Globalización, Cultura y Música

Globalization and Musical Culture
Author(s): Alexandros G. Baltzis

Source: Acta Musicologica, Vol. 77, Fasc. 1 (2005), pp. 137-150
Published by: International Musicological Society
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and Musical Culture
Globalization
Alexandras
Aristotle
1.On
G. Baltzis*
University
of Thessaloniki
Greece
globalization
from different
Scholars
As a result, different
puzzle over globalization

have been expressed?more
disciplines
theories
orderto
for more
than two decades.
or less systematically?in
approach forthe purpose
and the appropriate

identify its general characteristics
of analysis. Nikos Kotzias1 suggested a classification of the theories on globalization, ac
he does not provide any descriptive definitions, these
cording to three criteria. Although
criteria may be identified as ontological, epistemological
and historical.
classification, the various theories may be grouped as follows:
a.
By the ontological
Following Kotzias'
criterion
a.1. Theories
as an objective phenomenon,
i.e. as a set of
considering globalization
or
of
that
processes
subjective political and eco
emerged
regardless
personal
nomic decisions.2
as a subjective phenomenon,
i.e. as a result
considering globalization
of decisions and choices made by political and economic
subjects. This view is
are
in
where
several
convinced
academics
that globalization
is
Greece,
popular
a.2. Theories
a scenario
elaborated
by certain transnational elites3. The idea of globalization

has also some support inGermany and in France.4
as a scenario
Alexandras
1.
Kastaniotis,
2.
See
in the
2000,
pp.
of
Journalism
and Mass
Communication
of Reality",
and Asymmetries
Antworten
auf Globalisierung,
preface
edition
at the Aristotle
in Ulrich
in Greek,
Beck, Was
Athens,
14-27.
The Consequences
for example Anthony
Giddens,
The Politics
1990 and Immanuel Wallerstein,
Michalis Chletsos,
Naxakis,
Athens,
called
itGlobalization
and themselves
4.
School
of Modernity,
Cambridge,
Cambridge
University
of the World Economy: The States, the Movements
and the Civilizations, Cambridge,
Press, 1984.
Cambridge
University
See for example Maria Negreponti-Delivani,
"'Globalization':
Content
Consequences
Perspectives",
in:Myths
and Reality in the Age of Globalization.
eds.
Christos
Kollias, Charis
Interdisciplinary Approach,
Press,
3.
is lecturer
Baltzis
of Thessaloniki
University
(Greece).
on Globalization
Nikos
"Theories
Kotzias,
ist Globalisierung?
Irrt?mer des Globalismus
"And they
Hadjikonstantinou,
2003, pp. 49-67, Giorgos
called Globalizators",
Ibid., pp. 129-47 and Vassilis Filias, The
the Logic of the Historic Objection, Athens,
Kaktos, 2001.
die Neuverteilung
des Wohlstands
nach der drit
Fehldiagnose Globalisierung:
Patakis,
they
and
of Globalization
Accounting
See for example Daniel Cohen,
ten industriellen Revolution. Frankfurt
R?sister
au bougisme:
d?mocratie
and New York, Campus

Sachbuch,
Taguieff,
1998 and Pierre-Andr?
techno-marchande,
Paris, Fayard, 2002.
forte contre mondialisation

138 Alexandras
b. By the epistemological
G. Baltzis
criterion
according to which globalization concerns mainly the financial markets

relations. Therefore
the economic
and the economic
approach alone should be
b.1. Theories
adequate.5
is a complex social, economic,

politi
globalization
that affects every sector of social life and calls for
and analysis.6
according to which
cal and cultural phenomenon
b.2. Theories
interdisciplinary
c.
approaches
By the historical criterion

ci. Theories that view inglobalization
a phenomenon
that can be traced back several
centuries.7
c.2. Theories
is a contemporary
asserting that globalization
the past, yet holding its own distinctive features.8
phenomenon
rooted
in
is and how
that the questions
concerning what globalization
on
can
invarious ways depending
the methodological
should be analyzed
be answered
and
the
of
view
chosen.
background
point
Taking a closer look at globalization, one can ascertain several features, which?de
It is obvious
then
it
are
in the history of societies?they
spite the fact that they are not unprecedented
as
as
a
terms
in
of the global impact they
well
qualitative point of view,
unique from
can
of
in
be
traced
have. Therefore,
previous stages in the development
they
hardly
societies. At the same time they go far beyond the field and scope of
contemporary
include (a) the implementation
Again according to Kotzias,9 these features
a
new
new
and
mode of production,
of
(c) changes in communication
(b)
technologies,
state
of
the
national
in
modification
the
relation,
transport,
time-space
(e)
(d) changes
economics.
life
(g) changes that affect the individual's everyday
and have a psychological
impact. Taking into account that the publications on globaliza
it is not possible to analyze here each and every
tion are more than 12,000 worldwide,
(f) cultural changes
functions,
and
in detail. However,
for the purposes of this paper some of
feature of this phenomenon
will
discussed
and commented
in brief.
Kotzias
be
the features summarized by
5-
the Tide: An Intellectual History of Free Trade, Princeton,

Irwin, Against
N.J.,
Douglas
Press,
1996.
University
The Consequences
See for example Anthony
Giddens,
of Modernity,
op.at. and Nikos Kotzias, Globaliza
tion. The Historic Position, the Future and the Political Significance, Athens,
Kastaniotis,
2003.
See
for example
Princeton
6.
7.
8.
The Politics of the World Economy,

