CONGESTION MANAGEMENT IN ELECTRICAL POWER GRID

By
CHANDAN GIRI
ROLL NO: 161006009
REGISTRATION NO: 210610010 of 2010-2011
Under the Guidance of

Dr. ABHINANDAN DE
&
Dr. ABHIJIT CHAKRABARTI
A Thesis
Submitted in fulfilment of
The requirements for the degree of

Master of Engineering (Electrical Engineering)

Specialization: Power system

Department of Electrical Engineering

Bengal Engineering and Science University, Shibpur
Howrah 711 103
West Bengal, India

BENGAL ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE UNIVERSITY, SHIBPUR

HOWRAH-711103

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I take this opportunity to express my sincere thanks to my thesis guide Dr.Abhinandan De and
Dr.A.Chakrabarti Department of Electrical Engineering of Bengal Engineering and Science
University, Shibpur, for his invaluable advice, guidance, active supervision and constant
encouragement without which it would not have been possible for me to give the Thesis in this
shape.

Date..

Department of Electrical Engineering

(CHANDAN GIRI)

Bengal Engineering and Science University,

Reg. No-210610010 of 2010-2011

Shibpur, Howrah 711103 (West Bengal).

Roll No-161006009

BENGAL ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE UNIVERSITY, SHIBPUR

HOWRAH-711103

CERTIFICATE
We hereby, forward the Thesis entitled CONGESTION MANAGEMENT OF ELECTRICAL
POWER GRID prepared by Chandan Giri (Registration No.210610010) Under my guidance
and supervision in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Engineering in
Electrical Engineering (Specialization in Power Systems).
.

(Dr.Abhinandan De)

(Dr.A.Chakrabarti)

Department of Electrical Engineering

Department of Electrical Engineering

Bengal Engineering and Science University,

Bengal Engineering and Science University

Shibpur, Howrah-711103

Shibpur, Howrah-711103

Countersigned by

(Dr. D.Sarkar)

(Dr. A.K.Das)

Professor and Head

Dean. FET

Department of Electrical Engineering

Bengal Engg & Science University,

Bengal Engg & Science University,

Shibpur, Howrah-711103

Shibpur Howrah-711103.
3

BENGAL ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE UNIVERSITY, SHIBPUR

HOWRAH-711103

CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL

We hereby, have approved the Thesis report entitled CONGESTION MANAGEMENT IN

ELECTRICAL POWER GRID prepared by Chandan Giri under the guidance and supervision
of Dr.Abhinandan De and Dr.A.Chakrabarti in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of
Master of Engineering in Electrical Engineering (Specialization in Power Systems).

Date.

(BOARD OF EXAMINERS)

1...
2
3

Index
Page no

Chapter 1
Introduction of congestion management

15

1.1

Introduction

1.2

Objective and scope of the work

1.3

Literature review

Chapter 2
Load flow analysis

6 15

2.1

Newton Raphson method

2.2

Newton Raphson method for Load flow solution

2.3

Output results for Newton Raphson method

13

Chapter 3
Surge Impedance Loading

16 - 25

3.1

Characteristics Impedance

17

3.2

Surge Impedance

19

3.3

Surge Impedance Loading

20
5

3.4

Importance of Surge Impedance Loading

22

3.5

Congestion in transmission line

22

Congestion Index
3.6

Computation of congestion index for IEEE 30 Bus system

24

3.7

Congested line in this system

24

3.8

How to relieve this congestion

25

Chapter 4
Congestion management using TCSC

26 - 44

4.1

Introduction

27

4.2

TCSC Fundamental Impedance

28

4.3

Power flow model of TCSC

31

4.4

TCSC practical model consideration

33

Firing angle initial condition

Truncated adjustment
Limit revision
4.5

Case study on IEEE 30 Bus system and results

TCSC placed in between Bus 1 and 2

6

34

 TCSC placed in between Bus 2 and 5

Comparison of Congestion index and
line loss with and without TCSC

Chapter 5
Congestion management using SVC

45 - 61

5.1

Introduction

46

5.2

Equivalent Susceptance of SVC

47

5.3

Load flow model of SVC

49

5.4

Advantage of SVC

50

5.5

Disadvantage of SVC

50

5.6

Case study on IEEE 30 Bus system and results

50

Weak Bus selection in IEEE 30 Bus system

SVC placed in 26th Bus
SVC placed in 30th Bus
Comparison of active power flow for TCSC and SVC
Comparison of active power loss for TCSC and SVC
Comparison of congestion index reduction of congestion
For TCSC and SVC

Chapter 6
Congestion management of IEEE 57 Bus system Using TCSC

62 - 65

6.1

IEEE 57 Bus system

63

6.2

Computation of SIL in IEEE 57 Bus system

64

6.3

TCSC connected in line connecting Bus 8 to 9

65

Conclusion

66

Reference

67

Bibliography

69

Chapter 1
Introduction of Congestion management
Introduction
Objective and scope of work of present work
Literature review

1.1. Introduction:

Congestion management is a key function of any independent system operator (ISO) in the
restructured power industry. Improper congestion management will sabotage the security and
reliability of the power system and as well as treading of electricity.
The last ten years have witnessed a rapid development in open power market world wide.
Although the restructured power market fully encourages competition among participants,
there is a need for monopoly in transmission system. Therefore independent system operator
establish to coordinate system operation for security reliability etc. One of the basic tasks of an
ISO is system congestion management. The unique characteristics of electrical energy such as
the inability to store energy in electrical form in a great amount as well as a finite amount of
power that can be transferred between two points of power grid. The violation of these two
limit causes congestion.
There are two types of congestion:

Static congestion
Dynamic congestion

Static congestion: This congestion is caused by the thermal and voltage limit.
B. Dynamic congestion: Power system may undergo discrete change in system
A.

configuration due to outage and contingencies which will affect system dynamic
performance and might threaten the system stability. So available resources must be
utilized to maintain system security. This management is called Dynamic congestion
management.
The objective of the congestion management is to take action and control measure to relive the
congestion of transmission network. In principle congestion management is considered as a
different time scale such as:

Long term transmission capacity reservation that can be made yearly or

monthly.
Short term scheduling of transmission constraint in day ahead market.
Re dispatching of generation in real time balancing market.

10

Short term, the objective of congestion management is to maintain the Physical and
operational reliability and security of the electrical transmission network and facilitate the
competitive market.
In long term, congestion management will impact on investment decision of new generators,
load, network transmission infrastructure and the opportunities for integration of alternative
generation sources (e.g. renewable sources ) into electricity transmission network.
Some conventional methods to reduce congestion in the electrical power grid include:
A. Using flexible ac transmission system (FACTS) device mainly TCSC and SVC to improve the

voltage stability of electrical system and congestion management.

B. Enlargement of the electrical transmission network or re arrangement of transmission
network.
C. Re-scheduling of generation.

1.2. Objective and scope of the present work:

The present work aims to study the various possible methods of congestion management and
to assess the relative merits, de-merits and efficiency of the various techniques. Case studies
were conducted on standard systems under various probable operating conditions including
load variation and system contingencies. The scope of this work also includes the economic
aspects of congestion and congestion removal. The implication of usage of FACTS devices have
been a part of the study.
In this work, a Newton-Raphson load flow solution program has been developed, which forms
the base of the study. Load flow solution gives the nodal voltage and phase angle and hence
the power injection at all the buses and power flows under interconnecting power channels.
Load flow solution is essential for designing a new power system and for planning extension of
existing one for increased load demand. In the present work, Newton - Raphson load flow method
had been chosen for its versatility and simplicity.

A new method for estimating line congestion has been developed in the present work with the
help of a Congestion Index. The proposed congestion index computes the line flows as per
unit of the maximum power transfer limits of the lines. The SIL loading limit of the lines have
generally been considered as the power flow limit for the lines.
In the present work, FACTS devices have been incorporated in the heavily loaded lines with the
objective to reduce congestion. TCSC (Thyristor controlled series capacitor ) and SVC have been
chosen as FACTS device for our study. By using this FACTS device, SIL (surge impedance loading
11

) limit has been increased and there is significant improvement in Total Transfer Capability
(TTC) after using TCSC and SVC. With the increase of TTC, the possibility of congestion is
reduced. The active power flow, SIL, transmission loss, and congestion index are compared with
earlier result of case study on the IEEE 30 Bus test system. The present work also proposed the
proper FACTS device location. The proposed placement approach reduces the congestion under
normal and contingency condition in the transmission lines.

