International Water Resources Association

Water International, Volume 32, Number 2, Pg. 205-218, June 2007

205

2007 International Water Resources Association

Water Resources In Egypt:

Future Challeges and Opportunities
Mohamed Nasr Allam Professor and Head of the Irrigation and Drainage Department,
Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, and Gamal Ibrahim Allam Professor, National
Water Research Center, Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation

Abstract: Water is one of the most important inputs for economic development. As the demand increases,
so too does the importance of water. This is clearly the case in Egypt, where rainfall is rare and the governmentally
enforced quota for withdrawal from the Nile River has not changed since 1959. The water demand has multiplied
as a result of population growth, agricultural expansion, as well as industrial development and a rise in the
standard of living. In this paper, a vision for the future water status in Egypt is presented. This vision is based
on a perception of the current status of the available water resources. The water uses, the water use efficiency,
the institutional and legislative frameworks of water management, and the strategies and policies to rationalize
water use and to augment water supply are discussed. The local, regional and international governing and
controlling factors of water utilization and management in Egypt are also analyzed and discussed. Three future
water scenarios for year 2020, each reflecting alternate programs to develop the water systems and to rationalize
the water uses, are presented. All scenarios showed that Egypt will suffer considerable water shortages in
the near future. Recommendations to help overcome anticipated water challenges and to optimize the available
opportunities are provided.
INTRODUCTION
Water resources in Egypt are confined to the
withdrawal quota from the Nile water; the limited amount
of rainfall; the shallow and renewable groundwater
reservoirs in the Nile Valley, the Nile Delta and the
coastal strip; and the deep groundwater in the eastern
desert, the western desert and Sinai, which are almost
non-renewable. The non-traditional water resources
include reuse of agricultural drainage water and treated
wastewater, as well as the desalination of seawater and
brackish groundwater.

users as well as consumers of water, while other sectors

like river transport and hydropower generation only use
water without real consumption. Most data available on
water uses in Egypt are approximate and are not based
on field measurement, because there is no measuring
devices with accepted accuracy for the water uses for
either irrigation or the municipal and industrial sectors.
In this article, however, the data are checked, revised
and also analyzed, and the best data that are consistent
with the scientific estimates of the different uses, and
in agreement with the available few measurements, are
selected.

Agriculture in Egypt, as in most developing

There is a real problem that needs to be
countries, represents the main usage of water, followed, addressed, analyzed and resolved. Egypt has very
but with a large margin, by the residential, industrial and limited, mostly imported, water resources and yet
tourist uses. It is worth mentioning that these sectors are prepares very optimistic developmental plans. Indeed,
IWRA, Water International,Volume 32, Number 2, June 2007

206

Water Resources In Egypt: Future Challeges and Opportunities

many governmental programs have been initiated or

planned to rationalize water uses and increase their
economic return. In this paper, the different water uses,
as well as the existing and planned water conservation
programs, are presented and discussed. Then, a proposal
for future scenarios is introduced. Based on the results
of these scenarios, the risks and opportunities are
presented in order to facilitate the decision-making
process.
REVIEW OF WATER RESOURCES POLICIES
AND PLANS IN EGYPT

water losses and optimally utilize those losses in equal

shares. The new quota allowed Egypt to increase its
cultivated area to reach 2.4 million ha.
In 1975, the Ministry of Irrigation (MI)
established a policy aimed at rebalancing the water
status. Rebalancing was proposed through the
rationalization of crop water applications, in light of
studies and field experiments. The additional demands
were to be satisfied by the reuse of drainage water,
expansion of groundwater utilization especially in the
Nile Delta region and the optimal use of rainfall on the
northern coast.

In 1929, an agreement between Egypt and the

United Kingdom, on behalf of Sudan, was signed to
In 1977, MI began preparing the National Water
ratify the historical Nile water rights for each country. Master Plan (NWMP) in collaboration with the German
The recorded water rights were 48 billion