Immanuel Wallerstein,
See for example
op. cit., Malcolm Waters,
Glo
London, Routledge,
Globalization,
1995 and Roland Robertson,
"Mapping the Global Condition:
as the Central
ed. Mike
and Modernity,
Globalization
Global Culture. Nationalism,
balization
Concept",
and New Delhi, Sage Publications,
Oaks
Featherstone,
London, Thousand
1997, pp. 15-30.
The Consequences
See for example
Giddens,
op. cit., Fredric Jameson, Masao
of Modernity,
Anthony
Duke University
MiYOSHi (eds.), The Cultures of Globalization,
Durham,
Press, 1998, David
Global Transformations:
and Jonathan Perraton,
G. McGrew,
David Goldblatt
Politics,
Culture,
Palo Alto, Stanford

the Political
the Future and

9.
Nikos
Kotzias,
"Theories
University
Press,
1999 and Nikos
Athens,
Kastaniotis,
Significance.
on Globalization
and Asymmetries
Kotzias,
Globalization.
2003.
of Reality",
Held, Anthony
and
Economics,
The Historic Position,
op. cit., pp. 29-45.

Globalization
and Musical Culture
139
to Kotzias, a distinctive feature of globalization

a) According
new technologies.
Ithink that although major economic
were
about
advancements,
past
brought
by technological
is the
of
implementation
and social changes
in the
mankind
can for the first
i.e. tools that can be used in

universal tools,
time use technology
that produces
for example,
several different and previously unrelated activities. Digital technology,
made possible the use of one and the same machine for composing, writing down,
processing, playback and finally producing a complete musical product, ready to be
as well) isessential
sold. This convergence
(that concerns the forms of communication
for changes occurring
in a society where
social relations are reified, that is they take
the form of relations among things.
b) Summarizing the features of globalization, Kotzias10 indicates that the implementa
the evolution of a new mode of production
tion of new technologies
accelerates
that entails new
changes
labor relations
and a novel attitude
towards
labor. Ithink that these
are epitomized
in the fact that the sense of participation
in decision-mak
sense
feature of Fordism?is
the
of
displaced by
personal devotion, consistent
ing?a
with the so-called
"flexible forms of work". With
the advent of the flexible organiza

the public domain (i.e. the "place of work")
tion of production
(including tele-work),
and the domain of personal privacy (i.e. the "home") tend to fuse.
are also related to changes
in communication
and transport.11
c) New technologies
New forms of communication
and transport appear, making
it possible to commu
in very long distances
in a very short time.
nicate and transfer goods and services
These changes lead to the next feature of globalization.
in the time-space
relation. The unprecedented
of time and
d) Changes
compression
core
a
is
the
of
these
At
least
decade
Kotzias'
brief
before
space
report on
changes.
the basic features of globalization, other scholars had already insightfully analyzed the
and its significance
time-space compression
especially for the arts.12 Here isnot the
and long discussion. My general point?based
right place to enter this complicated
on the analysis by David Harvey, Nikos Kotzias and Ulrich Beck?is
that changes in
are
the perception
of time and space
in social relations
brought about by changes
and culture (like the appearance
of a new mode of production
and a new attitude
These changes are associ
labor) and by the new forms of communication.
as well. InDavid Harvey's words: "How have the
ated with political transformations
towards
uses and meanings of space

want
I
flexible accumulation?
and time
shifted with
the transition
from
Fordism
to
to suggest that we have been experiencing,

these last
an
two decades,
intense phase of time-space
that has had a disorienting
compression
and disruptive impact upon political-economic
the
balance of class power, as
practices,
io. Nikos
Kotzias,
"Theories
Kotzias,
on Globalization
op. cit., pp. 60-62.

on Globalization
"Theories
and Asymmetries
of Reality",
op. cit., pp. 29-45
Globalization...,
11. Nikos Kotzias,

12. Cf. David Harvey,
The Condition
and Asymmetries
of Reality",
Basil Blackwell,
Oxford,
of Postmodernity,
op. cit., pp. 32-35.

1990, pp. 201-323.

ancl Nikos
Alexandras
140
G. Baltzis
as upon cultural and social life"13.Moreover,

the compression
of time and space
makes the borders of national states somewhat
Cross-border
services,
"perforated".
information and products (including cultural artifacts) disorganize the established
local
well
not only from a political and economic

a cultural one as well.14
control mechanisms,
point of view, but from
in the func
involves?as
Kotzias indicates15?changes
e) This kind of disorganization
tions of the national state. Politicians and social scientists puzzle over these changes
Ithink that inter
that have triggered off a series of collective actions and reactions.
use the
of the state"?to
alia they weaken
the so-called
"ideological mechanisms
their
cultural
On
the
other
term16?thus
famous Althusserian
diminishing
impact.
hand, the same changes
reduce citizens' control on matters
life.17
concerning everyday
is
"a
that
be
called
system
Joseph Stiglitz
might
global governance
inwhich a few institutions?the
World
without global government, one
Bank, the
a
the
Trade
IMF [International Monetary
WTO
Fund],
[World
Organization]?and
and trade ministries,
few players?the
finance, commerce,
closely linked to certain
As
indicates, there
financial and commercial

affected
interests?dominate
by their decisions
are
left almost
the scene, but
inwhich many of those
voiceless".18
features of globalization?summa
suggest, the above-mentioned
is the conclusion
discussed by several authors. My point, however,
can
cannot
economic
be
its
that, although
aspect
hardly be re
ignored, globalization
a
It should rather be approached as a complex
duced to
purely economic phenomenon.
As my comments
rized by Kotzias?are
with technological,
social phenomenon
political, ethical,
ideological, cultural and?of
course?artistic
aspects. From this point of view Ithink that Kotzias is right to argue that
inwhich choices and decisions (either individual or
globalization constitutes the context
collective)
are made,
2. Delineating
its concrete
thus providing
major
form and favoring certain
tendencies.19
changes
means that cultural change is

