Roles of managers

Management Concepts and Principles

Management is active, not theoretical. It is about changing behaviour and making things
happen. It is about developing people, working with them, reaching objectives and
achieving results. Indeed, all the research into how managers spend their time reveals that
they are creatures of the moment, perpetually immersed in the nitty-gritty of making things
happen.
Management as:
taking place within a structured organisational setting and with prescribed roles;
directed towards the attainment of aims and objectives;
achieved through the efforts of other people; and
using systems and procedures.
Principles
1 Division of work. The object is to produce more and better work from the same effort,
and the advantages of specialisation. However, there are limits to division of work which
experience and a sense of proportion tell us should not be exceeded.
2 Authority and responsibility. Responsibility is the corollary of authority. Wherever
authority is exercised responsibility arises. The application of sanctions is essential to good
management, and is needed to encourage useful actions and to discourage their opposite.
The best safeguard against abuse of authority is the personal
integrity of the manager.
3 Discipline is essential for the efficient operation of the organisation. Discipline is in
essence the outward mark of respect for agreements between the organisation and its
members. The manager must decide on the most appropriate form of sanction in cases of
offences against discipline.
4 Unity of command. In any action an employee should receive orders from one superior
only; if not, authority is undermined and discipline, order and stability threatened. Dual
command is a perpetual source of conflicts.
5 Unity of direction. In order to provide for unity of action, co-ordination and focusing of
effort, there should be one head and one plan for any group of activities with the same
objective.
6 Subordination of individual interest to general interest. The interest of the organisation
should dominate individual or group interests.
7 Remuneration of personnel. Remuneration should as far as possible satisfy both
employee and employer. Methods of payment can influence organisational performance
and the method should be fair and should encourage keenness by rewarding well-directed
effort, but not lead to overpayment.
8 Centralisation is always present to some extent in any organisation. The degree of
centralisation is a question of proportion and will vary in particular organisations.
9 Scalar chain. The chain of superiors from the ultimate authority to the lowest ranks.
Respect for line authority must be reconciled with activities which require urgent action,
and with the need to provide for some measure of initiative at all levels of authority.
10 Order. This includes material order and social order. The object of material order is
avoidance of loss. There should be an appointed place for each thing, and each thing in its
appointed place. Social order involves an appointed place for each employee, and each

employee in his or her appointed place. Social order requires good organisation and good
selection.
11 Equity. The desire for equity and for equality of treatment are aspirations to be taken
into account in dealing with employees throughout all levels of the scalar chain.
12 Stability of tenure of personnel. Generally, prosperous organisations have a stable
managerial personnel, but changes of personnel are inevitable and stability of tenure is a
question of proportion.
13 Initiative. This represents a source of strength for the organisation and should be
encouraged and developed. Tact and integrity are required to promote initiative and to
retain respect for authority and discipline.
14 Esprit de corps should be fostered, as harmony and unity among members of the
organisation is a great strength in the organisation. The principle of unity of command
should be observed. It is necessary to avoid the dangers of divide and rule of ones own
team, and the abuse of written communication. Wherever possible verbal contacts should
be used
Management Process

Management is essentially an integrating activity

Management is the process of achieving organisational objectives, within a changing
environment, by balancing efficiency, effectiveness and equity, obtaining the most from
limited resources, and working with and through other people. Objectives are the desired
end-results the organisation is striving to achieve. Within the framework of objectives,
policy provides the guidelines for the operations and activities of the organisation.
Clarification of objectives and policy is a prerequisite if the process of management is to be
effective