cubic meters Development Bank (KFW) and UNDP. The NWMP

(BCM) for Egypt and four BCM for Sudan.
aimed at setting plans to satisfy water demands over
a period of 20 years (19802000). In 1982, MI reset
In 1933, the Government of Egypt (GoE) its water policy according to the results of the NMWP.
implemented a water policy designed to benefit from The new policy showed that 11.7 BCM of extra water
the extra storage of the Nile water upstream from the was needed to satisfy future water demands. The policy
old Aswan reservoir after its second elevation. That showed that this additional water could be secured
policy aimed at cultivating additional 160,000 ha in through Egypts share in the first phase of the Jonglie
Lower Egypt and converting 208,000 ha from basin to canal (2.0 BCM/year), which was designed to trap a
permanent irrigation, along with the establishment of small portion of Nile water losses in the Sudd region,
public open drains in the permanent irrigation areas. southwest of Sudan. Ultimately, this plan was intended
In 1948, GoE presented a memorandum to the cabinet to increase groundwater utilization up to 4.9 BCM/year
showing that after 1950 there would be a pressing and to expand drainage water reuse practices up to 10
need to find extra water resources. The memorandum BCM/year.
recommended several Upper Nile projects to increase
the river flow and to avoid flood hazards. After the 1952
In 1994, Ministry of Water Resources and
Revolution, the High Aswan Dam (HAD) project was Irrigation (MWRI) and the General Authority for Land
presented to the Government and was approved. Its Reclamation prepared a comprehensive and ambitious
construction was planned for inside Egypt, as compared plan intended to expand the countrys agricultural
to the upper Nile projects.
horizon by 1.28 million up to year 2025. This would
be achievable by limiting the rice area to 280,000 ha;
In 1959, an agreement between Egypt and Sudan improving surface irrigation projects; maximizing the
had been reached for the optimal use of Nile Water as drainage water reuse, treated wastewater recycling,
an integral part of 1929 agreement. According to the and optimizing groundwater utilization, as well as the
agreement, the quota for Egypt and Sudan had been completion of the first phase of the Jonglie canal.
increased by 7.5 and 14.5 BCM, respectively. These
values were calculated according to the mean annual
In October 1997, MWRI prepared a draft of
natural Nile flow at Aswan, Egypt, from the recorded Water Resources Strategy of Egypt Until 2017. The
inflows for 70 consecutive years, i.e. 84 BCM/year. strategy also analyzed the projected water balance in
Moreover, it was recommended to trap the Upper Nile year 2017 for three scenarios: the first is for reclaiming
IWRA, Water International,Volume 32, Number 2, June 2007

Dr. M. N. Allam and G. I. Allam

612,000 ha, the second is for reclaiming 0.9 million ha,
and the third for reclaiming 1.36 million ha. Securing
the required extra water (about 24 BCM) was to be
accomplished through the completion of the first phase
of Jonglie canal, an increase of groundwater utilization,
water reuse practices, and a reduction of the areas of
high water requirement crops (MWRI, 1997).
WATER CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT
PRACTICES
Since the 1970s, water uses in Egypt have
exceeded the available resources. Accordingly, the
government has provided additional resources by
recycling drainage and wastewater, trapping water
losses, and with water use rationalization practices.
At present, municipal and industrial uses involve
many negative aspects. These include high losses in
the distribution networks; they also include the use of
clean drinking water in small factories, workshops, car
wash, and in irrigating backyards and public gardens.
Other irrational uses include the absence of long-term
technical or financial plans for preventive maintenance;
and inadequate tariff policy. Municipal water distribution
networks in Egypt have witnessed great expansions
during the last three decades in order to cope with the
rapid urbanization projects and increased population.
In industry, several actions are required to rationalize
water uses.

207

the head and tail of the mesqa. The fourth benefit is the
reduction of 50-60% of irrigation time due to improving
the conveyance efficiency and irrigation scheduling.
The findings of that research project were then
used in a large improvement program (1984-1996)
implemented by MWRI on an area of 156,000 ha in five
Governorates. Another irrigation improvement project
started in 1997 over an area of 100,000 ha. The irrigation
and drainage law No. 12 for the year 1984 was amended
to recover the relevant improvement cost from farmers
at installments over twenty years without interest.
There were also pilot projects to establish federations
of WUAs and to form water boards to take part in
Operation and Maintenance (O&M) of branch canals.
On the one hand, the various irrigation improvement
projects have several positive impacts (Allam, 1995).
On the other hand, there were various difficulties like the
slow rate of implementation, high cost of improvement
(about L.E 3,500/ha), weak monitoring and follow up
programs, and funding problems for the pumping units
for the raised mesqa (MWRI, 1998).

