AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS AND AVIONICS FOR A&P TECHNICIANS (ord ® Js 312666 ) uly : Max F. Hemder sen LS.B.N.: 0-89100-422-xAIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS AND AVIONICS FOR A&P TECHNICIANS LS.B.N.: 0-89100-422-X‘About This Book Table of Contents ‘About the Author vi CHAPTER I CHAPTER II (CHAPTER IIT CHAPTER IV Appendix A Appendix B Index Basic Instruments 1 ‘Why Study Instruments?; Atreraft Instrument Requirements: Piot-State System instrament; Gyro Instruments; Compass Systems; Electronic instruments: Computers in Atrraft Powerplant Instruments and Logic Gates 55 gut Qnantiy Meassring Systeme: Bel Fla Indicators ‘Temperature Measuring Systeme, Position Indicating Systems: Tachometers: 04 Pressure Indicators: Torquemeters: Engine Pressure Ratio Indicators Manifold Pressure Gauges; Primary Power Setting Instruments; Vibration Indicators Tage Cire ant Digital Syetnme: Taken Warning Systeme: Angle of Attack Indientort Stall Warning Systems; Annuncators: FARS for Warning Systems and Annunciators ‘Communication and Navigation Systems 103 ‘Ratlo Fuulannentals; Regulations and Standards for Radion, Intercom and Interphone Systems; Communications Radios: Radar Altimeter; ‘TCAS — Airborne Collision Avoidance System Aircraft Antennas and Autopilots 149 Installadon and Inepeetion of Avionics: Antenna Installations: ‘Autopilots and Fight Directors Glossary, 193 Abbreviations 197 201About This Book ‘This textbook is intended tobe used in the instruc- tion of students in an aviation maintenance tech- nieian training program. The descriptions, drawings ‘and graphics in this book are for instructional pur- pooee only and should not be vised ae a techntnal Teference source for specific maintenance tasks on aireraft or atrcraft systems or for other operational purposes. Excerpts from Federal Aviation Regula- ‘bon’ and oltier sources nave been paraphrased and ‘simplified in order to save space and time. ‘The author wishes to express his appreciation for ‘permission {o use material from the technical pub- Iieations of the following aviation companies. Reecheraft Aireraft Corp. (Wichita, Kansas) Canadair Group, Bombardier Ine. (Montreal, ‘guebec, Casal) Cessna Aircraft Co. (Wichita. Kansas) Comant Industries Inc. (Sante Fe Springs. California) Dayton-Granger Inc. (Fort Lauderdale, Florida) ‘Dorne and Margolin ine. (Bohemia, New York) Flight Dynamics Ine. (Portland, Oregon) Piper Aireraft Corp. (Vero Beach, Florida) Semene Systeme (Chatewnrth. California! ‘Terra Avionies (Albuquerque, New Mexico) United Technologies — Pratt & Whitney Canada Ine. (Longueutl, Quebec, Canada) ‘me Canadair drawings which appear throughout this book are the proprietary property of Bombardier Inc, Canadair Group. As such, Its forbidden to copy these drawings without the express written permis- sion of Bombardier Ine., Canadait Group. Readers fare cautioned that the drawings are training ‘material only and as such are not subject torevision. "They are nat tae seed in Hew of approved technical ‘manual ilustrations forthe purposes of arrying out ‘any maintenance procedure or any other activity on any Canadair aircraft or any other aircraft.About The Author Max F, Henderson has been tenching Aviation Maintenance Technology subjects at Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University since 1982. Previous ex- perience includes working as an Electronics Tech- Dician in the U.S. AI roree, as a Commercial pot fand ASP mechanic and as a Control Tower Operator. Mr. Henderson holds four FAA certieates: 1. Commercial Pilot Certiieate — Ratings for single and multi-engine land, instruments, single-engine seaplanes and gliders. 2.Mechanie Certificate — Airframe and Powerplant ratings 3. Ground Instructor Certificate — Advanced rating 4. Control Tower Operator Certificate During his years at Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Mr. Henderson has earned the follow Ing degrees: A'S. Degree im Aircraft Maintenance, BS. Degree in Professional Aeronautics and a Master's Degree in Aeronautical Science. Mr. Henderson acquired his interest in aviation from hhis father Floyd B. Henderson whose flying. and ‘maintenance experience on aircraft began in 1932. Mr. Henderson's interest in aviation history 1s evidenced by a collection of books and Photographs of carly aviation dating, back to the ‘World War eraCHAPTER I Basic Instruments Chapter one begins with a study of the general requlrements for alreraft instruments and thelr in- stallation. The categories and types of instruments fare covered before beginning a study of specif instruments. ‘The instruments examined in chapter one include pitotstalie system instruments, gyro instruments, compass systems and electronic instruments. Ref. rents willbe made to Pederal Aviation Regulations Which apply to these areas, particularly FAR Part 1 Definitions and Abbreviations, FAR Part 23, FAR Part 43 and FAR Part 91 A. Why Study Instruments? 