Activities and qualifications of managers

Sets objectives determines objectives and the goals for each area of objectives,
and describes what needs to be done to achieve these objectives.
Organises analyses the activities, decisions and relations required, classifies and
divides work, creates organisation structure, and selects staff.
Motivates and communicates creates a team out of people responsible for various
jobs.
Measures establishes targets and measurements of performance which focus on
both the individual and the organisation as a whole.
Develops people directs, encourages and trains. How well subordinates develop
themselves depends on the way a manager manages.
Management as a set of interrelated activities:
forecasting, setting objectives and planning;
the definition of problems that need to be solved to achieve these objectives;
the search for various solutions that might be offered to these problems;
the determination of the best or most acceptable solutions;
the securing of agreement that such solutions should be implemented;
the preparation and issue of instructions for carrying out the agreed solutions;
the execution of the solutions;
the devising of an auditing process for checking whether such solutions are properly
carried out and, if they are, that they do in fact solve the problems for which they
were devised;
the design, introduction and maintenance of the organisational structures which are
most appropriate for these activities;
the selection, training, development and management of the appropriate staff.
Qualifications
Technical competence relates to the application of specific knowledge, methods and skills
to discrete tasks. Technical competence is likely to be required more at the supervisory level
and for the training of subordinate staff, and with day-to-day operations concerned in the
actual production of goods or services.
Social and human skills refer to interpersonal relationships in working with and through
other people, and the exercise of judgement. A distinctive feature of management is the
ability to secure the effective use of the human resources of the organisation. This involves
effective teamwork and the direction and leadership of staff to achieve coordinated effort.
Under this heading can be included sensitivity to particular situations, and flexibility in
adopting the most appropriate style of management.
Conceptual ability is required in order to view the complexities of the operations of the
organisation as a whole, including environmental influences. It also involves decisionmaking skills. The managers personal contribution should be related to the overall
objectives of the organisation and to its strategic planning.
Technical skills are most important for lower-level managers, conceptual skills are most
important for top managers. Human skills are equally important for all managers.
Managers roles
As a result of this formal authority and status, managerial activities can be seen as a set of
ten managerial roles which may be divided into three groups: (i) interpersonal roles; (ii)
informational roles; and (iii) decisional roles

The interpersonal roles are relations with other people arising from the managers status
and authority.
Figurehead role is the most basic and simple of managerial roles. The manager is a
symbol and represents the organisation in matters of formality. The manager is
involved in matters of a ceremonial nature, such as the signing of documents,
participation as a social necessity, and being available for people who insist on
access to
the top.
Leader role is among the most significant of roles and it permeates all activities of a
manager. By virtue of the authority vested in the manager there is a responsibility
for staffing, and for the motivation and guidance of subordinates.
Liaison role involves the manager in horizontal relationships with individuals and
groups outside their own unit, or outside the organisation. An important part of the
managers job is the linking between the organisation and the environment.
The informational roles relate to the sources and communication of information arising
from the managers interpersonal roles.
Monitor role identifies the manager in seeking and receiving information. This
information enables the manager to develop an understanding of the working of the
organisation and its environment. Information may be received from internal or
external sources, and may be formal or informal.
Disseminator role involves the manager in transmitting external information
through the liaison role into the organisation, and internal information through
leader role between the subordinates. The information may be largely factual or may
contain value judgements. The manager is the nerve centre of information. If the
manager feels unable, or chooses not, to pass on information this can present
difficulties for delegation.
Spokesperson role involves the manager as formal authority in transmitting
information to people outside the unit, such as the board of directors or other
superiors, and the general public such as suppliers, customers, government
departments and the press.
The decisional roles involve the making of strategic organisational decisions on the basis of
the managers status and authority, and access to information.
Entrepreneurial role is the managers function to initiate and plan controlled (that is,
voluntary) change through exploiting opportunities or solving problems, and taking
action to improve the existing situation. The manager may play a major part,
personally, in seeking improvement, or may delegate responsibility to subordinates.
Disturbance handler role involves the manager in reacting to involuntary situations
and unpredictable events. When an unexpected disturbance occurs the manager
must take action to correct the situation.
Resource allocator role involves the manager in using formal authority to decide
where effort will be expended, and making choices on the allocation of resources
such as money, time, materials and staff. The manager decides the programming of
work and maintains control by authorising important decisions before
implementation.