Conceiving of globalization as a complex social phenomenon
to
Inother
to
not considered
be the result of certain "external"?so
speak?processes.
is not something that "happens to music" or has a certain impact
words, globalization
on
it.Changes
inmusical
culture
rather constitute
one of the aspects
The Condition of Postmodernity,

op. cit., p. 284.
13. David Harvey,
ist Globalisierung?...,
Cf.
Ulrich
Was
Beck,
op. cit., pp. 85-93.
14.
on Globalization
and Asymmetries
"Theories
Kotzias,
15. Nikos
16. Louis Althusser,
Athens,
Themelio,
"Ideology
and
Ideological
Mechanisms
of
of Reality",
State",
the
of globalization,
op. cit., pp. 35-39.

in: Louis Althusser,
1981, pp. 69-121.

and Guy Baeten,
of'Glocal'
Development
"Scaling the City: The Political Economy
European
Planning Studies, vol. 9, no. 7 (2001), p. 832.
and its Discontents,
Globalization
London,
Penguin Books, 2002, pp. 21-22.
17. Cf. Erik Swyngedouw

Brussels' Conundrum",
18.
Joseph Stiglitz,
Kotzias,
19. Nikos
Positions,
"Theories
on Globalization
and Asymmetries
of Reality",
op. cit., p. 18.

and Musical Culture
Globalization
141
and they are themselves

and multileveled
complicated
inmusical
involved
of
values
social
and
groups
systems
since they concern

life.
institutions,
the globalization of musical culture has its own historical background.

different musical cultures.
in the age-long process of interaction between
the exchange between
This is the case?for
instance?of
neighboring musical cultures
or Balkan countries. The process of musical acculturation,
in Eastern Mediterranean
Furthermore,
It is rooted
resulting from colonialism and slavery, is an example of interaction between

musical cultures. Concerning musical culture, Wallis and Malm identified three
distant
types of
last decades
the process of globalization observed during the

and imperialism.20 Regardless of the dispute
of the 20th century: exchange, dominance
and the criticism this study has provoked,21 the various types of cultural interaction it
interaction
that preceded
in the domain of culture.

identifies represent the historical basis of globalization
of music industry by the end of the 19th and during the
Inany case, the development
20th century as well as its evolution to a transnational multimedia
industry provided the
and cultural point of view.
both from an economic
institutional cornerstones
necessary
This is because the music industry goes far beyond the record companies. As a compli
it includes several components
cated social system, apart from the record companies,
sheet music publication, artist manage
with distinctive functions: instrument manufacture,
ment,
concert
organization
and the management

of intellectual property
rights. It also
and distribution of equipment
for sound
the manufacture
includes sound management:

recording, processing and reproducing.
sion, cinema, the music
music
contemporary
of music on a massive
Furthermore,
some of the media,
like radio, televi
press and the Internet, should also be considered as part of the

and distribution
industry as a social system, since the dissemination
scale are unthinkable without
them in contemporary
societies.
a
new
in
the
of
of
the
20th
century,
phase
development
During
music
system emerged. This phase is defined by the
industry as a social and economic
formation of "transnational entertainment
corporations, which promote music as an
no longer tied to a particular sound car
series of 'revenue streams'...
ever-expanding
the
last decades
institutional change is not a purely economic

rier".22 This major
phenomenon.
Along
relations?which
with the virtualization and inter-netting of commodity
compress space
of ordinary local systems for the distribution
and time?it
promotes the disorganization
and transmission
of music.
Let us note here that virtualization

ity relations
20.
(and communications)
isconceived
into an
of as the transformation
image on the computer
"Patterns
of Change"
and Krister Malm,
Roger Wallis
London
Goodwin,
Word, eds. Simon Frith and Andrew
of commod
screen. The
term
(1984), On Record: Rock, Pop, and the Written

and New York, Routledge,
2000, pp. 173-78.
21. See for example
Brian Longhurst,
Popular Music and Society, Cambridge,
Polity Press, 1995, pp. 51-53,
to MP3: Music and Industry
in the Twentieth
Reebee
"From Music
Garofalo,
Publishing
Century",
and Roy Shuker, Understanding
London
American Music, vol. 17, n?. 3 (1999), pp. 339-40
Popular Music,
and New
22. Reebee
York,
Garofalo,
2001, pp. 71-72.

Routledge,
"From Music Publishing
to MP3...",
op. cit., p. 319.

Alexandras
142
G. Baltzis
"commodity relations" signifies a specific set of relations where

(a) the use of money?as
an account and storage unit of the abstract exchange value of goods and services?is
universal and (b) the profit is the final purpose of the transactions
that take place. The
standard equipment
needed for collecting, accumulating
distribute cultural artifacts (in this case music products)
on the screen. Inter-netting?on
the other hand?means
and processing data inorder to

is compressed
and represented
that these virtual (and yet very
and particularly
real) relations connect people via networks,
i.e. via the Internet. The transportation
and communication
days now take only a few minutes. Thus,
in an unprecedented
time are compressed
especially when
via networked
networks,
that used to take several
it comes
to music,
space and
way.23
the
developments,
digitalization of music and the technological
areas
in all
of sound management,
have favored changes in the distribution and
progress
struc
dissemination of music and promoted further disorganization of certain established
combined
These
tures
with
life. For example, the vertical integration of the retail system and produc
isthe case inGreece?to
of the small independent
the disappearance
in the cities. The
stores that existed since the '70s in almost every neighborhood
inmusical
tion24 has led?as