1.3. Literature review:

Although the congestion management has been the focus of debate from beginning of
deregulation most research has concentrated on static congestion management. However
importance of dynamic congestion management has been well recognized. There are two
possible methods to eliminate congestion management. One is preventive scheduling and other
is corrective scheduling. Preventive scheduling is used to dispatch generation and load in the
event of anticipated contingencies [1], [7].
Many congestion management schemes have been developed. Transmission tariff,
Interruptible load incentive, bid compensation, reserved requirement and other means can
contribute to congestion management scheme. In any case of defining the best scheme for
particular system, it is necessary to identify the congestion areas and which deficiencies of the
systems are producing congested situation in grid [2].
Mainly the congestion of line may in effect lead to cascading failure. So a generator rescheduling method for alleviating of line overload using particle swarm optimization technique
proposed in [3].
Based on voltage source model, injection model of interline power flow control (IPFC) and
injection model of transmission line to reduce the congestion [4]. It is shown that based on
multi objective optimal power flow (OPF) control method congestion can be resolved by the
application of IPFC without generation re-dispatching.
Theoretical analysis and comparison study of spot price and different control mechanism has
been employed to reduce congestion [6]. Congestion has significant influences on spot price.
Comparison study of spot pricing is made and analyzed with three control mechanism :

Generation control
Demand control
FACTS control

12

A new sensitivity of the line flow change to the change of line reactance is derived analytically
in this paper [8]. With the sign of sensitivity to the congested line the series compensating
device can be determine the direction of line flow congestion. This sensitivity is linearized
sensitivity. In case of line overflow or line congestion at normal state the FACTS device must
change its operating point to increase system security level.
Power flow control algorithm based on sensitivity analysis proposed in this paper [8]. It is easy
to compute, computational time short and its form is very simple. Due to its fast control
characteristics and continuous compensation capability, FACTS devices have been researched
and adapted in power engineering area. There are so many advantages in FACTS device; it can
increase dynamic stability, loading capability of lines and system security. It can also increase
utilization of lowest cost generation. The key role of FACTS device is to control the power flow
actively and effectively.
Based on a hybrid market structure, a framework to eliminate dynamic congestion caused by
the stability concern after an unexpected contingency is presented. Under this framework,
market participants bid into the dynamic congestion management market with their prices. By
optimally utilizing the available resources in this market, It is shown that system stability is
maintained after a serious contingency, while the total dynamic congestion management cost is
minimized. It should be pointed out only two Stability control means are considered. But the
methodology can be easily extended to other types of control, such as load shedding, generator
tripping and FACTS, which are current under investigation [1].
The development of Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) has potential contribution on the
load curtailment issues in the regulated electric power system. The impacts are due to the fact
that Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) can change the power flow of the power
system as a result of the apparent impedance change of the transmission line where TCSC has
been installed [9, 10].
Removing line congestion under normal and contingency condition carrying higher power close
to lines thermal limit over long distance in a power system without reducing stability and
security margin can be achieved through fast power flow control by using FACTS devices in a
transmission system. The FACTS devices produce more flexibility in power system operation
and control, thus improving the usage of existing transmission systems. Better utilization of the
existing power system to increase capacities by installing FACTS devices becomes
imperative[11]. Provided optimal locations, FACTS device are capable of increasing the system
loadability too. These aspects are playing an increasing and major role in the operation and
control of competitive power systems. Thyristor controlled series capacitor (TCSC). Another
important FACTS device SVC, which is connected in parallel with a weak bus and by controlling
13

the firing angle the power transfer capability can also be changed which can take a typical role
to reduce congestion in a electrical power system[13].

Chapter 2
Load flow analysis

Newton- Raphson method

Newton- Raphson method for Load Flow solution
Output result of Newton- Raphson method

14

2.1. Newton-Raphson method:

Among the numerous solution methods available for power flow analysis, the

Newton

Raphson method is considered to be most sophisticated and important. Many advantages are
attributed to the Newton Raphson approach.
Gauss Seidal (G-S) is a simple iterative method of solving n number load flow equations by
iterative method. It does not require partial derivative. Newton Raphson method is based on
Taylors series and partial derivatives. The N-R method is recent, take less computer time hence
computation cost is less and the convergence is certain. The N-R method is more accurate and
is insensitive to factors like slack bus selection, regulating transformer etc and the number of
iterations required in this method is almost independent of the system size.
The drawbacks of N-R method are difficult solution technique, more calculations involve in each
iteration resulting in large computer time per iteration and the large requirement of computer
memory but the last drawback has been overcome through a compact storage scheme.
Before explaining the application of N-R method to the power flow problem, it is useful to
review this method in general form.
Let the unknown variables be ( , , , ) and the specified quantities ( ,
these are related by set of nonlinear equations:
=

( ,

( ,

..

).

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ..

=

( ,

...................................... (2.1)

The solutions of above nonlinear equations are started with an approximate solution
( , , , ), the zero subscript defining the zero th iteration in process of solving the
above nonlinear equations. The worth noting point is that the initial solution for the nonlinear
equations should not be vary far from actual solution, otherwise there are chance of solution
15

diverging rather than converging and it may not be possible to have a solution whatever the
computer time taken. At first glance it may be appear to be a great drawback for N-R method
but the problem of initial guess for a power system is not at all difficult. A flat voltage profile i.e.
= (1 + 0) for i=1, 2, 3.......n. except the slack bus has been found to be satisfactory for
almost all practical systems.
Let , , ,
be the correction which on being added to the initial assumed
values, give the actual solution. So,
=

,..

) ............................................(2.2)

Expanding this equation in Taylors series around the initial guesses,

=

)+

,.

+ . . +

(2.3)

Neglecting the higher order terms.

,
(

are the derivative of

w.r.t

evaluated at

,.

Partial derivative s of second and higher orders are neglected according to N-R method. In fact
it is this assumption that requires the initial solution to be close to the final solution. Linearizing
all the equations and arranging them in a matrix form, we have:

=
=
=

(
(
(

,
,
,

,.
,.
,.

,.

..

) =

..
..

..

16

.(2.4)

In vector form above equation can be written as :

= .

.....(2.5)

Where J is a square matrix of the partial derivatives on the R.H.S and is known as Jacobian
matrix. The solution of the equation needs calculation of left hand vector B which is the
difference of specified and calculated quantities at ( , , . ). similarly J is calculated at
this guess. Solution of matrix equation provides ( , , , ) and the better
estimates of the solution is given by:
=

(2.6)

Repeating the process of iteration, with these values, we get yet better estimated values. The
( , , , ) will be smaller with every iteration and finally the iteration
process are stopped when ( , , , ) are lesser than pre specified values.

2.2. Newton-Raphson method for Load Flow solution:

In case of load flow solution problem real power and voltage magnitude are specified for the
voltage controlled buses, the power flow equation formulated in polar form. For the typical bus
of power system shown in figure -2.1 the current entering in ith bus.

17

The equation can be written in term of bus admittance matrix as:

=

............................................................................(2.7)

In equation (1.7), j includes bus i. Expressing the equation in polar form we have
=

...................................................................(2.9)

..........................................................(2.8)

Complex power at bus i will be

From equation (1.8),

= | |

.............................(2.10)

Separating real and imaginary parts

=
=

| |cos (
| |sin (

+
+

) ....................................(2.11)
) .......................................(2.12)

Equation (2.11) & (2.12) constitute a set of nonlinear equation in terms of the independent
variables, voltage magnitude in P.U, and phase angle in radians. We have two equation for two
load bus, and given by (2.11) & 2.12) and one equation for each voltage controlled bus, given by
(2.11). Expanding (2.11) & (2.12) in Taylors series about the initial estimate and neglecting all
higher order terms result in the following set of linear equation:

18

( )

=
)

(
(

| |

V
| |


V
| |

.(2.13)

In equation (2.13), bus 1 is assumed to be the slack bus. The Jacobian matrix gives the linearized
and voltage magnitude V

relationship between small changes of voltage angle

the small changes in real and reactive power

( )

&

( )

with

Element of the Jacobian matrix are the partial derivatives of (2.11) & (2.12) evaluated at &
V . In short form it can be written as

..............................................................(2.14)
| |

For voltage control bus, the voltage magnitudes are known. Therefore if M buses of the
system are voltage controlled, M equations are involving & | | are the corresponding
column of Jacobian matrix is eliminated. Accordingly, there are (N-1) real power constraints and
(N-1-M) reactive power constraints, and the Jacobian matrix is of order (2N-2-M) (2N-2-M). J1
is order of (N-1)(N-1), J2 is order of (N-1)(N-1-M), J3 is order of (N-1-M)(N-1), J4 is order of
(N-1-M)(N-1-M).