1 ts important for aircraft technicians to study aireraft instruments 60 that they will be able to Inspect, install and troubleshoot them properly. ‘There are also oceasions when the technician wil be running the atrraf’s engines or other systems and wl have to use the instruments himsel Many instruments are a part of @ larger system and It fs necessary to understand the interrlationships between the various parts of the system. All certifented.alrraft hawe tnetmiments, ale ‘though in the case of ot air balloons and gliders, | eae | ees opeed COMPASS ALTMETER OL TACHOMETER AIRSPEED INDICATOR Figure 1-4. only a few baste instruments may be required. The fhumber and variely of instruments has increased lover the years so that a small single engine airplane of today has more Instruments and more sophis- {cated instruments than airliners had in the 19405 or earler. Figure 1-1 shows the instrument panel of a Piper Cub from the early 1940s with tts stx basic instruments. This airplane was a small wo place airplane which did not have an electrical sv fem, so all the instruments used mechanical means of operation. The instrument panel shown in figure 1-2'ts that of a modern single engine airplane sauipped for “blind Oying” oF TFB Might operations ‘This airplane has many more instruments and sys- tems that increase the safety of Might and make 4 a more efficient means of transportation. The moot important inetruments are placed dircetly In front ofthe pilot and the radios are grouped together tm the middle for easy access to the controls ‘The most common and important types of aircraft ‘instruments and avionics systems wil be described J this book along with some PAA requirements for testing and installation. The categories for alreraft instruments and the basic FAA require ments will be covered first on, PRESSURE —_____| The instrument panel of «1940s Piper Cub. (Courtesy PlperAlrcraf Corp)Aircraft Instrument Requirements 1. Instrument Categories ‘The instruments found on diferent types of alreraft have considerable variety, but they ean be categorized according to elther how they work or what kinds fF miormaion Urey preseut ey die Mgt crew a. Categories According to Application 1. Powerplant Instruments — These give infor mation related to the aiteraft's powerplant or powerplants 2, Flight and Navigation instruments — These glve Information such as altitude, speed ete. or in Fermation required for navigating the airoraft 3, Systems Instruments — These concer air- craft systems such as electrical, hydraulic pressurization, bleed air systems etc. '. Categories According to Means of Operation 1. Pressure Instruments —These measure the pressure of aif, fuel, of, te, 2. Mechanical Inciruments — These use a me chanical system (o obtain and/or transmit ‘informatio. 3. Gyro Instruments — These use the principles ‘ight 4, Electrical and Electronic Instruments — his group has seen the most change in recent Years due to advances in digital technology ‘and other related ‘elds. 2. Instrument Placement and Installation While there is not a standard placement for all the instruments that migot pe tuna on e1uier 2 small or large aircraft, some of the most im- portant instruments will have a standard layout Asrectly in front of the pilot. This makes it casier for the pilot to sean the important instruments land it makes it easler to transition to a different ‘ype of airplane. ber of standard sees. This mainly apples to the round instruments since some other types come fn a wide variety of sizes. The standard sizes for 1. 1° Often a vacuum gauge on single-engine atrplanes 2, 2° Flangeless — Many turbine engine powerpt ant instruments ate this type. 3. 2-14 —A common size for many different ‘instruments Instrument ™ Figure 1-2. Typleal arrangement of instruments and radios in a single engine airplane.5 4° —The older style gyro instruments were often this size, but it is seldom used on a modern aera Examples of the 1", 2-Ve" and 3-Va" sizes can be seen on the instrument panel in figure 12. ‘There are a number of methods used to install instruments into the aircraft snstrument panel. The three most common methods are: 1, Serews — Non-magnetic fine thread machine screws are used, brass screws with a black ‘oxide finish are very common. Circumferential Clamps — These clamps are fastened to the back of the instrument pane! ‘and operate somewhat like a hose clamp (ig: ure 1-3) are installed on studs to hold the instrament tn place igure 1-3). “nstaling alreraft struments Is often made dif ‘hoult by the fact that there isnt much room behind the instrument panel and access is limited. Some ‘aircraft use sliding or hinged panels to improve 3. Instrument Markings ‘Aircraft instruments often utilize colored mark- Inge a that axfe operating values can be indicated to the pilot. For example, red usually means a ‘maximum oF minimum operating limitation for the airplane or engine. These markings are nor- ‘mally on the face of the instrument, inside the cover glass. It is permissible to apply colored ‘markings with paint to the cover glass, but CIRCUMFERENTIAL CLAMP (A) this is done the marks must not interfere with reading the instrument and a white line must, be