music
to increase dramatically become obvious when

impact of these changes and theirtendency
considering that in 1998 about 846 million new CDs were sold in the American market,
in the first six months
while
the
Internet each day, that

conditions created
The
of 1999, at least 17million MP3 files were downloaded

from
is a total of approximately
3 billion files.25
the
above alter the structure of
outlined
by
developments
It iswell known that many intermediaries operate between musi

communication.
as components
of the music industry as
cians and the public. These have been mentioned
a social system. Given the new conditions created by digitalization, virtualization and the
least in several developed
countries?now
have more possibilities
Internet, artists?at
musical
to communicate
their public, bypassing several of these institutions.26 In addition,

musicians and listeners has become
increasingly blurred.27
same conditions, on the other hand, have broadened
the possibilities for access
the distinction
The
to musical
alters music
with
between
not only on a local, but on a global level as well. This development

since more and more people gain access to a wider
range of
reception,
artifacts
The Value of Music Today (proceedings

"Musical Life and Commodity
of
Relations",
Baltzis,
23. Alexandras
held inAthens,
Institut Athen),
the International Congress
of Musicology
25-27 February 2002, Goethe
see: http://www.
on this Congress
information
Edition Orpheus,
Athens,
2003, p. 160 (for further
musicology.gr).
24. Cf. Martin Kretschmer,
George
Environment: A Study of Strategic
ence on Long-term Developments
The Global Music

Klimis, Roger Wallis,
Industry in the Digital
at the confer
Intent and Policy Responses
(1006-00).
Paper presented
in the Arts and Cultural Industries Erasmus University
Rotterdam,
23-25
Michael
is available at the web

address:
February 2000. The text
http://www.mica.at/pdf/kretschmer_c.pdf.
to
"From
Music
Reebee
Garofalo,
op. cit., p. 349.
25.
Publishing
MP3..."
Locus for Value Creation", Management
26. Ali Yakhlef,
"The Internet as a New
Decision, 36/9 (1998),
to MP3..."
"From Music Publishing
and Reebee
Garofalo,
op. cit., pp. 349 and 351.
27.
Paul Theberge,
Wesleyan
Any Sound you can imagine: Making

Press, 1997, p. 242.
Music/Consuming
Technology,
University

Hanover
and
p. 613
London,
and Musical Culture
Globalization
H3
styles, genres and cultures. At the same time, the system for managing the intel
since it has proven to be outdated
and
lectual property rights has been disorganized,
are also raised
threatened by the new conditions of musical communication.28 Questions
musical
in favor of a few artists in a few countries

this system promotes
the asymmetries
it threatens creativity.30
all over the world29 and about the ways
the
inwhich music is created. The forma
these
affect
conditions
Evidently,
changes
about
and the disintegration

multimedia
of local distribu
conglomerates
in the
the emergence
of new ways for disseminating music, the changes
the musicians and their audience and finally the disorganization
between
of
tion of transnational
tion systems,
relationship
the intellectual property system
inwhich music is created.
Another
more
dimension
constitute
of this context
both the
institutional and economic
isthe transcultural milieu, which
context
has resulted
from
cultures and isthe product of the breakdown

and cultural barriers. As mentioned
above, several types of interaction
intense interactions between
of economic
different
in the past. "Transculture",

have been observed
a
to be
associated with
is considered
however,
phenomenon,
truly contemporary
transformations
in national cultures that challenge
ideas about authenticity.
It is also
between
different
associated
with
world
of media,
musical
cultures
fragmentation
tourism and
and diversity, whose

leisure.31
common
denominator
is the global
as a two-way flow of cultural traits32 and signifies a

here is understood
era of digitalization, virtualization and inter-net
of
of
characteristic
the
interaction,
type
Itcan hardly be compared to the outcome of the linear journeys
ting of communications.
made by composers
and musicians during the past centuries.
It is not a homogenous
and
unified system, but rather a condition that arises from the collapse of cultural barriers
Transculture
and allows
composers
and musicians?at
least in developed
of "musical worlds", which belong
explore an
present and past.
countries?to
to both
unprecedented
diversity
it represents an unparalleled condition for music creation.
is associated with
As it has already been suggested, transculturation
Therefore,
and diversity.
In fact, from several points of view,
28. Roger Wallis,

Charles
tive Administration
of
it seems more
accurate
fragmentation
to take into
Martin Kretschmer
and George
Michael Klimis, "Contested
Collec
to the Principles of Reciprocity
Rights inMusic: The Challenge
Property
and Solidarity", European Journal of Communication,
14/1 (1999), pp. 5-35, and Martin Kretschmer,
George
The Global Music
Michael Klimis, Roger Wallis,
op. cit., pp. 16-17.
Industry in the Digital Environment...,
a Choice of no Choice for Artists and Third World Countries;
29. See for example
Joost Smiers, Copyrights:
The Public Domain
1999 (http://www.constantvzw.com/copy.
is Loosing Anyway, constant
Association,
Baden-Fuller,
Intellectual
is
2001 (also
LeMonde Diplomatique,
Joost Smiers, "Copyright
Wrong",
cult/copyrights.pdf),
September
in the Greek
and Reebee
"From Music
Garofalo,
newspaper
Elephterotypia
2/12/2001)
to MP3..."
op. cit., pp. 346 and 348.
Publishing
and Copywrongs.
The Rise of Intellectual Property and
Siva Vaidhyanathan,
30. See for example
Copyrights
how it Threatens Creativity, New York and London, New York University
Press, 2001.
an der postmodernen
L. B?hl, "Musiksoziologie
Soziale Welt
Wende",
31. Walter
f?r sozialwis
Zeitschrift
und
Praxis, 45 (1994), p. 339.
senschaftliche
Forschung
published
32.
Roger Wallis
and Krister Malm,
"Patterns
of Change",
op. cit., p. 177.