The diagonal and off-diagonal elements of J1 are:

=
=

| | sin
| | sin

..........................................(2.15)

..(2.16)

The diagonal and off-diagonal element of J2 are:

|

= 2| || |

cos

19

..(2.17)

| | cos

..(2.18)

The diagonal and off-diagonal element of J3 are:

=

| | cos

| | cos

+
+

..........(2.19)
.......(2.20)

The diagonal and off-diagonal element of J4 are:

| |

( )

= 2| || |

| | cos

sin

. . (2.21)

.(2.22)

( )

the term
&
are the difference between the scheduled and calculated value,
known as power residuals given by:
( )

( )

(2.23)

( )

( )

....(2.24)

For new estimates for bus voltages are

= + ..(2.25)
= V

+ V ..(2.26)

20

2.3. Output results of Newton- Raphson program:

A Matlab program has been developed using the above algorithm for load flow analysis in IEEE
30 bus system. The relevant data for the IEEE 30 bus system, the load flow solution results have
been provided below :
Table : 2.1 Output of Newton Raphson Program
Bus no
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

V(PU)
1.06
1.043
1.0217
1.0129
1.01
1.0121
1.0035
1.01
1.0507
1.0438
1.082
1.0576
1.071
1.0429
1.0384
1.0445
1.0387
1.0282

Angle(degree)
0
-5.3474
-7.5448
-9.2989
-14.1542
-11.088
-12.8734
-11.8039
-14.1363
-15.7341
-14.1363
-14.9416
-14.9416
-15.8244
-15.9101
-15.5487
-15.8856
-16.5425

MW
injection
260.928
18.3
-2.4
-7.6
-94.2
0
-22.8
-30
0
-5.8
0
-11.2
0
-6.2
-8.2
-3.5
-9
-3.2

MVAR
injection
-17.118
35.066
-1.2
-1.6
16.965
0
-10.9
0.691
0
17
16.27
-7.5
10.247
-1.6
-2.5
-1.8
-5.8
-0.9
21

Mw
MVAR
generation generation
260.928
-17.118
40
47.766
0
0
0
0
0
35.965
0
0
0
0
0
30.691
0
0
0
19
0
16.27
0
0
0
10.247
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

MW
Load
0
21.7
2.4
7.6
94.2
0
22.8
30
0
5.8
0
11.2
0
6.2
8.2
3.5
9
3.2

MVAR
Load
0
12.7
1.2
1.6
19
0
10.9
30
0
2
0
7.5
0
1.6
2.5
1.8
5.8
0.9

19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

1.0252
1.0291
1.0293
1.0353
1.0291
1.0237
1.0202
1.0025
1.0265
1.0109
1.0067
0.9953

-16.7273
-16.5363
-16.2462
-16.0738
-16.2528
-16.4409
-16.0539
-16.4712
-15.5558
-11.7436
-16.7777
-17.6546

TOTAL

-9.5
-2.2
-17.5
0
-3.2
-8.7
0
-3.5
0
0
-2.4
-10.6

-3.4
-0.7
-11.2
0
-1.6
-2.4
0
-2.3
0
0
-0.9
-1.9

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
4.3
0
0
0
0
0
0

9.5
2.2
17.5
0
3.2
8.7
0
3.5
0
0
2.4
10.6

3.4
0.7
11.2
0
1.6
6.7
0
2.3
0
0
0.9
1.9

17.528

20.921

300.928

147.121

283.4

126.2

Table 2.2 Different parameters of 30 Bus system

Line
no
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23

From
Bus
1
1
2
3
2
2
4
5
6
6
6
6
9
9
4
12
12
12
12
14
16
15
18

To
bus
2
3
4
4
5
6
6
7
7
8
9
10
11
10
12
13
14
15
16
15
17
18
19

active
power
167.964
84.669
42.607
81.412
79.347
58.406
71.631
-14.853
-37.815
-29.387
27.799
15.882
0
27.799
44.147
0
7.717
17.429
7.46
1.511
3.946
6.249
3.043

reactive
power
-18.108
6.248
5.194
-3.772
4.033
1.403
-17.521
11.796
-1.201
-3.214
-18.485
-5.306
-15.799
7.041
-16.795
-10.119
2.39
6.705
3.42
0.638
1.499
1.829
0.842
22

line
loss(MW)
5.179
3.116
1.011
0.858
2.945
1.946
0.641
0.162
0.381
0.103
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.073
0.211
0.058
0.006
0.014
0.043
0.006

Line
loss(MVAR)
15.509
11.388
3.081
2.463
12.374
5.906
2.231
0.409
1.169
0.361
2.213
1.475
0.47
0.819
5.188
0.128
0.152
0.415
0.121
0.005
0.032
0.087
0.012

24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39

19
10
10
10
10
21
15
22
23
24
25
25
28
27
27
29

20
20
17
21
22
23
23
24
24
25
26
27
27
29
30
30

-6.457
8.673
5.054
18.135
5.751
0.635
4.424
5.706
1.853
-1.142
3.5
-4.694
17.998
-6.103
-6.93
-3.67

-2.57
3.471
4.367
11.764
3.107
0.239
2.593
3.048
1.183
1.748
2.366
-0.632
-3.529
1.667
1.661
0.605

0.016
0.076
0.013
0.151
0.029
0
0.025
0.045
0.006
0.008
0.044
0.024
0
0.086
0.161
0.033

0.031
0.17
0.035
0.325
0.059
0
0.05
0.071
0.012
0.014
0.066
0.045
1.262
0.162
0.303
0.063

40
41
`

8
6

28
28

-0.613
-18.611

-0.241
-3.094

0
0.059

0.001
0.209

17.528
MW

68.888
MVAR

Total
Line
loss

23

Chapter 3
Surge impedance loading

Characteristics impedance
Surge impedance
Surge Impedance Loading
Importance of Surge Impedance Loading
Congestion in transmission line
Computation of Congestion index in IEEE 30 Bus System
Congested lines in this system
How to Relieve this Congestion

24

3.1. Characteristics impedance:

The exact solution of any transmission line and the one required for a high degree of accuracy
in calculating 50 Hz lines more than 150 Km long must consider the fact that parameters of the
lines are not lumped but, rather, are distributed uniformly throughout the length of the line as
shown in Fig. 3.1

Figure 3.1 Line diagram of long transmission line

In this figure -3.1, per phase equivalent circuit of a 3-Ph line is shown. A differential element of
length
in the line at a distance from the receiving end of the line is considered. Then
25

and
are, respectively, the series impedance and shunt admittance of the element section.
and are phasor which vary with .
Average line current in the element is ( + +
is quite accurately expressed as

)/2, and the increase of

in the distance

...(3.1)

When products of the differential quantities are neglected. Similarly,

=

.(3.2)

From (3.1) & (3.2) we can get following equation.

=

..(3.3)

...(3.4)

For equations 3.3 & 3.4, two solutions are given in equation 3.5 &3.6
=

....(3.5)

] ..(3.6)

The second derivative of is

times of assumed solution for . The current equation from
previous equations can be calculated:

.(3.7)

The constants
and
are evaluated by using the conditions of the receiving end of the lines;
namely when = 0, =
and = .
=
Substituting

and solving for

and
and

26

=
give

and

Finally the equations of voltage and currents are:

Where

is the characteristic impedance of the line and

is the propagation

constant of the line.

The typical value of characteristic impedance is 400 for a single circuit overhead line and 200
for two circuit in parallel. The phase angle of
is usually between 0 and -15 . bundled
conductor line have lower value of
since such lines have lower value of inductance and
higher capacitance than lines with a single conductor per phase.

3.2. Surge impedance:

In power system characteristic impedance is sometime called Surge Impedance. The term
Surge Impedance is, however, reserved for special case of lossless line. If a line is lossless, its
series resistance and shunt conductance are zero and the characteristic impedance reduces to a
real number
Henry and

which has a dimension of Ohms where

is the series inductance of the line in

is the shunt capacitance in Farad.

=

.(3.8)

The surge impedance can also be evaluated by measuring the line impedance at the sending
end when
1. The line at the receiving end is open-circuited.
2. The line at the receiving end is short-circuited.
When the line is open circuited ( ) is zero so, the sending end voltage ( ) and sending
end current( ) are given as :
27

..(3.9)

Similarly when the line is short-circuited at the receiving end, the receiving end voltage
( ) reduces to zero and the sending end voltage ( ) and the sending end current
as :
=
=
=

substituting

sinh

&

.
Surge impedance

are given

sinh

in previous equation

(3.10)

3.3. Surge Impedance Loading:

When dealing with high frequencies or with surges due to lightning, losses are often neglected
and the surge impedance becomes important. Surge Impedance Loading (SIL) of a line is the
power delivered by a line to a purely resistive load equal to its surge impedance. When so
loaded, the line supplies a current of
| |=

..(3.11)

Where | | is the line to line voltage at the load, since the load is pure resistance,
= 3 | |

28

..(3.12)

|
/

MW

..(3.13)

The above expression gives a limit of maximum power that can be delivered by a line and is
useful in the design of transmission lines. This can be used for the comparison of loads that can
be carried on the transmission line at different voltages.
The power transmitted through a long transmission line can be increased either by increasing
the value of receiving end line voltage or by reducing surge impedance. Now a days the trend is
of employing higher and higher voltage for transmission, therefore, this is the most commonly
adopted method for increasing the power limit of heavily loaded long transmission lines. But
there is a limit beyond which it is neither economical nor practicable to increase the value of
receiving end line voltage.
Since spacing between conductor, which depends upon the line voltage employed, cannot be
reduced much, the value of surge impedance cannot be varied as such. However some artificial
means, such as series capacitor or shunt capacitor can be used to reduce the value of surge
impedance.
By use of series capacitor surge impedance is reduced due to decrease of line inductance. This
improves the system stability limit also. But it causes difficulties under short circuited
conditions of the system as no satisfactory protection of capacitor has yet been devised. These
capacitors are also helpful in reducing line drops and so voltage variations.
Thermal capacity is ultimate capacity of line, corresponding to its capability to withstand the
heat generated due to line loss. It depends on the types of conductor, maximum permissible
conductor temperature, ambient condition and others environmental factors. However, the
traditional line design limits power transfer distance and/or capacity because of large inductive
reactance of the transmission line which results into large angular separation and voltage drop
between two adjacent nodes which may lead to instability in the system. This restricts power
transfer capacity of a long line to its SIL level. Stability limit depends on voltage class, line length
and network configuration. Based on line length, EHV lines are categorized into three types:
Short (<100Km), medium (100-200Km) and long (>200Km). In case of short line, power transfer
capacity is limited by its thermal limits. However for medium and long EHV lines, power transfer
capacity is restricted by SIL limit. Therefore, to ensure optimal utilization and efficient use of
transmission infrastructure, the option of enhancement of transmission capacity by increasing
SIL level.