applied to the cover glass and case (o act ‘25-8 slippage mark. ‘When applying or inspecting the markings on instruments, a suitable reference source must be used, the acceptable sources are: 1. Approved Airraft Flight Manual or Plot's OD- erating Handbook — This is an FAA-approved document which is a part of the required ait- craft equipment. |. Maintenance Manual or Service Manual ‘Type Certificate Data Sheet or Specifications. STC, Manufacturers Service Bulletins, and AD Notes — These would indicate a change from the original area requirements. There are standard meanings for the different ‘colors and markings applied (0 instruments like 1, Red Radial Line — This indicates a maximum (oF minimum operating limitation. Example: on fan oll pressure gauge. Red Are — This indicates @ prohibited range ‘of operation. A common example is the red fare on a tachometer because of vibration prob- Jems at certain nes. |. Yellow Are— This indicates a caution range. Green Are—The normal operating range. Blue Are or Line —This has a meaning spec ed by the manufacturer. An example 3s a blue are on a manifold pressure gauge for engine operation with a lean mixture. BRACKET 8) | ‘Figure 1-3, Two of he common methods used 1o install Instruments In an aircraft instrument panel‘Me colored marking on att alispeed indicator hhave diflerent and very specific meanings, this wall be covered later. The colored markings found on ‘an airspeed indicator are shown in igure 1-4, notice ‘that both ares and radial lines are used. 4, General Precautions for Installing Instruments ‘A number of things must be Kept in mina wnen Installing instruments, radios and related systems. Instruments are very delicate and must be handled with care. Iran instrument must be sent toa repair station or other place for repair, it should be packed ‘man approved container with any ports or openings plugged and with a desiccant pack to prevent mois- fe damage if te aenaitive to moisture. When ‘shock mounts are required for a particular instal- lation, you should ensure that the shock mounts are in good condition and that the weight of the Sipmant doce not onneed the wsight coring capability of the shock mounts. Figure 1-5 shows f shock mount unit for alrcraft equipment with 2 bonding jumper installed. Figure 1-6 illustrates the use of a shock mounted sub-pasel forthe Might ‘mstruments on @ small airplane. Many types of instruments can be damaged by static lectricity and magnetic fields. Bonding Jumpers, shielded wires and static wicks must be properly installed and maintained to prevent these Kinds of problems. Bonding jumpers havea number of functions when ‘mstalled on an aireraft. Four ofthese functions are: Figure 1-4. Operating tintatione markings on an ‘akspeed indeator, 1. A ground return path for airoraft crouite that ‘use single wire (ype systems. 2. Reducing radio frequency interference in sen- sitive alreraft systems. Decreasing the possibiity of damage due to lightning strikes on control surfaces and other 4, Allowing static charges to move around easily ‘and equalize. This prevents arcing which could create a fie hazard, ‘A bonding jumper is a small metal braid or metal trap which eletrially connects together two parts fon the airframe, Some of the recommendations for ‘mstalling and maintaining bonding jumpers are: 1. Keep them as short as possible but allow for surfaces, 2. Clean the contact areas to minimize resistance, ‘This includes removing coatings such as an- aang, 3, Donot solder bonding jumpers. It makes them brite. 4, Do not paint bonding jumpers. It makes them brite. 5. Use mulple jumpers on shock mounted elec- ‘wical equipment. One might break, foure iat ae junnjna te compatible with ie structural material and hardware to pre: ‘vent corrosion. Aluminum jumpers. are rec- ‘ommended for aluminum aireraft parts and ‘copper jumpere are recommended for stainless ‘steel, cadmium plated steel, brass and bronze. Some instrument and equipment installations re- ‘quire the tse of shielded wire. Don't assume that oth ends of the wire shield should be connected to ground. It s sometimes specified that only one ‘end of the wire shielding be attached to ground. Figure 16 Bonding jompere are Inctalled on shock ‘mounts to enaure proper grounding.When installing an instrument that requires lighting, use care to ensure that the light 1s In- stalled correctly and that it will not short out or cause a problem with another instrument There are often many small wires behind the in strument panel for the light fixtures and they must be routed and tied carefully. There are four ‘common types of instrument lighting systems found on aircraft 1. Eyebrow Lights — These are small semi-cir- cular fixtures that ft over the top of a round fnstrument and look like eyebrows 2. Post Lights — These are small round lights that install into holes in the instrument panel (igure 3-7) 4, Flood Lights — These lights can be aimed at the instrament panel and are shielded so that they don’t shine in the pilot's eyes. They are types as a back-up lighting. system. Figure 1-8 shows the fuorescent