Alexandras
144
consideration
dialectics
both the globalization

of contemporary
musical
of the
G. Baltzis
local and the
localization of the global, i.e. the

culture.33 Local musical cultures become modern
in
and cultural sense. The production

and distribution of music
are structured upon the rational organization
principles that originate from certain so
new
are
while
markets
created
cieties,
(globalization of the local in the institutional and
the
institutional, economic
economic
local musics?like
classical
sense). Certain
jazz or Latin, or even the Western
over
in
cultural
the
local
the
music?become
all
the
world
of
widespread
(globalization
are integrated
in local musical
sense). At the same time, globalized cultural elements
cultures creating new hybrid styles. For example there isGreek Latin music, or Greek
rock music, as there isChinese
jazz, clearly identifiable and different from the "original"
or
Latin
music
is the case with
rock,
jazz
example
(localization of the global). Another
the Brazilian music. The
interaction between
Brazilian traditional styles and international
music
like
rock
and
also
rap
jazz,
produced new musical styles.34 This bi-direc
popular
a long time ago inmusic?has
in the institutional
tional process?observed
accelerated
context defined so far.
and economic
This perspective
of musical
culture
is consistent
with
a more
general sociological ap
into account along with globali
inorder to emphasize this type of approach, the term "glocalization"
like Roland Robertson, Arjun Appadurai, Ulrich Beck
introduced by authors
proach, according
zation. Moreover,
has been
to which
localization
should be taken
and Benjamin Barber.35

The approach suggested
isalso consistent with the structural changes observed

inthe
two
in
the
of
last
favor
both
market
concentration
decades,
industry during
high
of the major global
and high diversity.36 It is not by accident that Vivendi Universal?one
the multi-cultural
multimedia
conglomerates?emphasized
background of its company
music
staff and stated clearly that it ".. .draw[s] on this wealth of diversity as a unique strength
to preserve, promote and protect the rich cultural character of countries, communities
Time Warner
and local regions".37 In unison with this attitude, another "giant"?AOL
an der postmodernen
L. B?hl, "Musiksoziologie
Wende",
op. cit., pp. 339-40, Brian Longhurst,
der
and
Veit
der Differenz:
Music
and
Zur ?sthetik
cit.,
Erlmann,
op.
p.
53
Popular
Society,
"Ideologie
World Music,
World
Music". PostScriptum
3
pp. 6-29
(http://www2.hu-berlin.de/fpm/popscrip/the
in Humboldt
Institute of Popular Music
Berlin, Research
1995.
University,
men/pst03/pst03010.htm),
33- Cf. Walter
Perrone
and Christopher
Roland
Robertson,
"Comments
Culture,
ed. Nobutaka
34. Charles
2001.
35.
1997, pp.
McWorld,
217-25,
edition
Dunn
Brazilian
Popular Music
and Globalization,
Routledge,
on the
Inoue, Tokyo,
Ulrich Beck, Was
inGreek,
(eds.),
Athens,
and Indigenous
'Global Triad' and 'Glocalization'",
Globalization
Institute for Japanese Culture
and Classics,
Kokugakuin
University,
ist Globalisierung?...,
Barber, J/had vs.
op. cit., pp. 131-44, Benjamin
2001.
Kastaniotis,
in the Popular Music

Sociologi
Industry, 1969 to 1990", American
The Global Jukebox. The International
cal Review, vol. 57, n?. 1 (1992), pp. 57, 63-67 and 70, Robert
Burnett,
and New York, Routledge,
Music
1999, pp. 107-15, David Hesmondhalgh,
"Flexibility,
Industry, London
Culture & Society, vol. 18, n? 3, July 1996, p. 474.
Post-Fordism
and the Music
Industries", Media,
Annual Report Summary 2000, Vivendi Universal,
2001, p. 3 (the document
universal,
may be
37. Vivendi
found at the address:
http://finance.vivendiuniversal.com).
36.
Paul D. Lopes,
"Innovation
and Diversity

and Musical Culture
Globalization
M5
Inc.)?includes
diversity in its values and declares that this is
(now named Time Warner
to include the
done inorder to ".. .attract and develop the world's best talent?seeking
broadest range of people and perspectives".38 This situation is very different compared
to previous periods, when the few major companies were
significantly less interested
in the American
market?one
of the world's
diversity.39 For example,
in general produced a
the 1940s and early 1950s, the major companies
largest?during
was
It
the
kind
of
music that provoked
music.40
and
standardized
popular
homogenous
in promoting
criticism41 and
Adorno's
concentration
3. Asymmetries
On
during this period that a negative relationship

could be seen in the music industry.42
itwas
and diversity
between
and contradictions
several occasions,
and contradictions.
the above
outline
Major asymmetries
of developments
implies certain
uneven
structure
result from the
asymmetries
of the music
industry and the disproportionate

appropriation of intellectual rights worldwide.
illustrated by the main features of the music industry, which are:43
This
is
is dominated
the market
by a small number of firms that account for
a) Oligopoly:
a large amount of output.
a large proportion of the means of production and labor
b) Extended concentration:
is concentrated
c) Horizontal
and at the
into a few firms.
in the same
integration: mergers of two or more companies
a
same stage of production
or more
two
of
e.g.
merger
or of two or more retail firms.
companies
d) Vertical
integration: mergers
-
e.
g. a merger
of CD
of firms at different
record
manufacturers,
industry
record
stages of the production
companies
and
retail
chain
firms.
is increased - e.g. Time Warner