29

3.4. Importance of Surge Impedance Loading:

It is convenient to express the power transmitted by a line in terms of per unit of SIL, that is as
the ratio of power transmitted to the surge impedance loading. For instance, the permissible
loading of a transmission line may be expressed as a fraction of its SIL and SIL provides a
comparison of load carrying capabilities of line. SIL may therefore be considered a reasonable
limit of transmission line power flow and can be used to measure the amount of congestion in a
power line in a system.

3.5. Congestion in transmission line:

The electric utility industries are undergoing rapid changes due to their restructuring and
deregulation. The key idea is to introduce free competition in power system, thus to achieve
more efficiency during system operation. Unfortunately, such a free trade schedule cannot be
arranged all the time into real operation due to the capacity limit of the transmission network,
which leads to the so called congestion in power lines. During congestion the real and reactive
power flow through the transmission line is much more than their capacity limits. As mentioned
earlier, one of the limit which has a greater importance is surge impedance loading (SIL) limit. If
the power flow through the line is more than SIL limit, the line is considered as a congested line
in that system.

30

Congestion Index:
In the present study, an Index has been developed to identify the congested lines in a network.
More is the value of this index for a particular line, more congested is the line. The developed
Congestion Index is defined as:
=
,

..(3.14)
=

( . )
( . )

% ...(3.15)

Congestion of the line may badly impact performance of a system with huge power loss in
transmission line, poor voltage regulation, voltage instability, high temperature rise in cable
etc.
Actually the quantum of power that a given EHVAC transmission line can Safely carry depends
on various limits: one is the thermal limits and another is SIL limits . In case of long lines the
capacity is limited by its surge impedance loading which is much Below its thermal capacity due
to large inductance. Decrease in line inductance and Surge impedance shall increase the SIL and
transmission capacity.

Typical value of SIL and the Thermal limit of a transmission line in general is given below:

31

3.6. Computation of Congestion index in IEEE-30 Bus system:

For computing congestion index, active power flow of different line of IEEE 30 Bus system have
been taken from the Newton- Raphson Load Flow output table : 2.1 , after that SIL of each line
has been calculated from the line data of IEEE 30 Bus system and then equation 3.15 has been
used to calculate the congestion index which is given in the table 3.2

Table 3.2: Computed Congestion Index for various lines in IEEE-30 bus system
Line
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
40

From
Bus
1
1
2
3
2
2
4
5
6
6
8

To Bus
2
3
4
4
5
6
6
7
7
8
28

SIL(pu)
0.9582
0.4968
0.4602
0.4707
0.4591
0.4605
0.4662
0.4193
0.4553
0.4629
0.4626
32

Actual
Powerflow(MW)
167.96
84.669
42.6
81.41
79.34
58.4
71.63
-14.85
37.81
29.387
-0.613

Congestion
Index(pu)
1.75
1.7
0.92
1.72
1.73
1.26
1.53
0.35
0.83
0.634
0.0132

41

28

1.47

18.611

0.126

[** Base MVA= 100 MVA has been considered for the calculation of SIL ]

3.7. Congested lines in this system:

From above result we can see that Line 1 has a SIL which is 0.9582 pu. So the SIL limit in MW
will be 0.9589100= 95.89 MW , but actual power flow of this line is 167.96 MW.
The congestion index= 167.96/95.89 = 1.75
Line 1 is the most congested line among the lines in system.
Next congested line is Line 5. SIL of this line is 0.4591 pu. So the SIL limit in MW is 0.4591100
= 45.91 MW. Actual power flow of the line is 79.34MW.
The congestion index = 79.34/45.91 = 1.73
Another congested line is Line 4. SIL of this line is 0.4707 pu. SIL limit in MW is 0.4707100 =
47.07 MW. Actual power flow of the line is 81.41 MW.
The congestion index = 81.41/47.07 = 1.72

LINE 1(BUS1BUS2)

MOST CONGESTED LINE

CONGESTION INDEX = 1.75

LINE 5(BUS2BUS5)

SECOND CONGESTED LINE

CONGESTION INDEX = 1.73

LINE 4(BUS3BUS4)

THIRD CONGESTED LINE

CONGESTION INDEX = 1.72

3.8. How to relieve this congestion:

Increased electric power consumption causes transmission lines to be driven close

to or even beyond their transfer capacities resulting in overloaded lines and congestions.
33

To reduce congestion we can employ many techniques such as using FACTS devices,
Rescheduling of Generator, Rearrangement of transmission lines etc. In the present study, use
FACTS devices have been used to reduce congestion in the line.
Flexible Ac Transmission System (FACTS) provide an opportunity to resolve congestion by
controlling power flows. The focus in this work lies on the Thyristor Controlled Series
Compensator (TCSC).
In 30 BUS system TCSC has used to reduce line reactance and so that SIL limit is increased and
congestion in congested lines are reduce so far. For each congested line one TCSC has been
individually used and the algorithm for implementation of TCSC has been included in the
Newton Raphson Load Flow analysis program. When using TCSC, the Jacobian matrix is only
changed; one extra row and one extra column are introduced in that matrix as the TCSC is
connected in series with the lines.

Chapter 4
Congestion Management using TCSC

Introduction
TCSC fundamental impedance
Power flow model of TCSC
TCSC practical model consideration
Case study & results
Conclusion

34

4.1. Introduction:

New and comprehensive load flow model for the Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator
(TCSC) is presented in this chapter. In this model the state variable is the TCSC's firing angle,
which is combined with the nodal voltage magnitudes and angles of the entire network in a
single frame-of-reference for a unified iterative solution through a Newton-Raphson method.
Electric utilities are operating in an increasingly competitive market where economic and
environmental pressures limit their scope to expand transmission facilities. The optimization of
transmission corridors for power transfer has become at great importance. In this scenario, the
FACTS technology is an attractive option for increasing system operation flexibility [11], New
developments in high-current, high-power electronics are making it possible to control
electronically the power flows on the high voltage side of the network during both steady state
and transient operation.
One important FACTS device is the TCSC which allows rapid and continuous changes of the
transmission line impedance [Z]. Active power flows along the compensated transmission line
can be maintained at a specified value under a range of operating conditions. There is a
schematic representation of a TCSC module [8], which consists of a series capacitor bank (XC) in
parallel with a Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR). The controlling element is the thyristor
controller, shown as a bidirectional thyristor valve (XL) in Fig 4.1.

Figure 4.1 Circuit diagram of TCSC

In load flow studies the TCSC can be represented in several forms. For instance, the model
presented in [9] is based on the concept of a variable Series Compensator whose changing
reactance adjusts itself in order to constrain the power flow across the branch to a specified
value. The reactance value is determined efficiently by means of Newton's method. The
changing reactance represents the fundamental frequency, equivalent reactance of the TCSC
module. The drawback of this model is that the firing angle corresponding to such a
compensation level has to be determined by resorting to an iterative process, in addition to the
load flow solution. Moreover, it is not possible to assess within the load flow solution whether
or not the solution is taking place in the vicinity of a resonant point. The only indication would
be a divergent iterative process.

35

This chapter presents a new TCSC power flow model, which circumvents the additional iterative
process required to calculate the reactance of the TCSC (XTCSC). Moreover, since explicit
information of the TCSC impedance-firing angle characteristic is available, good initial
conditions are easily selected, hence, preventing the load flow iterative process from taking
place in non-operative regions owing to the presence of resonant impedance bands.
The linearized TCSC power flow equations, with respect to the XTCSC, are incorporated into an
existing Newton-Raphson load flow algorithm. In common with all other controllable plant
component models available in this load flow program [10], [11], the TCSC firing angle is
combined with the nodal voltage magnitudes and angles inside the Jacobian and mismatch
equations, leading to very robust iterative solutions.