flood lighting system for corporate jet atrplane Cd ‘GROUND sTRAP finerALLED on eHooK MOUNT | SIRECTLY UNDER CONTROL WHEEL) ‘Figure 1. The instrument pane! for « tri enyire akplane showing the shock mounted oub-pane! and two Kinde of ‘shock mounts. (Courtesy Cessna Alert Co)‘igure 17. A postight type ofigtingtcure (tom for ‘feral inetemonta"(Courtes Aireran Co,) Pivor sive FACIA STRIP ny Cessna Precipitation static, also known as P-static, is fa buld up of static electricity on the alreraft sm ‘ight. It ean have an adverse effect on the operation fof many instruments and radios. P-static is caused by friction between the aircraft structure and par- ticles in the air such as rain, snow, ce and dust particles. It ean also be caused by the hot exhaust (fe turbine engine 9a Itc the Inrge metal tailpipe fr exhauet pipe. It cannot be prevented but the problems can be reduced by installing good static ‘on the aircraft. These are normally in- ‘stalled on the trailing edges of man contro! surfaces ‘and also occasionally on the tips of the wing and horizontal stabilizer. 5, PAA Regulations for Inctrumente ‘The FAA has many regulations that concern the ‘installation of instruments in certificated aircraft. ‘The examples that will be given apply to FAR Part 23 alrplanes although the requirements for other ‘categories of areraft are often very similar. The requirements of FAR Part 91 would apply to any atreraft being operated under that section of the FARS, The FARs will not be quoted exactly, but CENTER INSTRUMENT PAWEL PILOT INSTRUMENT PANEL, (COPILOT INSTRUMENT PANEL, UAL STRIP conitor sive FACIA STRIP conitor sive cconsote stairs Figure 1-8. Fluorescent lighting arrangement for a corporate et. (Courtesy Canadair Group, Bombardier Inc)l ‘Figure +2. An un-supercharged reciprocating akeraft {Ube paraphrased in order to simplify the wording Since some of the FAR rules for instruments depend on what type of engine the aircraft uses, it Is necessary to discuss the different types of powerplants found on cevtifeated aitesall. A reciprocating engine 1s a piston engine which can. cetther be supercharged or non-supercharged. The ‘most common type of reciprocating engine on modern aircralt is tne horizontally opposed type although many radial piston engines are sull in service. Figure 1-9 shows an. unsupercharged horizontally opposed reciprocating engine. Figure 1-10 shows a radial engine with an internal s- percharger. A turbine engine could be one of four \ypes. The turbojet and turbofan engines are eimilar ‘im that they are both rated in pounds of thrust ‘The difference is that with the turbofan engine some airflow bypasses the core of the engine and is acted 1-11. The turbojet engine illustrated tn figure 1-12 does not use the bypass principle since all of the Intake air passes through the length of the engine. In ie FARS, the use of te term turbojet meludes turbofan engines, The other two types of turbine engines are the turbo-propeller and turboshaft en- gies. These are both usually rated in horsepower because they deliver power to an output shaft (ante turbojet and turbofan engines). The diference be: tween the two is that the turboprop engine turns a propeller while the turboshafl engine powers the rotor drive gearbox of a helicopter. The reduction ‘gearbox and output shaft of a turboprop engine ccan be seen on the left in figure 1-13. FAR Part 29 ‘This FAR covers the Airworthiness Standards for Normal, Utlly, Aerobatic and Commuter category airplanes. Certain instrument requirements are a part of these Airworthiness. Standards, : : a ‘Figure 1-10. A radial piston engine with internal supercharger.‘The additonal instruments required for pressurized airplanes are speciled in this section. Figure 1-14 dustrates these instruments. Pressurized airplanes are required to have instruments to indicate: 1. Cabin differential pressure 2. Cabin altitude 8, Rate of change of cabin altitude (cabin rate of climb) FAR 29.1901 This FAR states that equipment must be labeled as tots identification, function and operating limita- tions. The colored markings on an airspeed indicator are examples ofthese required operating limitations, Fan 25.1903 Required Flight and Navigation Instruments 1. Airspeed indicator 2. Altimeter 3. Magnetic direction indicator (compass) 4. Free air temperature for alsplanes with turbine engines 5. Speed warning for turbine engine aircraft or others when Vimo/Mmo is greater than 8 Vd. Notice that only the first three would be required for all FAR Part 99 aeplanes, FAR 29.1905 Required Powerplant Instruments 1. Fuel quantity for each tank,10. fara omuer Larne Figure 1-13. Atypeal turboprop engine with the output shaft on the left. The engine could become a turboshaft engine Wh was modified to drive the rotors ofa helicopter. Of pressure for each engine. 