The government has imposed modern irrigation

methods on farmers in the new lands. Due to the
relatively high maintenance costs, farmers removed
drippers or sprays and thus converted modern irrigation
methods into surface irrigation. The government is
planning to switch the orchards and other fruits farms
into drip irrigation to save about 0.75 BCM/year. The
The Irrigation Improvement Project (IIP) main obstacle that faces this program is providing the
in Egypt was started due to the impetus of a leading funds needed for modernization, as farmers have no
research project executed by the National Water significant incentive to share the cost as long as the
Research Center (NWRC) in 1977-1984. The project government provides their water requirements free of
examined various alternatives capable of improving the charge.
on farm water management practices, including laser
land leveling, developing mesqa (tertiary canal) and
The high water requirements crops are mainly
water distribution structures, and forming water users sugarcane, banana and rice. Sugarcane is cultivated
associations (WUAs). This project provided several in Upper Egypt with a total area of less than 200,000
benefits. Firstly, it was responsible for land saving ha. Although one ha of sugarcane consumes triple the
due to the construction of the improved mesqa. It was amount of water required for one ha of sugar beets, it
found that 2% of the total command area of the mesqa is difficult to convert sugarcane agriculture into sugar
could be saved for agriculture. The second benefit was beets. Firstly, because most of the existing sugar mills
the increase in crop yield due to the better conditions are sugarcane mills. Secondly, sugar beet is a winter crop
of water availability. The third is the equity of water and may not be suitable for the relatively hot climate
distribution by improving the water allocation between of Upper Egypt. The solution may be the improvement
IWRA, Water International,Volume 32, Number 2, June 2007

208

Water Resources In Egypt: Future Challeges and Opportunities

of the irrigation methods for sugarcane to decrease the

losses, as well as a gradual reduction of sugarcane areas.
The rice crop also presents a real problem for irrigation
engineers. In light of the deregulation of the prices of
crops, rice became one of the most important lucrative
crops for farmers. Its grown areas gradually increased
from about 280,000 ha by the mid-70s to about 0.8
million ha in 2000. Rice has become one of the most
important Egyptian exports in the agricultural sector.
The real intentions of the government towards this crop
are not yet clear. The banana farms, on the other hand,
consume a lot of water. Most of the banana farms are in
the newly reclaimed lands with sandy soils. No action
has been yet taken to prevent or control these farms.
WATER STATUS IN YEAR 2000
Table 1 shows that in year 2000, there was a
balance between water uses and available resources
(Allam, 2001). To evaluate the efficiency of the irrigation
water system, figure (1) shows a simplified diagram of
the system. As shown in the figure, the total losses of
the water system, evaporation and outflow, were about
16.25 BCM. The losses were 29% of the network annual
inflow. Water consumption was about 39.75 BCM/year,
divided between agriculture (38 BCM), municipalities

and industry (1.75 BCM). The overall efficiency of

the water system in the year 2000, which equals the
consumption as a percentage of the total inflow, was
about 71%. This efficiency is relatively high, taking into
consideration that the prevailing irrigation method is
surface irrigation, which has a low efficiency. This high
system efficiency is probably attributed to the intensive
efforts of MWRI in O&M, and to the current recycling
practices, in addition to the considerable experience of
Egyptian farmers.
WATER ISSUES AND CONSIDERATIONS
Water Shortage
Egypt is located in a dry climate zone where
rainfall is scarce and the desert covers most of the land.
In addition to its fixed Nile quota, a deep groundwater
reservoir, which is not renewable, may be utilized with
a rate of 2.7 BCM/year over a period of 100 years. The
higher the exploitation rate, the shorter the period of
use will be. Egypt is now capable of satisfying its water
needs, which are 25% more than the available water
resources, through recycling of agriculture wastewater
and trapping water losses. The water shortage is the
main constraint and a major limiting factor facing
the implementation of the countrys future economic

Water Uses (BCM/year)

Sector

Water Resources (BCM/year)

Amount

Resource

Amount

Municipalities

5.25

Nile river

55.50

Industry

3.50

Groundwater (Delta and Valley)

5.50

River Transport

0.25

Deep Groundwater

0.8

Fisheries

Drainage Water Reuse

Hydropower

- Canals in the Delta Region

4.5

Agriculture

63.00

- Nile river and Bahr Youssef

5.0

- Illegal Uses

3.0

Waste Water Reuse

0.2

Rainfall and Flash Floods

0.5

Evaporation Losses
Total

72.00

Table 1. Water Uses and Available Resources in Year 2000

(3)
Total

72.00

IWRA, Water International,Volume 32, Number 2, June 2007

Source: Allam (2001)

Dr. M. N. Allam and G. I. Allam

209

Figure 1. Water Status in Year 2000

development plans.
The Relations with the Nile Basin Countries
Until today, none of the Nile basin countries
has endorsed the 1959 agreement between Egypt
and Sudan. However, there had been many technical
cooperation programs between Egypt and these
countries. At present, both the Council of Ministers and
the Technical Advisory Committee work to set up the
legal framework necessary for regional cooperation
among the Nile Basin countries.
The previously studied water gains from the
Upper Nile projects in Sudan alone are approximately
18 BCM/year, as measured at Aswan. This water is to
be divided between Egypt and Sudan according to the
1959 agreement. In the light of the present international
circumstances, however, it does not seem feasible that
any of these projects can be initiated either now or in
the near future.