4.2. TCSC fundamental impedance:

We start the derivation by examining the voltages and currents in the TCSC circuit under the
full range of operating conditions. The basic equation is,
=

(4.1)

Where
is the fundamental frequency voltage across module,
frequency line current and
is TCSC impedance.
The voltage
be written as ,

is the fundamental

is equal to the voltage across the TCSC capacitor and previous equation can

..(4.2)

If the external power network is represented by an idealized current source, as seen from the
TCSC terminals, this current source is equal to the sum of the currents flowing through the TCSC
capacitor and inductor. The TCSC impedance can then be expressed as,
=
Substituting
which will be,

= cos

..(4.3)

and considering the firing angle () we can get the final equation

36

tan(

+ sin 2

tan

(4.4)

Where,
=

..(4.5)

=
=
=

(4.6)

..(4.7)
..(4.8)

is the firing angle with capacitor voltage positive going;

capacitive reactance respectively for TCSC model.

and

are the inductive and

An intrinsic characteristic of the TCSC module shown in circuit diagram of TCSC is that a loop
current exists under both partial and full conduction operating modes. The reason is that the
thyristor turn-on produces a voltage across the inductor which is of equal magnitude and phase
to the capacitor voltage [11]. This voltage, in turn, drives a current through the inductor which
has opposite polarity to the capacitor current. This effect produces the loop current which has a
distorting effect on the voltage waveform across the TCSC terminals.
In hybrid module of facts series controller , TCSC may be clubbed with TSSC ( Thyristor
switched series capacitor ) such that in TCSC the firing angle is changed for step less control of
impedance from inductive to capacitive range while TSSC can be used for stepped control. TCSC
also varies also the electrical length of compensated transmission line and may be used to
provide fast power flow control. It also increases the stability margin of the system and is
effective in power oscillations.
The TCSC presents a tunable parallel LC circuit to the line current that is substantially a
alternating current source. As the impedance of controlled reactor is varied from maximum
towards minimum, the TCSC increases its minimum capacitive impedance until parallel
resonance occurs at
=
. At this time
=
(
) which approaches infinity.
Reducing firing angle
enters into inductive mode of operation and reaches its minimum
value at =0. Effectively the capacitor is now bypassed by TCR. Thus TCSC has two operating
range around its internal resonating point one is inductive zone and capacitive zone.
Considering L= 5.6 mH and C= 0.2 mF have been taken to keep the resonance of TCSC occurs
at the firing angle of 149.61 degree. This resonance is calculated using the equation (4.9).

37

(4.9)

Where n = 1, 2, 3
when n= 1, 1st resonance occurs in the TCSC and the corresponding value of firing angle at 1st
resonance is calculated as 149.61 degree.

Inductive region

Less than 148.49 degree

XL > XC

Resonance region

= 149.61 degree
XL = XC

Capacitive region

greater than 150.5 degree

XL < XC

The three regions of operation of TCSC, as mentioned above can be illustrated with the help of
a diagram as shown in Figure 4.2

Figure 4.2 XTCSC Vs Firing angle curve

38

4.3. Power flow model of TCSC:

The admittance matrix of TCSC module is calculated below :
=

..(4.10)

Where,
=
=

.(4.11)

...(4.12)

For capacitive operation :

Complex power through TCSC in ith Bus:

=
=

) ....(4.13)

Active power in ith Bus :

=

sin(

sin(

..(4.14)

Reactive power in ith Bus :

cos(

) ..(4.15)

th

Active power in j Bus:

) ...(4.16)

th

Reactive power in j Bus:

cos(

) ..(4.17)

Active power through TCSC in between ith to jth :

(

)=

sin(

39

) (4.18)

Where
is the equivalent reactance of TCSC controller which may be adjusted to regulate
the active power flow across TCSC. The calculated active power transfer in the line in absence
of the TCSC is given by:
(

)=

sin(

) (4.19)

For power flow studies, we can incorporate the TCSC controller in the formulations, and we can
write down the power mismatch equation considering the case when power transfer is taking
place from node I to j at the value
. The equations can be oriented in a matrix form as
follows :

| |
| |
| |
| |
| |

Where the elements of jacobian in 5th row and 5th column are:
=

cos(

) .(4.20)

cos(

..(4.21)

sin(

.(4.22)

sin(

) ..(4.23)

=(

sin(

40

) .(4.24)

| |

= (
=(

sin(

sin(

.(4.25)

).(4.26)

cos(

) (4.27)

cos(

)....(4.28)

The real power flow mismatch equation is :

)..(4.29)

The value of
of the TCSC controller can be updated at the end of the iteration p using the
following relation
=

...(4.30)

4.4. TCSC practical model considerations:

Firing Angle Initial Condition
"Ill-chosen'' starting conditions are often responsible for the Newton-Raphson load flow
solution diverging or arriving at some anomalous value. In order to avoid ill-conditioned
Jacobians if the customary zero voltage angle initialization is used, the TCSC's is represented as
a fixed reactance in the first iteration. In subsequent iterations, a small voltage angle difference
at the TCSC terminals takes place and the firing angle TCSC model is used. The initial condition
for the TCSC's firing angle is selected within the range of 4 from the resonant point.

Truncated Adjustments
When solving TCSC-upgraded networks, large mismatch values in , , and may take
place in the early stages of the iterative process, resulting in poor convergence. The problem is
aggravated if the level of compensation required to maintain a specified active power flow is
near to a resonant point. In this case, large increments in the TCSC firing angle produce changes
from the capacitive to the inductive operative regions, and vice versa, causing the solution
process to oscillate. In order to reduce unwanted computational problems, the computed
41

adjustments are replaced by truncated adjustments, if they exceed a specified limit. The size of
correction of the firing angle adjustment has been limited during the backward substitution to
4. The truncated adjustment effect is propagated throughout the remaining of the backward
substitution.

Limits Revision
The power mismatch equations are used to activate limits revision in all the controllable
elements. The TCSC revision criterion is based on its active power mismatch equation,

The limit revision is activated when above equation satisfies a predefined tolerance, in our
program it is 0.250 . If a limit violation takes place then the firing angle is fixed at that limit and
the regulated active power flow is freed. In this situation no further attempts are made to
control this active power for the remaining of the iterative process.

4.5. Case study on IEEE 30 Bus system & results:

1. TCSC placed in series with the line connecting BUS 1 2 :
TCSC is now connected in between Bus 1 2 and initial firing angle is set at 2.67 rad and
specific value of PTCSC = 0.3214.It may be noted that for firing angle below 2.67 rad the jacobian
matrix is singular and infinite loop occurs in N-R program, so the firing angle is set at 2.67 rad.
For different firing angle we can get different value of SIL, XTCSC, active power, and also
transmission loss as shown in Table 4.1 :
Table 4.1 : Performance of the System after connecting TCSC
Firing
Angle
(Rad)
2.67
2.68
2.69
2.7
2.71
2.72
2.73
2.74

Xtcsc(PU)
-0.0447
-0.0385
-0.0341
-0.0308
-0.0282
-0.0261
-0.0244
-0.0229

SIL(PU)
2.02
1.66
1.5
1.4
1.34
1.29
1.26
1.24

Active
power
(MW)
182.553
181.782
180.412
179.15
178.078
177.19
176.447
175.783

Congestion
Index(1-2)
0.8297
1.09
1.2
1.27
1.32
1.37
1.4
1.41
42

V1(PU)
1.06
1.06
1.06
1.06
1.06
1.06
1.06
1.06

V2(PU)
1.043
1.043
1.043
1.043
1.043
1.043
1.043
1.043

Ploss(12)MW
9.558
7.497
6.835
6.499
6.288
6.141
6.034
5.974

Ploss(total)
MW
20.275
19.23
18.604
18.301
18.102
18.001
17.917
17.851

From above table it is observed that when firing angle is 2.67 radian, congestion index of line 1
i.e Bus 1- 2 is 0.8297 where as, Congestion index without TCSC ( in Table 3.2) was 1.75. Thus,
by connecting TCSC, congestion reduced by 52.58%. Here voltage magnitude is almost same
in every case. Total transmission loss is 20.275 MW.
In the 2nd row of above table, when firing angle is 2.68 radian, congestion index is greater than
1st case, but power loss is less than 1st case. As the present study mainly concentrates on
congestion management, therefore firing angle of 2.67 radian is selected for operation.
Figure: 4.3 4.6 show the variation of different performance parameters of the system with
change in TCSC firing angle:

Figure 4.3 Variation of SIL with Firing angle

Figure 4.4 Variation of Active power with Firing angle

43

Figure 4.5 Variation of Total transmission loss with Firing angle

Figure 4.6 Variation of Congestion index

(for the line connecting Bus 1 to 2) with Firing angle

2. TCSC placed in series with the line connecting BUS 2 5 :

When TCSC is installed in series with the line joining Bus 2 5 instead of Bus 1- 2 then some
changes take place in all performance parameters. Specific value of PTCSC is now 0.7267 p.u and
initial firing angle we take is 2.64 Rad. For different firing angle we can get different value of SIL,
XTCSC, active power, and also transmission loss as shown in Table 4.2

44

Table 4.2 : Performance of the System after connecting TCSC

Firing
Angle(Rad)
2.64
2.65
2.66
2.67
2.68
2.69
2.7

Xtcsc(PU) SIL(PU)
-0.099
-0.0691
-0.0539
-0.0447
-0.0385
-0.0341
-0.0308

0.648
0.5687
0.538
0.5216
0.5114
0.5045
0.4995

Active
power(MW)

congestion
index(Line 2-5)