the range of products produced
e) Diversification:
or Sony offer a wide range of services and products related to music artifacts; in
music isonly one
addition, for the major transnational multimedia
conglomerates
of their diverse
operations.
2001 Fact Book, AOL Time Warner,

time warner,
2001, p. 2 (the document
may be found at the
38. Aol
address:
http://www.aoltimewarner.com).
in Symbol Production:
and David G. Berger,
The Case of Popular Music",
39. Richard A. Peterson
"Cycles
2
W. Adorno,
American
Sociological Review, vol. 40, n?.
(1975), pp. 163 and 165-66. Cf. also Theodor
"On Popular Music"
(1941), On Record: Rock, Pop, and the Written Word, eds. Simon Frith and Andrew
Goodwin,
40.
Paul D.
41.
Theodor
op. cit., pp. 301-14.

"Innovation
and Diversity...",
W. Adorno,
"On Popular Music",
Lopes,
op.
cit., p. 56.
op.cit.
Richard A. Peterson
and David G. Berger,
in Symbol Production...",
op. cit., p. 163.
"Cycles
P. Hull,
"The Structure
of the Recorded
Music
and Entertainment
43. Cf. Geoffrey
Industry", The Media
inMass
N. Greco,
Industries. Readings
ed. Albert
2000,
Communications,
Boston,
Allyn and Bacon,
mentioned
later. Since the writing
pp. 76-98. Cf. also the annual reports of the five major corporations
of this paper two of the five major record companies
and created
the Sony BMG joint venture
merged
42.
this change does not alter the fact that the world
(each one holding 50% of the shares). Anyway,
market
is dominated
by a very small number of large corporations.

music
Alexandras
146
G. Baltzis
not changed
the last one?have
industry?excluding
a
wave
of mergers
significantly during the 20th century.44 Yet during the last two decades
that
and takeovers
resulted in the formation of a few global multimedia
conglomerates
a
new
control most of the channels for music dissemination. This is relatively
phenom
These
main
enon with
features
of music
and cultural consequences.

A few facts and figures may illustrate the main
economic
Inthis respect, it is noteworthy

works and records accounting
five companies".45 Moreover,
music copyrights. For example,
countries.46 AOL Time Warner
titles
1,000,000
features of the global music

industry.
for 1999, "the rights to the
that according to estimations
for 80% of global music sales are appropriated
by only
own a very large repertoire of
these few conglomerates
Universal owns over 800,000

titles in about 63
more than
named
Time
controlled
Warner
(now
Inc.)
in 68 countries,47 the same as EMI in 30 countries. This data, of course,
Vivendi
not represent the ultimate proof for the concentration

music, but it surely serves as a good indicator.
does
A better
year 2000
indicator for the extent
of market
concentration
of
intellectual property
is the market
share.
in
Inthe
BMG (Bertelsmann),
that isAOL Time Warner,
"big five" companies,
EMI, Sony and Vivendi Universal, shared $22.3 billion, that is about 61% of the recording
of the control over the channels for
industry world sales.48 Inaddition, the concentration
music
the
dissemination
has been
accompanied
to AOL Time Warner,
example, according
more than 2.5 billion times each month".49
by a more aggressive marketing policy. For

brands "touch consumers
the corporation's
facts are only indicative of the economic

lifeworldwide.
Major contradictions
These
nate musical
and cultural asymmetries

that domi
As
result from these asymmetries.
above, more
and musicians?gain
and more people?including
composers
In
cultures.
other
of
musical
and
words, there is
range
styles, genres
a certain tendency towards a broader democratization
this is
of musical
life. However,
a conditional or formal democratization
in
that reinforces social and cultural distinctions
mentioned
access
to a wider
favor of the economically
and culturally advantaged
countries
and social groups.
P. Hull,
of the Recorded
Music
"The Structure
44- Cf. Geoffrey
Industry", op. cit., Paul D. Lopes, "Innovation
and David G. Berger, "Cycles in Symbol Production...",
and Diversity...",
op. cit., and Richard A. Peterson
op. cit..
The Global Music
Michael Klimis, Roger Wallis,
Industry in the Digital Environ
George
op. cit., p. 8.
Annual Report Summary 2000, op. cit., p. 16.
46. Vivendi universal,
47. AOL TIMEWARNER, 2001 Fact Book, Op. Cit., p. 25.
12 December
rates published
to the currency
conversion
according
by the Financial Times on
48. Calculated
45.
Martin
Kretschmer,
ment...",
2001
and according
to annual
(http://www.emigroup.com),
(http://www.sony.co.jp/en/),
Annual
ag, Bertelsmann
Report
2001, p. 2
EMI, EMI Group Annual Report 2001, The EMI Group,
reports:
2001, p. 64
Sony, Sony Corporation Annual Report 2001, Sony Corporation,
Vivendi universal,
Annual Report Summary 2000, op. cit., p. 2, Bertelsmann
7999/2000,
Recording
http://www.bertelsmann.com),
IFPI, 2001
Industry World Sales 2000.
ifpi.org/site-content/statistics/worldsales.html).
49. AOL TIMEWARNER, 2001 Fact Book, Op. at.,
AG, 2000, p. 12 (the document

may be found
time warner,
2001 Fact Book, op. cit., p. 5 and IFPI,
may be found at the address:
http://www.
(the document
Bertelsmann
at the address:
Aol
p. 3.