Nile River reach of Aswan-Cairo, however, has several

sources of pollution, including untreated or semi-treated
industrial waste and sewage water, agricultural drainage
water, flash floods loaded with sediment, and solid and
liquid wastes of Nile cruise activities (Allam, 1999).
It was also found that the level of bacteria is higher
than what is permitted for both municipal and irrigation
purposes. There is also bacterial pollution and a high
level of ammonia in the Rosetta branch (National Water
Research Center, 1996 (b)). The Damietta branch also
suffers from high levels of both salinity and ammonia
(Drainage Research Institute, 1996).
The salinity of drainage water south of the
Delta is low (less than 1,000 part per million (ppm)),
and increases toward the north to 2,000-5,000 ppm.
At present, the drains, particularly in the Delta region,
are used as sewage canals for industrial and municipal
wastes. They are exposed to chemical and biological
pollution that minimizes the reuse potential of water for
agriculture. Some drainage water reuse stations have
been closed because of the polluted drainage water
(Abdel Azeem, 1999).

Water Pollution
With the steady increase of population and the
continuous expansion of urbanized areas, pollution
issues have increased too. The southern part of the Nile
The groundwater aquifer at the newly reclaimed
River in Egypt is Lake Nasser (the lake of the HAD) with areas in the north and west of the Delta region receives
its clean water. The lake is void of pollution sources, leakage from the agricultural drains and irrigation
except for few agricultural activities on the banks. The canals, as well as from industrial and human wastes.
IWRA, Water International,Volume 32, Number 2, June 2007

210

Water Resources In Egypt: Future Challeges and Opportunities

The Nubian sandstone formation in the Western Desert some examples of legislative concerns:
has high iron concentration in Abu Menqar (El Farafra
oasis), and the lower part of the reservoir has brackish a.
Laws are weak against transgression on irrigation
water, which becomes very salty in its northern parts.
and drainage networks, whether on its water,
Control of the groundwater withdrawals, especially in
embankments or perms. Concomitantly, the
the Northern oases and Siwa oasis, is necessary in order
penalties for transgressing these laws must be made
to prevent the deterioration of groundwater quality
harsher, thus emphasizing the governments role in
(Allam, 2001).
both monitoring and executing punishment.
Inadequacy of the Institutional Framework
b. There is no announced policy for groundwater well
There is a real need for developing the institutions
permits for the different groundwater reservoirs.
engaged in water resource management, in order to
be able to face the great challenges of water shortage c. The areas of groundwater well fields are not declared
and increasing water demands. Coordination among
as protected areas against pollution and over
the involved institutions as well as decentralization of
pumping.
the decision-making processes is becoming essential.
These institutional concerns seem crucial to overcoming d. Law number 48 for 1982, regarding the required
the inadequacy of the existing institutional framework.
standards of pollution of the disposed wastewater to
These claims can be summarized as follows:
the watercourses, exists only on paper most of the
time.
a. Lack of sufficient coordination between MWRI and
other ministries engaged in the water management. e. Suitable health and environmental specifications and
guidelines for recycling the agricultural drainage
b. Inadequate information dissemination and
and treated wastewater in different activities are not
communication among the different institutions and
well defined.
stakeholders increases the difficulties of the water
distribution process, and constraints the efforts f. There are no adequate legislations for the participation
for developing comprehensive water policies and
of the private sector in water management and water
plans.
services. Legalization of the WUAs and water
boards is not yet established.
c. Decision making process in MWRI goes through
different levels in a centralized fashion.
Lack of Public Awareness
The notion that Egypt is a country of water
d. In spite of the heavy burden carried out by the abundance became stronger after the high Nile river
district engineer in MWRI, he/she is surviving a floods during the late 1990s. This event led to the
permanent case of emergency. Many engineers do discharge of huge amounts of water into Toshqa
not accept this job, as its rewards are not equivalent depression upstream the HAD, the Mediterranean
to the time and effort needed.
Sea and the northern lakes. The transgression on
watercourses
increased, illegal rice cultivation
Deficiency of Legislation
increased, and numerous unauthorized fish farms
As a result of the expanding utilization of appeared. In the cities and urban areas, the appearances
groundwater and the non-traditional water resources, of extravagance in water use are considerable.
there is a need for new laws to protect the resources and
to regulate water uses. It is also necessary to enhance Lack of Information
the capacity of the existing laws to face the continuing
Egypt lacks the necessary data in various
threat on water and watercourses. The following are sectors, especially water. The only measured resource
IWRA, Water International,Volume 32, Number 2, June 2007