91.905
85.49
82.494
80.765
79.798
78.852
78.161

1.41
1.5
1.53
1.54
1.56
1.56
1.56

V1(PU) V2(PU)
1.043
1.043
1.043
1.043
1.043
1.043
1.043

1.01
1.01
1.01
1.01
1.01
1.01
1.01

Ploss(25)(MW)
4.009
3.431
3.185
3.049
2.971
2.903
2.851

Ploss(total)
(MW)
16.97
16.721
16.653
16.623
16.616
16.609
16.59

From above table when firing angle is set at 2.64 radian, congestion index of line 1 i.e Bus 2- 5
is 1.41 where as, Congestion index without TCSC ( in Table 3.2) was 1.73. Thus, by connecting
TCSC, congestion reduced by 18.49%. Here voltage magnitude is almost same in every case.
Total transmission loss is 16.97 MW.
In the 2nd row of above table, where firing angle is 2.65 radian, congestion index is greater than
1st case, but power loss is less than 1st case. As the present study mainly concentrates on
congestion management, therefore firing angle of 2.64 radian is selected for operation.
Figure: 4.7 4.10 show the variation of different performance parameters of the system with
change in TCSC firing angle:

Figure 4.7 Variation of SIL with Firing angle

45

Figure -4.8 Variation of Active power with Firing angle

Figure- 4.9 variation of Total transmission loss with Firing angle

Figure 4.10 Variation of Congestion index

(for the line connecting Bus 1 to 2) with Firing angle
46

3. Comparison of line loss and congestion index for different lines, with and without
connection of TCSC
For firing angle 2.67 Rad in 1st case (TCSC connected in Bus 1 - 2) XTCSC becomes modified as:
=

The Newton-Raphson program required 8 iterations to reach convergence.

Table 4.3 shows the comparison of line loss and congestion index for different lines, with and
without connection of TCSC in between Bus 1- 2 :

Table 4.3: comparison of line loss and congestion index for different lines, with and without
connecting TCSC in between Bus 1- 2

Line
no

From
bus

To
bus

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
40
41

1
1
2
3
2
2
4
5
6
6
8
6

2
3
4
4
5
6
6
7
7
8
28
28

Line loss
Active
with
power(MW) TCSC(MW)
182.551
68.97
49.949
66.01
81.752
63.833
64.287
12.448
35.37
29.504
-0.599
-18.678

line loss
without
TCSC(MW)

congestion
index without
TCSC

congestion
index with
TCSC

9.569
2.056
1.385
0.56
3.133
2.339
0.51
0.122
0.332
0.103
0
0.059

5.179
3.116
1.011
0.858
2.945
1.946
0.641
0.162
0.381
0.103
0
0.059

1.75
1.7
0.92
1.72
1.73
1.26
1.53
0.35
0.83
0.634
0.0132
0.126

0.8297
1.38
1.08
1.4
1.78
1.38
1.37
0.29
0.77
0.63
0.0129
0.127

Total loss=
20.27

Total loss=
17.52

47

Figure: 4.11 4.12 show the comparison of different performance parameters of the system
with and without connecting TCSC in between Bus 1- 2

Figure -4.11 comparison of line loss before and after connecting TCSC

Figure 4.12 comparison of congestion index before and after connecting TCSC

The active power flow through Bus 1- 2 without TCSC was 167.96 MW and the modified active
power with TCSC is 182.551 MW, which is 8.60% greater because when we connect TCSC, line
reactance is reduced and therefore the active power flow through the line is increased.

48

For firing angle 2.68 Rad in 1st case (TCSC connected in Bus 1 - 2) XTCSC becomes modified as:
=

The Newton-Raphson program required 8 iterations to reach convergence.

Table 4.4 shows the comparison of line loss and congestion index for different lines, with and
without connection of TCSC in between Bus 1- 2 :

Table 4.4: comparison of line loss and congestion index for different lines, with and without
connecting TCSC in between Bus 1- 2

line
no

From
bus

To
bus

Active
power

SIL

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
40
41

1
1
2
3
2
2
4
5
6
6
8
6

2
3
4
4
5
6
6
7
7
8
28
28

181.782
69.596
49.656
66.626
81.655
63.616
64.581
12.545
35.468
-29.401
0.599
-18.675

1.66
0.5
0.46
0.47
0.46
0.46
0.47
0.42
0.46
0.46
0.46
1.47

line
loss
line loss
without
with
TCSC
TCSC
7.497
2.094
1.369
0.57
3.125
2.322
0.515
0.123
0.334
0.103
0
0.059

5.179
3.116
1.011
0.858
2.945
1.946
0.641
0.162
0.381
0.103
0
0.059

Total
loss=
18.111

Total
loss=
17.52

congestion
index with
TCSC

congestion
index
without
TCSC

1.09
1.4
1.07
1.41
1.77
1.38
1.38
0.299
0.779
0.635
0.012
0.127

1.75
1.7
0.92
1.72
1.73
1.26
1.53
0.35
0.83
0.634
0.0132
0.126

Figure: 4.13 4.14 show the comparison of different performance parameters of the system
with and without connecting TCSC in between Bus 1- 2

49

Figure -4.13 comparison of line loss before and after connecting TCSC

Figure - 4.14 comparison of congestion index before and after connecting TCSC

When firing angle is 2.68 Rad, the congestion index is 1.09 but in case of firing angle 2.67 Rad,
congestion index is 0.8297 i.e. we must operate TCSC with firing angle 2.67 Rad by which active
power flow can be brought to lower than SIL.

50

For firing angle 2.64 Rad in 2nd case (TCSC connected in Bus 2 - 5) XTCSC becomes modified as:
=

The Newton-Raphson program required 7 iterations to reach convergence.

Table 4.5 shows the comparison of line loss and congestion index for different lines, with and
without connection of TCSC in between Bus 1- 2 :

Table 4.5: comparison of line loss and congestion index for different lines, with and without
connecting TCSC in between Bus 2-5

line
no

From
Bus

To
Bus

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
40
41

1
1
2
3
2
2
4
5
6
6
8
6

2
3
4
4
5
6
6
7
7
8
28
28

line loss
line loss
without
Active
with
power(MW) TCSC(MW) TCSC(MW) SIL(PU)
172.091
80.058
35.955
76.896
91.943
49.581
61.449
4.506
18.294
29.405
-0.595
18.709

5.179
3.116
1.011
0.858
2.945
1.946
0.641
0.162
0.381
0.103
0
0.059

5.449
2.777
0.727
0.762
4.012
1.394
0.466
0.016
0.096
0.102
0
0.06

Total loss=
17.52

Total loss=
16.401

51

0.958
0.5
0.46
0.471
0.64
0.461
0.466
0.419
0.455
0.463
0.463
1.47

congestion
index
without
TCSC

congestion
index with
TCSC

1.75
1.7
0.92
1.72
1.73
1.26
1.53
0.35
0.83
0.634
0.0132
0.126

1.79
1.6
0.78
1.63
1.43
1.07
1.31
0.107
0.402
0.635
0.0128
0.127

Figure: 4.15 4.16 show the comparison of different performance parameters of the system
with and without connecting TCSC in between Bus 1- 2

Figure - 4.15 comparison of line loss before and after connecting TCSC

Figure - 4.16 comparison of congestion index before and after connecting TCSC

If TCSC is connected in between Bus 2- 5 then the reduction of congestion is not acceptable but
the line loss is lower than the first system(Bus 1-2). As the congestion is more than first system
so this is not a economical system. So we must connect the TCSC in between Bus 1 2.

52

Chapter 5
Congestion management using SVC

Introduction
Equivalent susceptance of SVC
Load flow model of SVC
Advantage of SVC
Disadvantage of SVC
Case study

53

5.1. Introduction:

In electric power systems, nodal voltages are significantly affected by load variations
and by network topology changes. Voltages can drop considerably and even collapse when the
network is operating under heavy loading. This may trigger the operation of under-voltage
relays and other voltage sensitive controls, leading to extensive disconnection of loads and thus
adversely affecting consumers and company revenue [12]. On the other hand, when the load
level in the system is low, over-voltages can arise due to Ferranti effect. Capacitive over
compensation and over-excitation of synchronous machines can also occur[14]. Over-voltages
cause equipment failures due to insulation breakdown and produce magnetic saturation in
transformers, resulting in harmonic generation. Hence, voltage magnitude throughout the
network cannot deviate significantly from its nominal value if an efficient and reliable operation
of the power system is to be achieved. SVC is a shunt connected static Var generator or
consumer whose output is adjusted to exchange capacitive or inductive Var so as to maintain or
control specific parameters of electrical power system, typically bus voltage.
The SVC is an advanced power systems device capable of providing simultaneous control of
voltage magnitude and active and reactive power flows, all this in adaptive fashion. Owing to its
almost instantaneous speed of response and unrivalled functionality, it is well placed to solve
most issues relating to power flow control while enhancing considerably transient and dynamic
stability. SVC has been employed to reduce the congestion in the power transmission line by
connecting in weak Buses[13]. The results of the study indicate that SVC is less effective in
comparison to TCSC in reducing line congestion.