Negotiator role is participation in negotiation activity with other individuals or

organisations, for example a new agreement with a trade union. Because of the
managers authority, credibility, access to information, and responsibility for
resource allocation, negotiation is an important part of the job.

Theories X,Y,Z

Theory X represents the carrot-and-stick assumptions on which traditional organisation are

based, and was widely accepted and practised before the development of the human
relations approach. Its assumptions are that:
the average person is lazy and has an inherent dislike of work;
most people must be coerced, controlled, directed and threatened with punishment
if the organisation is to achieve its objectives;
the average person avoids responsibility, prefers to be directed, lacks ambition and
values security most of all; and
motivation occurs only at the physiological and security levels.
The central principle of Theory X is direction and control through a centralised system of
organisation and the exercise of authority. McGregor questions whether the Theory X
approach to human nature is correct, and the relevance today of management practices
which are based upon it. Assumptions based on a Theory X approach, and the traditional
use of rewards and sanctions exercised by the nature of the managers position and
authority, are likely to result in an exploitative or authoritarian style of management.
At the other extreme to Theory X is Theory Y which represents the assumptions consistent
with current research knowledge. The central principle of Theory Y is the integration of
individual and organisational goals. Its assumptions are:
for most people work is as natural as play or rest;
people will exercise self-direction and self-control in the service of objectives to
which they are committed;
commitment to objectives is a function of rewards associated with their achievement;
given the right conditions, the average worker can learn to accept and to seek
responsibility;
the capacity for creativity in solving organisational problems is distributed widely in
the population;
the intellectual potential of the average person is only partially utilised; and
motivation occurs at the affiliation, esteem and self-actualisation levels as well as the
physiological and security levels.
McGregor implies that a Theory Y approach is the best way to elicit co-operation from
members of an organisation. It is the task of management to create the conditions in which
individuals may satisfy their motivational needs, and in which they achieve their own goals
through meeting the goals of the organisation. McGregor develops an analysis of the
implications of accepting Theory Y in regard to performance appraisal, administration of
salaries and promotions, participation, staffline relationships, leadership, management
development and the managerial team.
Theory Y
The characteristics of a Theory Z organisation are described by Ouchi as:
long-term employment, often for a lifetime;
relatively slow process of evaluation and promotion;
development of company-specific skills, and moderately specialised career path;

 implicit, informal control mechanisms supported by explicit, formal measures;

participative decision-making by consensus;
collective decision-making but individual ultimate responsibility;
broad concern for the welfare of subordinates and co-workers as a natural part of a
working relationship, and informal relationships among people.
According to Ouchi, type Z organisations would be more effective as a result of an emphasis
on trust, which goes hand in hand with productivity; a less hierarchical and bureaucratic
structure; and higher levels of worker involvement; all of which would create a distinctive
company style and culture. His ideas generated considerable debate about the nature of
Japanese industry and Japanese managers which still, to some extent, continues today.
Managerial Effectiveness

Managerial efficiency can be distinguished from managerial effectiveness.

Efficiency is concerned with doing things right, and relates to inputs and what the manager
does.
Effectiveness is concerned with doing the right things, and relates to outputs of the job
and what the manager actually achieves.
To be efficient the manager must attend therefore to the input requirements of the job
to clarification of objectives, planning, organisation, direction and control. But in order to be
effective, the manager must give attention to outputs of the job to performance in terms
of such factors as obtaining best possible results in the important
areas of the organisation, optimising use of resources, increasing profitability, and
attainment of the aims and objectives of the organisation.
Effectiveness must be related to the achievement of some purpose, objective or task to
the performance of the process of management and the execution of work. Criteria for
assessing the effectiveness of a manager should be considered in terms of measuring the
results that the manager is intended to achieve. But what is also important is the manner in
which the manager achieves results and the effects on other people.
This may well influence effectiveness in the longer term. Managerial effectiveness results
from a combination of personal attributes and dimensions of the managers job in meeting
the demands of the situation, and satisfying the requirements of the organisation.
Criteria of managerial effectiveness

Management involves getting work done through the co-ordinated efforts of other people.
Managers are most likely to be judged, not just on their own performance, but also on the
results achieved by other staff. The managers effectiveness may be assessed in part,
therefore, by such factors as:
the strength of motivation and morale of staff;
the success of their training and development; and
the creation of an organisational environment in which staff work willingly
and effectively.
The difficulty is determining objective measurement of such factors. Some possible
indication might be given by, for example:
the level of staff turnover;
the incidence of sickness;
absenteeism;
poor time-keeping; and
accidents at work.