Globalization
and Musical Culture
HI
of control over the channels for musical communication

increasing concentration
raised the issue of cultural freedom for both musicians and listeners long ago. Also, ques
tions have been raised concerning the expansion of cultural hegemony as well as its chal
The
lenge to cultural identity. Furthermore, the uneven access to some of these channels and
to technology, the disproportional
structure of the intellectual property system and finally
the inequality of cultural capital within local societies?studied
by Pierre Bourdieu50?out
line the features of this formal democratization worldwide. The contradictions
concerning
inmusical culture can be summarized as follows: those who can afford it
formal democracy
are
many more than ever before) are free to listen to the music they have been
(and they
trained to appreciate. According
to this approach, the asymmetries
and contradictions
to
musical
related
the globalization of
culture have?apart
from the cultural?economic
and political aspects as well. Inmany cases it is difficult?if
not impossible?to
separate
ones.
the economic and political aspects from the cultural
are further exaggerated when taking into account that the new
These asymmetries
for musical communication?arising
possibilities
ers?are
not available to all societies. Some
from
of them
the collapse of artificial barri

lack the technical
infrastructure
to control
let alone
people to take advantage of the new forms of communication,
the channels necessary
for the dissemination
of their own musical culture.
Moreover,
not all social groups
that allows
access
possess
the cultural capital that generates
the need
for
to these
possibilities.
social dimensions
of these
The
are more
clearly illustrated with the

at
of the 19th century, this
end
the
expansion
industry. Beginning
expansion exerted a major impact on local musical cultures, mainly due to its tendency
to reproduce the reified social relations it emanates from. Thus, in certain societies?in
worldwide
which
been
as res facta (i.e. as an accomplished

and notated work51) has
as
a
the
of
music
social system has mainly
foreign?the
industry
rather cultural than economic. This cultural function can be seen in the disintegra
the notion of music
main
been
asymmetries
of the music
tion of
local musical
function
life, in the establishment
of rational
circulation
structures
for the production,

of music as a form of mass
and reception of music, and in the development

that displaced what Heinrich
(i.e. impersonal) communication
participatory music.52
In addition, music
See
51.
1979.
Kurt Blaukopf,
261.
52.
See
53.
Joost
Pierre
for example
Musical
Kurt Blaukopf,
identified
as
industry as a social system is tied inwith a concept of individual

rights that undermines valuable cultural patterns inthese societies.53
intellectual property
Inan environment
of global asymmetries
50.
Besseler
Bourdieu,
and contradictions,
La distinction,
Life in a Changing
Society,
critique
the application
social du jugement,
Portland,
Oregon,
Paris, Les ?ditions
Amadeus
Press,
Life in a Changing Society, op. cit., pp. 193-94.

a Choice of no Choice...,
op. cit., pp. 8-10.
Musical
Smiers, Copyrights:
of copyright

de Minuit,
1992, pp.
166 and
Alexandras
148
on the concept
i.e. pre-modern,
restrictions?based
age-old
traditional,
G. Baltzis
as res facta?leads
to the disintegration
of
cultures. This type of disintegration
is not
all, musical cultures always change along with
of music
musical
necessarily evaluated as negative. After

their social context. The attempt to preserve outdated
social changes occur may lead to further complications
cultural patterns no matter what

and contradictions,
such as the
isolationist or xenophobic
tendencies. Yet the kind of disintegration
and disorganization
discussed here entails the expansion of the reified and alienated
social relations, resulting in new types of cultural hegemony. This isanother major asym
metry of cultural globalization with economic, political and legal implications. Ithas even
rise of nationalistic,
implications for ethnomusicology.

that globalization and the advancement
of technology
did not create the
have just accelerated
and expanded
discussed. These recent developments
asymmetries
in the forms of social (and par
certain fundamental
social processes. They are rooted
its transformations
and
life that are associated with modernity
with
ticularly musical)
epistemological
It is evident
evolution.
In conclusion
4.
discussed so far confirm that globalization

is a complex
social phe
developments
nomenon that embraces
several aspects of musical
life and not only its economics. The
dissemi
entire structure of musical life, that is the creation, accumulation,
reproduction,
on
nation and reception of music, changes
many levels, since institutions, value systems
The
and social groups are affected both from an economic

discussed
and contradictions
addition, the asymmetries
and opportunities
for musical
and a cultural point of view. In

indicate the coexistence
of risks
culture:
On the one hand, there is a tendency towards

a)
that
control of music creation and dissemination
metries
On
and contradictions.
of musical
life have been
created
the other
and closer
greater concentration
intensifies the established
asym
hand, possibilities for the democratization
that favor new forms of musical
communication.
all over the world, at the same time there

is expanded
As cultural hegemony
b)
are new possibilities for local cultures to become known worldwide,
thus encouraging
the dialogue between
different cultures.
Local musical
c)
for the enrichment
disintegrate, while new possibilities have been created

of local cultures and for new types of musical
and development
cultures
culture to emerge.
that come into view, due to the globalization?or
risks and opportunities
"glo
musical culture, expose the interrelatedness of the economic, cultural and
calization"?of
about the autonomy
political aspects of musical life. Inthis context, romantic exaggerations
The
of music
and
and art
outdated
in 19th century social structures54?are
are
musicians
and
still
for
taken
perhaps
granted by
they
in general?rooted
irrelevant, even
though

and Musical Culture
Globalization
149
so that the new challenges for the

Yet, such views should be disregarded,
musicologists.
new
can be faced.
and their
cultural policy, music education, musicology
responsibilities
and closer control of
Cultural policy might encourage or discourage the concentration
as well
as of the
institutions for music produc