Figure 5.1 Circuit diagram of SVC

54

5.2. Equivalent susceptance of SVC:

Advances in power electronics technology together with sophisticated control methods made
possible the development of fast SVC in the early 1970s. The SVC consists of a group of Shuntconnected capacitors and reactors banks with fast control action by means of thyristor
switching. From the operational point of view, the SVC can be seen as a variable shunt
reactance that adjusts automatically in response to changing system operative conditions.
Depending on the nature of the equivalent SVCs reactance, i.e., capacitive or inductive, the SVC
draws either capacitive or inductive current from the network. Suitable control of this
equivalent reactance allows voltage magnitude regulation at the SVC point of connection and
reduction of congestion in line[15].
SVCs achieve their main operating Characteristic at the expense of generating harmonic
currents and filters are employed with this kind of devices. SVC's normally include a
combination of mechanically controlled and thyristor controlled shunt capacitors and reactors
[12]. The most popular configuration for continuously controlled SVC's is the combination of
either fix capacitor and thyristor controlled reactor or thyristor switched capacitor and thyristor
controlled reactor. As far as steady-stale analysis is concerned, both configurations can be
modeled along similar lines. The SVC structure shown in Figure 5.1 is used to derive a SVC
susceptance model for congestion management.
Equivalent susceptance model of SVC is given below :

[ (

)
.

5.1

It is shown in Figure 5.2 that the SVC equivalent susceptance profile, as function of firing angle,
does not present discontinuities, i.e.,
varies in a continuous, smooth fashion in both
operative regions. Hence, linearization of the SVC power flow equations,
based on with
respect to firing angle, will exhibit a better numerical behavior.
The SVC equivalent susceptance is given by equation 5.1 where its profile, as function of firing
angle, is given in Figure 5.2 considering Inductance (L) is 7.95 mH and the value of Capacitance
is 73.6 micro farad.

55

Figure 5.2 Firing angle vs Susceptance plot

Inductive
Region

Below 149.61 degree

XL > Xc

Capacitive Above 149.61 degree

XL < Xc
Region
In the present study, main objective is to reduce congestion using SVC, the operation should be
made in capacitive region and the operating firing angle must be 151 degree.

56

5.3. Load flow model of SVC:

The SVC is treated as generator behind an inductive reactance when the SVC is operating
Within limits. simpler representation assumes that the SVC slope, accounting for voltage
regulation, is zero. This assumption may be acceptable as long as the SVC is operating within
limits, but may lead to gross errors if the SVC is operating close to its reactive limits. The SVC
characteristic is represented by connecting the generator to a dummy bus coupled to the highvoltage node via an inductive reactance whose value, on the SVC base, is equal to the per unit
slope [I], [4]. The dummy bus is represented as a PV-type node whereas the high-voltage node
is represented as a PQ-type node.
The simplest form of SVC model represents static synchronous as a generator with zero active
power output but having reactive generation with reactive power limits. As long as the SVC is in
operation, the bus which it is connected act as a PV bus. A simple and effective way to include
the SVC in power flow techniques to use this device as a variable susceptance. The shunt
susceptance represents the total SVC susceptance necessary to maintain the voltage magnitude
at the bus at specified value. The inclusion of SVC at any load bus makes that node as a voltage
controlled bus and at this node the voltage magnitude and the nodal active and reactive power
are specified; the variable susceptance
is operated as a state variable. The philosophy is
that if
is within limits, the specified voltage is attained and the bus operates as a PV bus.
When
is above or below the limit, it become fixed at the violated limit, and the node
becomes a PQ bus again if there are no any voltage regulating equipment present.
The active and reactive power drawn by SVC connected at node j are given by
P =0; Q = V

5.2

Also mismatches are given as

0
=

5.3

At the end of iteration P , the variable shunt susceptance is corrected as

=

. .5.4

This may be further written as

=

5.5

57

5.4. Advantage of static var compensator:

SVC provides a better control of voltage profile.

It is effective even in off peak condition.
SVC provides fast control over temporary over voltage.

5.5. Disadvantage of static var compensator:

It is more expensive than series compensator scheme.

Its overload capacity is limited.
It cannot provide better congestion management than series compensator.

5.6. Case study on IEEE 30 Bus system and results:

1. Weak bus selection in 30 Bus system:

Figure - 5.3 Bus voltage Vs Reactive power

58

It is known that negative slope of ( ) in the V- Q curve indicates the voltage stable state and
positive slope of ( ) depicts zone of voltage instability. In case of weak bus selection, if ( ) is
least positive, then that bus is weakest bus in a system.
Table 5.1: ( ) value for 30 Bus system for selecting weakest bus
Bus
no

14

16

22

24

dQ/dV

29.75

56.21

83.77

18.41

5.64

8.85

9.68

9.42

25

26

8.02 1.79

27

29

30

9.71

3.61

2.98

From Table 5.1 the weakest bus in 30 bus system is 26th Bus, which value of ( ) is 1.79. Next
weaker bus is 30th Bus and its ( ) value is 3.61.
After selecting weak bus in the system SVC has to be incorporate in Bus no. 26 &30.
2. SVC placed in 26th Bus:
As 26th bus is the weakest bus in IEEE 30 bus system, at first SVC is connected in 26th bus and
after incorporating SVC model in N-R program, we can get susceptance of SVC, SIL, active and
reactive power through the line connecting bus 25 to 26, total power loss, and voltage
magnitude of 26th bus for different value of firing angle as shown in Table 5.2 .
Table 5.2: Performance of the system after connecting SVC
Firing
Bsvc(pu) SIL(pu)
Active
Reactive
Congestion
Power
voltage(26th
angle(Rad)
power(MW) power(MVAR)
Index
loss(MW)
bus)
(bus 25 to
(bus 25 to 26)
26)
2.6179
2.618
2.6182
2.6183

0.112
0.144
0.192
0.224

1.3
1.0072
0.9947
0.92

3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5

0.529
1.783
3.574
9.29

0.026
0.034
0.0351
0.038

17.702
17.871
18.006
18.686

0.9977
1.0387
1.1123
1.158

2.6185

0.256

0.861

3.5

17.226

0.04

20.125

1.182

59

From the above table it is seen that for the firing angle 2.6179 rad, congestion index is 0.026
and for the other firing angle corresponding congestion index is greater than previous, so
2.6179 rad firing angle is to be chosen for the better operation.
Figure: 5.4 5.8 show the variation of different performance parameters of the system with
change in SVC firing angle:

60

SIL(pu)

1.5

SIL

1
0.5

SIL(pu)

0
2.6178

2.618

2.6182

2.6184

2.6186

Firing angle

Figure 5.4 Variation of SIL with Firing angle

Bsvc(pu)
susceptance

0.3
0.2
0.1
Bsvc(pu)
0
2.6178

2.618

2.6182 2.6184 2.6186

Firing angle

Figure 5.5 variation of susceptance of SVC with firing angle

Congestion Index

Congestion Index
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
2.6175

Congestion Index
2.618

2.6185

2.619

Firing angle

Figure 5.6 Variation of congestion index with Firing angle

61

Figure 5.7 Variation of Power loss Firing angle

Figure 5.8 Variation of Voltage(26th Bus) with Firing angle

3. SVC placed in 30th Bus:

2nd weakest Bus of the IEEE 30 bus system is bus no 30, so SVC is connected in Bus no 30.
Following table shows that variation of SIL, active and reactive power flow, power loss, and
voltage of 30th Bus with respect to the firing angle of SVC.

62

Table 5.3 Performance of the system after connecting SVC(line connecting from 27 to 30 bus )
Firing
angle
(rad)

Bsvc
(pu)

SIL
(pu)

Active
power
(MW)

Reactive
power
(MVAR)

Congestion
Index

Power
loss
(MW)

Voltage
(30th bus)

2.6179
2.618
2.6182
2.6183

0.112
0.144
0.192
0.224

0.609
0.691
0.798
0.862

6.3
6.891
6.759
6.568

1.797
5.789
28.59
50.031

0.103
0.099
0.084
0.076

17.95
18.513
24.681
34.35

0.9908
1.1426
1.38
1.56

Table 5.4 Performance of the system after connecting SVC(line connecting from 29 to 30 bus )
Firing
angle
(rad)

Bsvc
(pu)

SIL
(pu)

Active
power
(MW)

Reactive
power
(MVAR)

Congestion
Index

Power
loss
(MW)

Voltage
(30th bus)

2.6179
2.618
2.6182
2.6183

0.112
0.144
0.192
0.224

0.702
0.797
0.92
0.994

3.683
3.709
3.841
4.032

8.749
10.604
12.162
14.976

0.052
0.046
0.0417
0.04

17.95
18.51
24.68
34.35

0.9908
1.1426
1.38
1.56

Figure 5.9 to 5.12 Shows the variation of different parameters with the change of firing angle
For line connecting Bus 27 to 30 :

Figure 5.9 Variation of SIL with Firing angle

63

Figure 5.10 Variation of Congestion index with Firing angle

Figure 5.11 Variation of Total power loss with Firing angle

Figure 5.12 Variation of voltage of 30th Bus with Firing angle

64

Figure 5.13 to 5.16 Shows the variation of different parameters with the change of firing angle
For line connecting Bus 29 to 30 :

Figure 5.13 Variation of SIL with Firing angle

Figure 5.14 Variation of Congestion index with Firing angle

Figure 5.15 Variation of Total power loss with Firing angle

65

Figure 5.16 Variation of voltage of 30th Bus with Firing angle

From the table 5.3 & 5.4 it is shown that when SVC is connected in Bus no 26 and firing angle is
2.6179 radian, congestion index of the lines which are connecting from Bus 27 to 30 is 0.103
and congestion index of the line connecting from Bus 29 to 30 is 0.052 and that Bus voltage is
0.9968. In case of table 5.2, when the SVC is connected in Bus no 26 with the same firing angle
as previous, the congestion index was 0.0269and that Bus voltage was 0.9977. As voltage is
very important parameter in a power system, so it is assumed that the best position of the SVC
is in 30th Bus.