Dr. M. N. Allam and G. I. Allam

211

Fragmentation of Agricultural Land Holdings

Holdings Fragmentation is one of the main
issues that threaten the agriculture in Egypt, particularly
in the old land in the Nile Valley and Nile Delta. This
is due to its direct impact on agricultural production
efficiency, marketing, water use efficiency, and even on
the income of farmers who became among the lowest
income groups nationwide. The average holding size
in the 1920s and 1930s was more than 2.4 ha. After the
The operation of the irrigation network depends agricultural reform law, the average holding decreased
on water levels and not on discharges, relying on to about 1.5 ha. The present average holding size at the
hydraulic relationships between the level and the national level is about 0.8 ha.
discharge. With the present deterioration of the irrigation
network and the changed dimensions of the sections of
In general, the average net return of one ha is
most watercourses, these relationships no longer hold about L.E. 3,750-5,000/year. So, the annual net return
and water flows in the canals are no longer known. Thus, of an average holding at the national level is about L.E.
it is not possible to accurately know the agriculture 4000, i.e. less than L.E. 350/month (LE = US$ 0.15).
water uses in the different regions. In addition, there are Without the animal and poultry wealth that provides
no meters on most of the groundwater wells and, of the extra income, farmers would not be able to cover their
few installed meters, most do not work. In the municipal living expenses. More fragmentation will increase the
water supply networks, high percentage of the meters, difficulties of irrigation management and thousands of
either on the network or at the outlets, do not work, and farmers may leave their cultivated land looking for a
the rates are estimated at random. Consequently, there better income in urban centers. Farmers immigration
is no accurate information available on municipal and will have serious social, economic and security
industrial water uses or on the losses of the distribution consequences.
network.
ANALYSIS
OF WATER
MANAGEMENT
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
PRACTICES
Most of the studies concerned with the potential
global and local effects of GATT showed that the
In fact, most of the existing water policies are
benefiting countries from the agreement are, in general, impressive and sensitive to the need to overcome a
the most exporting ones, and that the countries whose number of water problems. Unfortunately, these water
food imports are more than their exports will suffer policies include several questionable issues. These
(Siam, 1994). For Egypt, the estimated economic issues are not only compromising the results of these
losses resulting from this agreement are about 180- policies, but also their effectiveness. The following are
236 million dollars/year. Siam (1994) showed that in some observations on these policies:
the event of the full deregulation of international trade,
international prices will increase by about 16%, and a. Most of the agricultural expansion projects are at
on the level of consumer goods, a high increase will
the tail ends of the irrigation network, like the areas
occur in the prices of dairy products followed by sugar
located in Sinai and in Toshqa. The drainage water
then wheat and rice. Abu Aly (1994) and Abu Mandour
of those projects, therefore, cannot be returned to
(1994) estimated that this increase in prices would lead
the water system. It must be either locally recycled
to an increase in the cultivated areas of cotton, rice and
or damped out of the system. As a result, the water
wheat, which will have a direct impact on increasing
consumption of these projects will be about the
agricultural water use.
same as their total water requirements, which are
about 24 BCM.
is the Egypt Nile water quota downstream HAD.
There is no accurate measurement for either rainfall
or flash floods. As for water quality measurements in
watercourses, or for groundwater aquifers, they are
very few, even along the Nile River and main canals.
The available measurements are both limited and for
only a few elements. There are also usually done on
distant intervals.