1 pressure for each turbosupercharger (only with separate oll system). OW temperature for each engine Ou temperature tor each tarbosupercnarger (only with separate oil system), ‘Tachometer for each engine. Cylinder head temperature for: a. Air-cooled engines with cow! flaps. . Reciprocating engine commuter category atrplanes. Fuel pressure if the engine ts pump ted. ‘Manifold pressure for: a. Altitude engines. . Reciprocating engine commuter category airplanes. ‘011 quantity for each off tank if separate from engine) 11, Gas temperature for turbine engines 12, Fuel flowmeter for turbine engines. 13, Torquemeter for turbo-propeller engines. 14, EGT and carburetor tnlet temperature for Dosupercharger installations i operating Nations can be exceeded, Figure 1-15 shows atypical tachometer and man- Sold pressure gauge installation for a twin engine airplane with two pointers in each gauge for the Jefl and right engines. FAR 28.1921 Instrument Installation 1. Instruments must be plainly visible with min- mum deviation ‘of the pilots position 2. For mult-engine airplanes, identical instru ‘ments must be arranged to prevent confusion, 3, Instrument panel vibration must not damage the instruments 4, For airplanes more than 6,000 Ibs. maximum weight, the following instraments must be in vertical plane ofthe plot's vision in this order ‘a. Primary attitude instrument in the center Db. Airspeed indicator adjacent and to the lef of the attitude instrument. ¢. Altitude instrument adjacent and to the right of the attitude instrument, 4. Discotion of fight instrament adjacent and below the attitude instrument,‘The instrument referred to as the primary at tirade instrument above would be an artificial horizon on smaller aireraft or an ADI on aircraft with more modern types of instruments. The direc- {lon of fight instrument in iter 4 ts aot amagnetic compass. It would be a directional gyro on simple ‘airplanes or an HSI on more sophisticated alrcratt. Im addition tothe four standard instruments men- toned above as part of tms 1 confgurauun, two other instruments are commonly installed in standard positions to make up an arrangement of six instruments. This ts illustrated in figure 1-16. The actual appearance of the instruments, in the standard configuration is shown in figure 1-17. The gyro instruments in figure 1-17 are aR 29,1922 ‘Warning, Caution and Advisory Lights ‘There are standard colors speciied for certain Indicator lights used in airplanes. A fire warning light for example would be red. The colors epecified fm this FAR are as follows: RED — Warning — This is used when immediate attention 1s required, ‘AMBER — Caution — This 18 not as serious as warning. GREEN —Safe operation —normal operating range Any other color of indicator light can be used in cluding white if differs suffelenty from other colors land its meaning Is specified by the manufacturer FAR 23.1381 ‘nstrument Laghes Any instrument lights that are installed must ‘make the instruments and controls easily readable land must be shielded sn that they don't shine in ‘the pilot's eyes. A cabin dome light is not acceptable fas an instrument light FAR 29.1541 Markings and Placards ‘The airplane must have all placards required by the FARs and any additional placards that are re- ‘quired for safe operation f unusual design, handling for operational characteristics are present. In ad- fivon, each marcing and placard: 1. Must be displayed in a conspicuous place. 2, Must not be easily erased, disfigured or ‘obscured. Instrument Markings, General Requirements 1, When markings are on the cover glass. there ‘must be a means to maintain the aligament for tne glass wat une cil (slipper, 2. Bach are and line must be wide enough and located to be clearly visible to the plot. FAR 29.1545 ‘Airspeed Indicator ‘The required markings are: 1, For the never exceed speed Vine, a red radial ine. Figure 115. The mantiold pressure gauge ‘io used io conjunction witha tachometer 10 et power ‘00 supercharged engine.2. For te caution range, a yellow arc extending from the red radial ine in tem 1 to the upper limit of the green are tn item & 3 For the normal operating range, a green are fet the wer ht at Vl naan weg landing gear and flaps retracted) and the upper | M/Ssinpicaton /"=HonIZON. | ‘gure 1-16. Most madem sireraft have the important fight inatruments Insaled Io» standard oniiguration directly infront ofthe plot. limit at Vno, maximum structural eruising speed. 4. For the flap operating range, a white are with the lower limit at Vso and the upper limit at Vie 5. For the ane-engine-inoperative best rate of cdimb speed, Vy, a blue sector extending from the Ww speed at sea level to the Vv enced £315,000 fe (or higher altitude as appropriate) 6. For the minimum control speed (one-engine ‘noperative) Vine, a red radial line ater tteme 1 ubroughs 2 do not apply to an aireraft {or which a maximum operating “speed. ‘Vmo/Mmo has been established. These aircraft would need a maximum allowable FAR 23.1547 Magnetic Direction Indicator 1. A placard must be installed on or near the ‘magnet direction indicator to show deviation, 2. The placard must show the calibration in level fight with the engines running3. Theplacard must inte fealthration was made with radios ‘on oF off 4. The placard must list the corrections for mag: netic headings In Increments