of
cultural
the
further
support
hegemony or the enrichment of
expansion
culture and the dialogue between
different cultures. The issues raised by
the new context are very complicated and delicate, as the fear of losing cultural identity
for musical
the channels
communication
Itmight
local musical
tion.
does lead to?extreme

indeed sometimes
and diversity could lead to?and
types of
reactions. These are some of the challenges that the cultural policy faces in this field. At
for the political subjects that
the same time these challenges create new responsibilities
in view
make decisions upon cultural issues. The situation becomes more complicated
of the changes
in the functions
of the national
state, as the decision makers
of their decisions
with
in a situation where
have to deal
the national
consequences
contradictory
states become
in their decision-making.
less independent
as education
ingeneral?are
also very
The functions of the musical education?just
of risks and opportunities.
The
important ina musical culture defined by the coexistence
obvious when taking into account

its social
importance of musical education becomes
and skills as well as introducing value
functions: controlling and managing knowledge
social
cultural reproduction
i.e.
and innovation.
that
and
socialization,
systems
promote
systems might promote
By embracing a cautious global approach, musical education
the same time?they
the dialogue between different cultures and?at
might contribute
to the enrichment of local cultures. On the other hand, the musical education
systems
support cultural hegemony by focusing on certain musical genres, thus reproduc
ing only certain types of musical culture. Of course, my point here is neither to present
instructions, nor to indicate what the educational policy should or should not avoid. My
might
point
ment.
is just to show that there are contradictory

directions
Not to evaluate them, but rather to show that there
their
implications and possible consequences.

not do is up to the political subjects
should
are. However,
alternatives,
the consequences
should be clear.
of deciding
in an ambivalent
is a need
environ
to elaborate
on
policy should or
on
their goals
what
depending
pro or contra any of the briefly described
What
the educational
to decide
itself faces new challenges and responsibilities. Musicologists might

Finally, musicology
an
understanding of music relevant to the new context or they might reproduce
provide
the outdated
ideas about the autonomy and purity of music conceived of as a result of
54-
For a discussion
about
the
relation
between
the
social
structures
and
romanticism
to the Sociology ofMusic, New York,

"The Ideology of Autonomous
Art", Music and Society.
pp. 176-79, Janet Wolff,
and Reception,
New
eds. Richard Leppert and Susan McClary,
tion, Performance
"Musical Life
Press, 1996, pp. 2-3 and Alexandras
Baltzis,
Cambridge
University
tions", op. cit., pp. 158-59.
example
Ivo Supiad, Music
in Society. A Guide
inmusic
Pendragon
The Politics

see
Press,
for
1987,
of Composi
and Melbourne,
and Commodity
Rela
York
Alexandras
15?
G. Baltzis
individual socially independent

perhaps
creativity. They might illustrate how?and
no
as
terms
concrete
in
of
"in
music
music
but
is
such
thing
general",
only
why?there
dissemination
social functions and conditions of creation, accumulation,
reproduction,
the
is always
Inthis sense, musicologists
might illustrate that music
reception.
else in a certain social and cultural context.
somebody's music addressed to somebody
some of them) might
at
insist on analyzing
least
On the other hand, musicologists
(or
and de-socializing
their object and
"abstract" musical forms as such, de-humanizing
and especially
of approach. Of course, it is not globalization?or

has already been facing,
has produced this dichotomy. Musicology
"glocalization"?that
own
a
dilemmas. However,
the
for
ideological and methodological
long time in fact, its
thus reproducing
alienated methods
ambivalent cultural context creates new risks and opportunities?new

contemporary
as well.
musicology
challenges and responsibilities?for
Inany case, understanding the nature and the complexity of the processes and devel
inthe previous sections of this paper is important inorder to conceive
opments discussed
Perhaps it is now, more than ever, necessary
to rethink music not only as a way of representing the apparent or emotional world, but
also as a means for the critical approach to a humanely meaningful world as well. Cultural
their functions
policy, musical
ina new ambivalent
education
context.
and musicology
acquire central functions

in this respect.

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Globalization and Musical Culture

Author(s): Alexandros G. Baltzis

This content downloaded from 132.248.9.8 on Thu, 6 Nov 2014 18:51:17 PM

and Musical Culture

puzzle over globalization

than two decades.

and the appropriate

by certain transnational elites3. The idea of globalization

and New York, Campus

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according to which globalization concerns mainly the financial markets

is a complex social, economic,

By the historical criterion

that can be traced back several

the Tide: An Intellectual History of Free Trade, Princeton,

The Politics of the World Economy,

Palo Alto, Stanford

the Future and

1999 and Nikos

op. cit., pp. 29-45.

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and Musical Culture

to Kotzias, a distinctive feature of globalization

can for the first

i.e. tools that can be used in

and a novel attitude

labor. Ithink that these

"flexible forms of work". With

the advent of the flexible organiza

uses and meanings of space

to suggest that we have been experiencing,

op. cit., pp. 60-62.

op. cit., pp. 29-45

11. Nikos Kotzias,

op. cit., pp. 32-35.

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as upon cultural and social life"13.Moreover,

not only from a political and economic

point of view, but from

reduce citizens' control on matters

financial and commercial

the scene, but

inwhich many of those

form and favoring certain

means that cultural change is

one of the aspects

The Condition of Postmodernity,

op. cit., pp. 35-39.

1981, pp. 69-121.

17. Cf. Erik Swyngedouw

op. cit., p. 18.

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and Musical Culture

and they are themselves

since they concern

the globalization of musical culture has its own historical background.

resulting from colonialism and slavery, is an example of interaction between

the process of globalization observed during the

in the domain of culture.

and the management

includes sound management:

some of the media,

like radio, televi

press and the Internet, should also be considered as part of the