IWRA, Water International,Volume 32, Number 2, June 2007

212

Water Resources In Egypt: Future Challeges and Opportunities

Toshqa
1.0

Evapotranspiration
Evaporation
36.0
2.5

Consumption
4.5

Rainfal Elsalam canal

l.0
1.0

Municipalities

55.5
54.50

11.5

HAD

" First Scenario "

Outflow

Desalination
0.25
Toshqa
4.5

Rainfall
1.0

Evaporation
2.0
Evapotranspiratio
Consumptio

Elsalam canal

4.25
55.5

Municipalities

51.0

7.0

HAD

"Second Scenario"

Outflow

Desalination
Evapotranspiratio
n
Evaporation

Toshqa
4.5

2.0

0.5

Rainfall
1.5

Consumptio
Elsalam canal and
projects

10.0
Municipalities

57.5
53.0
HAD

5.0

"Third Scenario"
Outflow

Figure 2. Future Water Scenarios

IWRA, Water International,Volume 32, Number 2, June 2007

Dr. M. N. Allam and G. I. Allam

b. The dynamic interactions among the different water
policy options were not taken into consideration at
setting the water balance. Some of these interactions
are as follows:
- Diverting some of the Nile water to Toshqa will
be deduced from the released water to the Nile
Valley and the Delta causing negative impacts
on groundwater recharge and on the quantity
and quality of the agricultural drainage water.
- The irrigation improvement projects, reduction
of rice areas and modern irrigation schemes for
orchard and fruit farms will reduce the recharge
rate of the groundwater, and will reduce the
drainage water and may increase its salinity.
- Expanding the drainage water reuse practices,
even if the pollution problems have been solved,
requires using agricultural drainage water with
relatively high salinity. Even after blending the
drainage water with the canal water, irrigation
applications have to be increased by the leaching
requirements to prevent salt accumulation in
the soil. So, water uses will increase by 10-25%
or even more according to the salinity of the
drainage water.

213

Three scenarios for the future water status in

year 2020 are presented. The first scenario assumes
the continuity of the current water practices without
major changes, the second scenario assumes a relative
development of the water policies, and the third
scenario is ambitious and reflects a radical development
in water management practices in Egypt. Population
growth rates were assumed according to the findings
of the Third World Forum study on population and
work power, by Othman et el (2001). Table 2 shows
the main assumptions of the three scenarios. Tables 3
to 5 demonstrate the available water resources versus
water uses for the proposed scenarios. Figure 2
illustrates the three different scenarios as resources and
consumptions. Consumptions, rather than uses, were
considered in the water balance calculations to avoid
any debate about the possible losses and/or method of
water use calculations.
RESULTS OF THE WATER SCENARIOS

As shown in the tables, the first scenario will

result in a water shortage by year 2020. If priority is
given to municipal and industrial sectors, the water
deficit will be in the agricultural sector. The available
water will be enough only to reclaim 0.12 million ha
in addition to another 80,000 ha on deep groundwater.
Figure 2 shows the impact of this scenario on drainage
water outflow to the sea and to the lakes. The efficiency
- Expanding the use of groundwater in the Nile of the water system, therefore, will increase from 71%
Valley and the Delta will lower the groundwater to about 75%. This relative increase of system efficiency
table, and hence reduces the quantity of drainage is a result of expanding water reuse activities and the
water available for reuse.
relative improvement of the irrigation network.
c. The treated sewage water is currently used in irrigating
wooden trees, and is not, officially speaking, to be
used in irrigating vegetables and crops. Thus, adding
this water to the water balance of the country as a
potential water source for the planned agricultural
expansions is against the announced policies.

The water deficit is avoided in the second

scenario, and water requirements for the two mega
land reclamation projects, Toshqa and Sinai, will
be fully provided. The total area of the agricultural
expansions in this scenario is 0.48 million ha, and 0.12
million ha on the deep groundwater. Figure 2 shows
that the drainage water outflows to the sea and lakes
e. There is no participation of the private sector in the will be reduced from 13.25 BCM to 7 BCM. This
water services.
outflow will be less than the minimum amount required
for maintaining the fisheries and the environmental
Future OPPORTUNITIES AND Water equilibrium in the northern lakes, which was estimated
Scenarios
to be approximately 8 BCM/year (Imam and Ibrahim,
IWRA, Water International,Volume 32, Number 2, June 2007

214

Water Resources In Egypt: Future Challeges and Opportunities

1996). The evaporation losses from the water system

will be reduced to 2 BCM/year, while the efficiency of
the water system will increase to about 84%.