of no more than 5. If the operation of electrical equipment can ‘cause a deviation of more than 10°, the placard ‘must identify that equipment, FAR 93.1540 Powerplant instruments ‘The required markings are: 1, Each maximum and minimum safe operating ‘Umit mast be marked with a red radial line 2. Each normal operating range must be marked ‘with a green arc. 3. Each takeoff and precautionary range must bbe marked with a vellow are. 4, Each engine or propeller range that is re- stricted because of vibration stresses must be ‘marked with red ares or red lines. FAR 23.1951 (Oi Quantity Indicator It must be marked with sufficient increments to readily and accurately indicate the quantity of of. FAR 29.1559 Fuel Quantity Indicator If the unusable fuel supply for any tank exceeds ne gallon or 5% of tank capacity, whichever 1s greater, a red are must be marked to extend from calibrated zero to the lowest reading obtainable in level fight. FAR 23.1563 “aurspeea riacaras ‘There must be an airspeed placard in clear view ‘of the plot and as close as practical to the airspeed Indicator. This placard must lst: 1, The design maneuvering speed Va. 2. The madmum landing gear operating speed Vio. PAR 43 Appendix A ‘Appliance Major Repairs 2. Calibration and repair of inetrumente 2, Calibration of radio equipment 2 FAR 43 Appendix D ‘Scope and Detail of Items to Inspect For 100- Hour and Annual Inspections (@ Instruments — inspect for poor condition, mounting, marking and where practical Tor Improper operation, FAR 65.81 General Privileges and Limitations (a) A certifeated mechanic may perform or su pervise the maintenance, preventive uasiate> Inance of alteration of an alrcraft or appliance for a part thereof, for which he Ss rated but excluding major repairs to and major alter: tions of propellere and any repair t0 or al {eration of instruments aR O19 Powered Civil Aireraft with Standard Category U.S. Airworthiness Certificates; Iustrument and Equipment Requirements Visual Flight Rules Day — For VFR, the folowing are required Airspeed indicator ‘Attimeter Magnetic direction indicator Tachometer for each engine ‘om pressure gauge for eacn engine ‘Temperature gauge for each liquid-cooled engine Oiltemperature gauge for each air-cooled engine ‘Manifold preseure gauge for each altitude engine Fuel quantity gauge for cach tank Landing gear position indicator if landing gear fs retractable ‘Visual Flight Rules Night — For night VFR in ad- Aiton tothe requirements for VFR day, the following ‘are required: 1, Punto gts 2, Anti-colision lights (red or white) 3. Adequate source of electrical energy for all electrical equipment 4. Ioperating for hire, ane electric landing light 5. Spare fuses Instrument Flight Rules — For IFR, the following, are required 1. The equipment for VFR day and night as ap- propriate; PLUS 2. Te way redie communications cquipmcnt 3, Radio navigation equipment4. Cyroscopie rate of turn indicator (except ait craft with three attitude instruments) 5. Slip-skid indicator 6. Sensitive altimeter 7. Clock which displays hours, minutes and sec onds 8. Generator or alternator horizon) 10. Gyroscopte direction indicator (DG or equiv- alent) 11, For fight at and above 24,000 ft. MSL. a DME system 12. For Category Il operations, additional equip- ‘ment is required as listed in Appendix A. ‘A modern digital aircraft lock is shown in igure 1.18. The clock required for TFR does not have be a digital clock, but it must display hours. flock was a conventional kind of round clock with three hands. C. Pitot-Static System Instruments 1. Methods of Pressure Measurement Pressure instruments are those which obtain read ‘ngs by measuring the pressure at one or more plates i tenuis of a Inyuld ot aD preasute: 9} en. abn Figure 1-18. Actgitaarcraftclock ble to display hours, ‘miniies and secons. (Courtey Cansaatt Group, Bombardier In. A Pressure Mensuring Sencore ‘There are three common types of sensors that can be used to mechanically measure a fluid pressure. 1) Bourdon Tube ‘A bourdon tube is a curved, hollow tube made of a springy metal (often a specially treated brass materia) (Bgure 1-19). One end of the tube is anchored and the other 4s free to move and fastened through linkages to the indicator pointer or similar device. As pressure 4s applied to the inside of the bourdon tube, it wll ty to straighten out asa result of the imbalance ‘of forces on the walls of the curved tube. This ‘motion is transmitted to the indicator needle oF [ointer thromg gears and linkages. The bourdan tube is used to measure relatively high pressure, ‘ypleally 20 vst or more 2) Diaphragm ‘A diaphragm is a thin, lens shaped hollow metal ‘container. Its used to measure relatively low pres ‘sures, as in an altimeter or airspeed indicator. Typi cally. i te marie of a very thin aprimay metal (eryiium copper is often used). One side Is anchored and the other side 1s connected through gears and linkages to the pointer. See figure 1-20. 