66

4. Comparison of Congestion index and reduction of Congestion for TCSC and SVC :
Comparison of congestion index and reduction of congestion using TCSC and SVC is shown in
table 5.5 and table 5.6

Table 5.5: comparison of Congestion index

Line
No

From
Bus

To Bus

Congestion
index
with TCSC

Congestion index
with SVC

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
40
41

1
1
2
3
2
2
4
5
6
6
8
6

2
3
4
4
5
6
6
7
7
8
28
28

0.8297
1.38
1.08
1.4
1.70
1.38
1.37
0.29
0.77
0.63
0.0129
0.127

1.75
1.7
0.926
1.73
1.72
1.27
1.54
0.357
0.83
0.639
0.008
0.13

Figure 5.17 comparison of Congestion index using TCSC & SVC

67

Table 5.6: comparison of Reduction of Congestion in percentage

Line
No

From
Bus

To Bus

Reduction of
congestion
using TCSC

Reduction of
Congestion
using SVC

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
40
41

1
1
2
3
2
2
4
5
6
6
8
6

2
3
4
4
5
6
6
7
7
8
28
28

52%
19%
-17%
19%
-2%
-9.50%
10%
17%
7.20%
0.60%
2%
-0.70%

0%
0%
-0.60%
-0.50%
0.50%
-0.40%
-0.60%
-0.50%
0%
0.30%
39%
-7%

Figure 5.18 comparison of reduction of Congestion using TCSC & SVC

From the above table 5.6 it is seen that the congestion reduction is better if TCSC is used in
transmission line than SVC, so for the better system performance, TCSC should be used for the
management of congestion in any electrical power grid.
68

5. Comparison of active power flow for TCSC and SVC :

the comparison of active power flow using TCSC and SVC is shown in table 5.7
Table 5.7: comparison of Active power flow
Line
No

From
Bus

To Bus

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
40
41

1
1
2
3
2
2
4
5
6
6
8
6

2
3
4
4
5
6
6
7
7
8
28
28

Actual
Power
flow(MW)
using TCSC
182.551
68.97
49.949
66.01
81.752
63.833
64.287
12.448
35.37
29.504
-0.599
-18.678

Actual
Power
flow(MW)
using SVC
168.96
84.869
42.65
81.56
79.34
58.56
72.23
-14.99
37.79
29.6
-0.402
19.76

Figure 5.19 comparison of active power flow using TCSC & SVC

69

6. Comparison of active power loss for TCSC and SVC :

Comparison of active power loss using TCSC and SVC is shown in table 5.8
Table 5.8: comparison of Active power flow
Line
No

From
Bus

To Bus

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
40
41

1
1
2
3
2
2
4
5
6
6
8
6

2
3
4
4
5
6
6
7
7
8
28
28

Active
power
loss(MW)
using TCSC
5.179
3.116
1.011
0.858
2.945
1.946
0.641
0.162
0.381
0.103
0
0.059
Total
loss=20.27

Active power
loss(MW)
using SVC
5.13
3.025
1.01
0.76
2.446
1.857
0.454
0.055
0.379
0.103
0.003
0.075
Total
loss=16.020

Figure 5.20 comparison of active power loss using TCSC & SVC
70

Chapter 6
Congestion reduction in IEEE 57 Bus system
using TCSC
IEEE 57 Bus system description
SIL of IEEE 57 Bus system
TCSC connected in line connecting from Bus 8 to 9 and results

71

6.1. IEEE 57 Bus system:

Following are the specification of IEEE 57 Bus system :
A. Number of Slack Bus 1
B. Number of Generating Bus 6
C. Number of Load Bus 47
80 lines are there in IEEE 57 Bus system. Figure 6.1 shows a schematic diagram of IEEE 57 Bus
system.

Figure 6.1 Schematic diagram of IEEE 57 Bus system

72

6.2. Computation of SIL in IEEE 57 Bus system:

Following table 6.1 shows the SIL value in per unit for various lines in that system without using
TCSC.
Table 6.1: SIL and congestion index value of various lines
From
bus

To bus

SIL(pu)

congestion
index with
out TCSC

1
2
3
4
4
6
6
8
9
9
9
9
13
13
1
1
1
3

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
15
16
17
15

2.146426
0.980996
1.018946
0.442102
0.484907
0.520181
0.521226
1.041705
0.511919
0.507026
0.511561
0.506914
0.503444
0.514463
1.041976
0.514829
0.514602
1.013121

0.404649
0.861257
0.52251
0.247318
0.229611
0.394094
0.867187
1.677702
0.348219
0.307676
0.063453
0.090627
0.243959
0.866166
1.283052
1.34336
1.620496
0.322242

From the above table 6.1 ,it is seen that line connecting from Bus 8 to 9 is highly congested
because it has a typical value of congestion index 1.67. So TCSC is must be connected in that
line, assuming that TCSC firing angle is 2.67 rad.

73

6.3. TCSC connected in line connecting from Bus 8 to 9:

Whenever TCSC is connected in the line connecting from Bus 8 to 9, SIL limit is increased and
Congestion index value is decreased as per following table 6.2
Table 6.2: System performance of IEEE 57 Bus system after connecting TCSC
Line
no

From
bus

To
bus

Active
power
(MW)

Reactive
power
(MVAR)

Active
power
loss
(MW)

Reactive
power
loss
MVAR

Congestion
index
Using TCSC

congestion
index with
out TCSC

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

1
2
3
4
4
6
6
8
9
9
9
9
13
13
1
1
1
3

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
15
16
17
15

28.604
26.78
95.515
50.43
79.571
80.212
131.81
22.629
12.5
37.039
21.382
44.471
58.151
90.477
120.63
82.053
96.471
121.96

120.459
39.804
-38.795
-19.325
-11.591
-11.42
-23.409
-8.381
-27.705
-41.078
-15.413
-32.28
-27.951
-23.798
61.072
32.635
27.723
-12.664

10.17
0.672
1.227
1.862
2.84
1.367
6.327
0.057
0.355
0.822
0.469
1.512
0.534
2.29
3.009
3.273
2.217
2.511

3.968
1.918
4.009
3.933
9.776
6.972
32.287
-15.031
1.615
2.701
2.134
4.968
1.757
7.397
15.381
14.852
10.06
8.214

0.133664
0.12514
0.446332
0.235654
0.371827
0.374822
0.615967
0.105743
0.058411
0.173079
0.099916
0.207808
0.271734
0.42279
0.563701
0.383425
0.450799
0.569939

0.404649
0.861257
0.52251
0.247318
0.229611
0.394094
0.867187
1.677702
0.348219
0.307676
0.063453
0.090627
0.243959
0.866166
1.283052
1.34336
1.620496
0.322242

After connecting TCSC in line connecting form Bus 8 to 9, the congestion index is 0.105 but in
previous case when TCSC was not incorporated in line the value of congestion index was 1.67.
So the reduction of Congestion is 93.7% which is excellent for a system performance.

74

Conclusion:

In the present work a congestion index has been developed to identify most congested power
line in a multi bus network. The developed index has been tested on IEEE-30 bus and IEEE 57
bus standard system to identify the congested lines. In the present study TCSC and SVC have
been proposed and implemented to reduce the level of congestion in these lines. The case
study on IEEE 30 bus system show that use of TCSC can significantly increase the power
transmission capacity of the lines and thereby decreased the congestion index. The TCSC also
improves other performance parameters of the system such as reduction in line losses while
maintaining satisfactory bus voltage profiles but SVC is not an ideal device for the congestion
management because it cannot shows the satisfactory result in reduction of congestion. From
the test results with SVC, it can be seen that voltage profile is improved satisfactorily but as we
are concentrating mainly on congestion management only, so TCSC can be selected as a
preferred device. Another case study on IEEE 57 Bus system with TCSC deliver similar
improvement I performance, with about 93.7% relief in congestion after employment of TCSC.
It can therefore be concluded that FACTS devices like TCSC can be effective in managing
congestion as well as improving various performance parameter of multi-bus power networks.

75

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76

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