In the third scenario, the available water
resources are sufficient to satisfy the water requirements
of the proposed agricultural expansion projects in 0.8
million ha, in addition to 0.2 million ha on the deep
groundwater. The drainage water outflow to the sea and
lakes will decrease to 5 BCM, threatening the ecology

of the northern lakes as shown in Figure 2. In this

scenario, the total water losses of the water system will
decrease to 7 BCM/year and the network efficiency will
reach 88%.
Furthermore, drainage water will be carrying
about 2.5 BCM of untreated municipal and industrial
wastewater. Salinity of the disposed drainage water will
probably exceed 6,000 ppm, as compared to the current
average salinity of this water, which is approximately

Assumption

Scenario
1

Total Population (Million)

94

93

91

Surface Irrigation Improvement (million ha)

0.50

0.80

0.80

Irrigation Network Rehabilitation

C u r r e n tMore Attention More Attention

practice
Municipal and Industrial Water UseN o s e r i o u sMore attention Privatization +
Rationalization
steps
Tariffs
Drinking Water Supply Network Rehabilitation None
Main parts
Privatization
Drinking Water Supply Network Losses (%)

40 50

Wastewater Treatment Compared to PopulationMuch lower

Growth
Water User Association, Water Boards and WaterAs Current
Councils

30

20

Illegal Practices of Drainage Reuse

Privatized and
improved
Established
Empowered &
Granted Legal
Liabilities
New breedsDecrease in R e a c h
the
with less waterareas of Rice optimal areas of
requirements and Banana
Rice and Banana
No Actions
Efforts increase L a w
and
regulation
empowerments
Continue
Less
Prohibited

Modern Irrigation for Orchard and Fruit Farms

No funds

Restriction of High Water Requirement Crops

Government Control over Pollution

Completion of Horizontal Expansion Projects0.20

(million ha)
Public Awareness
Current

Improved

No funds

Yes

0.60

1.00

Increasing

High

Table 2. Main Assumptions of the Proposed Scenarios

IWRA, Water International,Volume 32, Number 2, June 2007

215

Dr. M. N. Allam and G. I. Allam

Water Uses (BCM/year)

Sector
Municipalities

Water Resources (BCM/year)

Amount
& 15.00

Industry

Resource
Nile River

Amount
55.50

Groundwater (Delta and Valley)

7.50

Deep Groundwater
Drainage Water Reuse

2.25

River Transport
Fisheries

0.25
0.00

Hydropower

0.00

- Canals in the Delta Region

6.50

Agriculture

6.50

- Nile river and Bahr Youssef

- Illegal Uses

5.00
3.00

Waste Water Reuse

Rainfall and Flash Floods
Evaporation Losses
Total

78.75

1.00
0.50
(2.50)

Total

78.75

Table 3. Water Uses and Available Resources for Scenario (1)

Water Uses (BCM/year)

Sector
Municipalities

Amount
& 12.75

Industry

Water Resources (BCM/year)

Resource
Nile River
Groundwater (Delta and Valley)

Amount
55.50
7.50

River Transport
Fisheries
Hydropower

0.00
0.00
0.00

Deep Groundwater
Drainage Water Reuse
- Canals in the Delta Region

2.50

Agriculture

69.75

- Nile river and Bahr Youssef

- Illegal Uses
Waste Water Reuse
Rainfall and Flash Floods
Desalination
Evaporation Losses

5.00
2.00
2.00
1.25
0.25
(2.00)

Total

82.50

Total

Table 4. Water Uses and Available Resources for Scenario (2)

IWRA, Water International,Volume 32, Number 2, June 2007

8.50

82.50

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Water Resources In Egypt: Future Challeges and Opportunities

2,750 ppm (Allam, 2001).

The results of the three scenarios show that
unless urgent steps are taken to control population
growth, rehabilitate irrigation and water supply
networks, and rationalize water uses, it will be difficult
to provide water for agricultural expansions of more
than 0.2 million ha., If

those steps are taken, in addition

to the treatment of about 2 BCM of sewage water,
agricultural expansions of about 0.6 to 1.0 million ha,
including Toshqa and El Salam canal projects, will be
possible. The anticipated environmental deterioration
that may take place in the northern lakes should be
closely monitored and evaluated.

It may be difficult to achieve the last scenario
due to the huge financial investment required. The
absence of positive indications regarding the completion
of the Jonglie canal, as well as the absence of any kind
of consensus among the Nile Basin countries regarding

Water Uses (BCM/year)

Sector
Municipalities

Amount
& 11.50

Industry

which countries can expect to benefit from the increased

river water low, represent more compelling reasons for
doubt.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
A comprehensive diagnosis of the Egyptian water
system, policies, issues and considerations is reviewed
and analyzed. Three future scenarios that introduce the
future challenges, using the available opportunities, are
discussed and investigated. Recommendations to help
overcome the future challenges are as follows:
a.Intensify the governments efforts to reduce the
population growth rate.
b. Efforts are needed to push forward the decentralization
process of water management up to district level. These
efforts should be accompanied by serious capacity
building programs.