3) Bellows A bellows 1s somewhat similar to a diaphragm, ‘but tis longer and has accordion folds to typically Allows grenter rangnaf mation I measures relattelydiferential pressure. K that case the bellows would be divided into two separate chambers with a di ferent pressure source connected to each one seen in igure 1 », Units of Measure for Pressure Many different units of measure are used for pre use. Some examples are listed below. 1. Pounds per Square Inch — rst 2. Inches of Mercury —in. He 3. Millbars — Mar 4. Kilopascals — kPa ¢. Types of Pressure Measurement Pressure is measured compared to some reference value. Standard abbreviations are used to designate ‘hat this reference level i for particular pressure senmureanent The Sree 6 miguations ares 1. Absolute Pressure — This is a pressure com- ppared to a perfect vacuum. No pressure can be below a vacuum, so there is never anegative Sivulute presoure, Baansplca ofthis designe tion ‘are rou and in. Hg absolute. 2. Gauige Pressure —This is pressure com: pared to ambient pressure, usually outalde [Stmospheric pressure, sian ee 2, Dilferential Pressure — This 18 used to des- lgnate two dlferent pressures in the aircraft that are compared to each other, as in FSD. Examples of these using airraft instruments are the mantfold pressure gauge which measures ab- solute pressure, the off pressure gauge measures Seuge pressnen andthe cabin dllerental presssre ‘auge te callbrated 1m Ps. espn ‘We will now examine the basic aircraft Might struments that operate as pressure instruments, ‘These are often referred to as the pitotstatic in- struments because they utilize pitot pressure and state pressure. 2. Standard Atmosphere Table Aitimeters and other instruments obtain readings by measurements 01 the pressure at vanows le lutudes, The average or standard pressures and temperatures at different altitudes are contained ‘na table of the Standard Atmosphere, The values fgven in this table are accepted by virtually all ‘countries of the world for scientie and aviation purposes (figure 1-22). 3. altimeters ‘The altimeter f= a basic required instrument for allcertiicated atreraft. It measures the atmospheric bressure and displavs it as altitude in feet. This ‘allutude 48 called mean sea level (MSL) since 11s referenced to the average level of the major oceans, ‘The measurement of altitude ts based on the stand- ard stmaephere table and the change i prewenne ‘with altitude changes that it gives. ‘, Non Sensitive and Sensitive Altimeters 1) Non-Sensitive Altimeter ‘A non-sensite altimeter has only one pointer and it makes one complete revolution for each 10,000 fA im altude. Ifthe potnter was on the number 8,‘thal would represent 8,000 ft: but st could also t= Gieate 18.000 ft. For this reason, this ype of altimeter Ssonly used for small, simple aircraft that don'toperate fat high altitudes. A non-sensitve altimeter is t- fustrated in ngure 1-23. 2) Sensitive Altimeter [A sensitive altimeter is more sensitive and easier fo read than the non-scnaltive type A acaitve alumeter may have three separate pointers or @ ‘single pointer and a drum readout. On am altimeter with three pointers, the longest pointer makes one revolution for each 1,000 ft, ‘the second pointer makes one revolution for each 10,000 ft, and the shortest pointer makes one revolution for each 100.000 ft. The three pointer ‘enaltve lteter Ia showas i Digute 1-24, Awan problem with this type of altimeter is that the smal- lest pointer can be covered up by one of the other two pointers which makes it easy to misread the ‘alumeter. The newer kind of three pointer altimeter f DENSITY | PRESSURE ‘ome | vom art | ose aoc | came ‘ewen- aumuve| PEELLEDEEELE DELLE Lg gdge0882- o7e20 ‘Figure 1-24. The older style threepomnter senstve ak meter. 15seen in figure 1-25 has been modified to make it ‘easier to read. The pointer that makes ane revolution 4m 100,000 f. has been extended to the outside of the face with a small triangle on the end so st eannot be covered up. fa addition, a small window shows a striped pattern below about 15,000 ft fat higher altitudes the striped symbol disappears). The sensitive altimeter with one potnter as seen in igure 1.26 woe the drum readout and a singh. yrlsts which makes one revolution for each 1.000 t. The ‘drum readout may have three o ve digits displayed, but in any case the combination ofthe two permits accurate reading of the altimeter b, altimeter Mechanism. The internal mechanisto of the altimeter consists of Uuee diaphragins in series. This creates an al: lumeter which Is sensitive to very small changes 1m pressure and which has a large enough range of measurement to read alitudes of 35,000 to £9,000 ft. or more, Inside the case of the altimeter is bimetallic device which gives automatic compensation for tem- ‘There is a knob on the front ofthe altimeter which ‘operates a mechanism that compensates for non- standard atmospheric pressure. The standard at- ‘mosphere table gives the standara pressure at sea level as 29.92 in. Hg, but the actual atmosphere pressure in any given location seldom matches the Figure 1-25. The newer style three-pointer sensitive a- timeter uses a diferent pointer and astriped ‘symbol thats