 100% propellant utilization and a Variable
Isp over range of 5000 to 12000+ seconds.VASIMR shows potential to growth to both high
power and highly variable specific impulse. A possible contender for a manned mission to
mars and outer space in the future. With many possible applicatios lined up for the system it
will surely emerge out as a revolutionary technology in the naer future.

Figure 11.1: VASIMIR Today

19

Chapter 12
References
1. Frisbee, R., \SP-100 Nuclear Electric Propulsion for Mars Cargo Missions," 29th
AIAA/SAE/ASME/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference, Monterey, CA, USA, June 1993,
AIAA-93-2092.
2. Frisbee, R., \Electric Propulsion Options for Mars Cargo Missions," 32nd
AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit , Lake Buena Vista,
FL, USA, July 1996, AIAA-96-3173.
3. Polk, J. and Pivirotto, T., \Alkali Metal Propellants for MPD Thrusters,"
AIAA/NASA/OAI Conference on Advanced SEI Technologies , Cleveland, OH, USA,
September 1991, AIAA-91-3572.
4. Glover, T., Chang Diaz, F. R., Ilin, A. V., and Vondra, R., \Projected Lunar Cargo
Capabilities of High-Power VASIMR Propulsion," 30th International Electric Propulsion
Conference, September 2007, IEPC-2007-244.
5. Ilin, A., Cassady, L., Glover, T., Carter, M., and Chang Diaz, F., \A Survey of Missions
using VASIMR for Flexible Space Exploration," Tech. Rep. JSC-65825, NASA - JSC,
April 2010.
6. Boswell, R. W. and Chen, F. F., \Helicons: The early years," IEEE Transactions of
Plasma Science, Vol. 25, December 1997, pp. 1229{1244.
7. Chen, F. F. and Boswell, R. W., \Helicons: The past decade," IEEE Transactions of
Plasma Science, Vol. 25, December 1997, pp. 1245{1257.
8. www.adastrarocket.com

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