Water Resources (BCM/year)

Resource
Nile River
Groundwater (Delta and Valley)

River Transport
Fisheries
Hydropower

0.00
0.00
0.00

Deep Groundwater
Drainage Water Reuse
- Canals in the Delta Region

Agriculture

73.70

- Nile River and Bahr Youssef

- Illegal Uses
Waste Water Reuse
Rainfall and Flash Floods
Desalination
Evaporation Losses

Total

85.20

Total

Table (5) Water Uses and Available Resources for Scenario (3)
IWRA, Water International,Volume 32, Number 2, June 2007

Amount
57.50
7.50

3.20
9.50
5.00
0.00
2.50
1.50
0.50
(2.00)
85.20

Dr. M. N. Allam and G. I. Allam

c. Empowerment of the existing water use and water
pollution laws seems crucial. Establishing an adequate
legal framework for water users associations and water
boards with more jurisdictions as for O&M, irrigation
scheduling, and fining the violators is also essential.
Improvement for the current water laws to allow
private sector participation in water services is needed
to ease the financial and management burden on the
government.

217

the proposed scenarios could suit the governments

ambitious development plan. However, the best
scenario shows that the upper agriculture expansion
limit is one million ha against the aimed 1.36 million
ha by the GoE.
References
Abdel Azim, R. A. (1999) Agricultural Drainage Water
Reuse in Egypt: Current Practices and a Vision
for Future Development. (Ph.D. thesis, Faculty
of Engineering, Cairo University, Cairo).

d. The real hope is the Upper Nile projects, which will

increase the Nile water quota. So, it is necessary to
strengthen the cooperation ties through better cultural, Abu Aly, S. (1994) GATT Impacts on Egyptian
social, economic and political relations with the Nile
Agriculture, Egyptian Journal of AgroBasin countries. Also, it is required to encourage
economics, Special Issue.
governmental and private investments in the Nile basin
countries.
Abu Mandour, M. (1994) GATT: Opportunities
and Challenges, Egyptian Journal of Agroe. The role of scientific research should take its place to
economics, Special Issue.
develop new affordable desalinization techniques. The
same role is significant for introducing new agriculture Allam, M. N. (1995) Analysis of Surface Irrigation
seeds and breeds that have high productivity, high
Improvement in Egypt, Journal of Egyptian
diseases resistance and low water consumption.
Society of Engineers, 34.
f. A comprehensive national program is needed to
rationalize water uses in the domestic and industrial
sectors. Installing and maintaining water conservation
devices, revising the service tariff, using treated
wastewater instead of drinking water in watering
gardens and parks, recycling the industrial wastewater
and utilizing seawater and brackish groundwater for
washing and cooling purposes in the new industries are
highly recommended.

Allam, M. N. (2001) Water and Agricultural Land in

Egypt: Past, Present and Future (Cairo, The
Academic Bookshop).
Drainage Research Institute (1996) The Year Book of
Drainage Water Quality (Cairo)

Emam, E. and K. Ibrahim (1996) Minimum Nile
Drainage Needs for Sustainable Estuarine
Ecosystem (National Water Research Center,
Cairo).

g. It is important to increase the governmental and

private sector interventions needed to raise the
publics awareness of the water scarcity problems, Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation (1997) A
the rationalizations of water use, and protection of
Draft Strategy for Water Resources in Egypt
watercourses from transgression and pollution.
(Cairo).
The results of the three scenarios show that Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation (1998)
unless urgent actions are taken to rehabilitate irrigation
Egypts Irrigation Improvement Program: 1.
and water supply networks, as well as rationalize water
Performance Assessment, APRP-Water Policy
uses, it will be difficult to provide water for agricultural
Reform project, Report No.7.
expansions of more than 0.2 million ha. None of
IWRA, Water International,Volume 32, Number 2, June 2007

218

Water Resources In Egypt: Future Challeges and Opportunities

National Water Research Center (1996b) Pollution

Control and Water Quality Conservation along
Rosetta Branch, Water Resources Strategic
Research Activity, Report No. 11, Cairo.
Othman, M., Elmahdy, A., Hussien, S., and E. Saleh
(2001) Population and Work Force: Directions,
Interactions, and Future Aspects, Final Report,
Third World Forum, Egypt 2020 Project
(Cairo).
Siam, G. (1994) GATT and The Situation of the
Egyptian Strategic Crops, Egyptian Journal of
Agro-economics, Special Issue.

IWRA, Water International,Volume 32, Number 2, June 2007