For some management jobs it might be possible to identify more quantitative factors which
may give an indication of managerial effectiveness, including:
meeting important deadlines;
accuracy of work carried out by the department, perhaps measured by the number
of recorded errors;
level of complaints received from superiors, other departments, customers or clients,
suppliers, the public;
adherence to quality standards, for example, the amount of scrap or waste material;
keeping within agreed cost or budgetary control limits; and productivity.
General criteria of managerial effectiveness

The managers work decision-making, problem-solving, innovation, management of time

and handling information.
The manager himself/herself motivation, role perception, coping with stress/ambiguity,
seniority, and average salary grade for age.
The managers relationships with other people subordinates, superiors, peers and clients;
handling conflict and leadership/power.
The manager as part of the organisation maintenance of the organisation, and technical
and financial control. Criterion of general effectiveness allocation of resources, achieving
purpose, goal attainment, planning, organising, co-ordinating, controlling.
Leadership Concepts and Framework

Leadership is at its best when the vision is strategic, the voice persuasive and the results
tangible. In the study of leadership, an exact definition is not essential but guiding concepts
are needed. The concepts should be general enough to apply to many situations, but
specific enough to have tangible implications for what we do
it is a relationship through which one person influences the behaviour or actions of other
people. This means that the process of leadership cannot be separated from the activities of
groups and with effective teambuilding.
Management vs. Leadership

Managers tend to adopt impersonal or passive attitudes towards goals. Leaders adopt a
more personal and active attitude towards goals.
In order to get people to accept solutions, the manager needs continually to co-ordinate
and balance in order to compromise conflicting values. The leader creates excitement in
work and develops choices that give substance to images that
excite people.
In their relationships with other people, managers maintain a low level of emotional
involvement. Leaders have empathy with other people and give attention to what events
and actions mean.
Managers see themselves more as conservators and regulators of the existing order of
affairs with which they identify, and from which they gain rewards. Leaders work in, but do
not belong to, the organisation. Their sense of identity does not depend upon membership
or work roles and they search out opportunities for change.
A manager administers a leader innovates.
A manager maintains a leader develops.
A manager focuses on systems and structure a leader focuses on people.
A manager relies on control a leader inspires trust.
A manager keeps an eye on the bottom line a leader has an eye on the horizon.

A manager does things right a leader does the right thing

The 7-S organisational framework of: strategy, structure, systems, style, staff, skills and
superordinate (or shared) goals. Watson suggests that whereas managers tend towards
eliance on
strategy,
structure, and
systems,
leaders have an inherent inclination for utilisation of the soft Ss of
style,
staff,
skills, and
shared goals.
There are many variables which underlie the effectiveness of leadership in work
organisations. More specifically, these include the following:
the characteristics of the manager, personality, attitudes, abilities, value system; and
the personal credibility of the manager;
the type of power of the manager and the basis of the leadership relation;
the characteristics of the subordinates; their needs and expectations; attitudes;
knowledge, confidence and experience; and their motivation and commitment;
the relationship between the manager and the group, and among members of the
group;
the type and nature of the organisation, and different stages in the development of
the organisation;
the nature of the tasks to be achieved, the extent to which structured or routine;
the technology, systems of communication and methods of work organisation;
organisation structure and systems of management;
the type of problem and the nature of the managers decisions;
the nature and influence of the external environment;
the social structure and culture of the organisation;
the influence of national culture.