visible Below about 15,000 ft 26 ads to make reading the altimeter ease. 16 values in the table. Weather systems with higher of lower pressure are constantly moving aeross the surface of the earth IC is due to these variations in pressure that ‘the mab on the front of the alliueter ust be adjusted to the current barometric pressure set- lung for the area in which it 1s operating. There 4s a small window on the altimeter which displays the current barometric pressure selting, Its eom- monly called the Kollsman window. Mf for example a pilot received an altimeter setting of 30.01 from an alr trafic controller, that number would be set Into the Kollsman window of the altimeter. When the pilot sets the altimeter to the correct setting before takeoff, the indication on the al- ‘meter will show the height of that airport ubove sea level. Outside the United Sates, a different uunit of measurement is often used for barometric pressure settings. This unit of measurement is ‘mumoars (ms) ana tne alometers touna in many ‘modern aircraft have two Kollsman windows: one for inches of mercury and one for millibars. Figure 1.26 shows the two windows and the barometric pressure setting knob. . Altimeter Operation ‘The diaphragms of an altimeter are sealed at the factory. The ease of the altimeter is connected (0 the static ports on the airplane. The static pressure outside the airplane is conducted to the instrument cease by tubing and hose. If the aleplane climbs ‘the reduced pressure in the case causes the di- aphragms to expand and move the pointers to In dicate a higher altitude. ‘The allumeter uses Unree diaphragms im senes to increase the range of measurement. The mech: anism uses very delicate gearing which is designed fn such a way that a very small movement of the diaphragm causes a large motion of the pointer or pointers. Under certain circumstances st has a tendency to stick and some aircraft have a vibrator fn the instrument panel ne in the altimeter to pee vent this sticking 4. Encoding Altimeter An altimeter related device which is found on many aircraft is the encoding altimeter system, The pur- pose of this system 1s to send mformation con: cerning the aircrafts altitude to a radar system fn the ground s0 that It can be displayed on radar scope. The data is transmitted (0 the ground. using a special aircraft radio called a transponder. ‘An encoding altimeter system (also known as Mode ©), suppites uve eecernall gga oie wransponaer that contains this altitude data, An aireraft encodingaltimeter and transponder are required for three fiferent conditions: 1. Flight operations within a TCA (terminal con trol area) or Class B airspace 2, Fight operations within an AKSA (airport radar service area) or Class © airspace 8, Flight operations above 10,000 f. MSL. and ‘over 2500 fl. AGL. ‘The connections for the encoding feature of an aiimeter and an altimeter vibrator can be seen ‘im figure 1-27, 4, Airspeed Indicators Airspeed indicators are required on all certitcated aircraft except free balloons. This instrument gives, ‘the plot an inaication of his speed through the air, does not measure groundspeed. The airspeed indicator 1s a pltot-statlc system instrument that fs connected to both the pitot pressure source and. S-static pressure source. I measures the dif resence between these two pressures as indicated airspeed, unit of measurement for airspeed indicators s nau tical miles per hour (nots), statute mules per hour (we) or both on the same instrument. Types of Airspeed There are three types of airspeed associated with the airspeed indicator. This is because 11s subject toa number of errors or inaccuracies. The three (ype of aurspeea are: 1, Indicated Airspeed — This is the reading on the instrument 2. Calibrated Aurspeed —This is sndicated ai. Speed which has been corrected for position and Instrument error. The pitot_ tube is ‘mounted at a fixed angle to the longitsdinal ‘axis of the aircraft and at slow speeds and high angles of attack there wil be an error ‘The pilot determines the correction for cal- ‘brated airspeed by consulting a table in the Pllos Operating Handbook. an example of ‘whieh is shown in figure 1-28 8, True Airspeed — This is calibrated airspeed Which has been corrected for altitude and tem: erature effects, At high altitudes the indicated Airspeed ‘will be much less than the actual Speed through the air which is true alrapeed For example, at 41,000 ft. the indicated air- speed is only about half the true airspeed, ‘Atsea level ona standard day with the alrralt In level erulse Might, indicated and true air- ‘speed are usually the same.ARO SET KNOB [BARO SET COUNTER DISPLAYS TIORATOR FAIL FLAG sevoc gH genase ‘Bus 2 CPENC ALT auriTuse “TET roo] counter biseLay ‘ { “s-caraute i ovrrenenrin! 29 (om 8 21 oRESSUIRE——e — --—— -B- eee ‘ALTITUDE ronreR ' i ma wine LW fii] sel I ' t ' ' ‘ornicaL ENCODED ALTITUDE ALTITUDE TON®2 TRANSPONDER ENCODER ‘BARO-SET COUNTER ‘DISPLAYS, Flgue 127 An atimeta instalation that inchiden a wibeator and alta anaes (Coutnay Canara Armin, Romat= ‘er nc)1. Airspeed Indicator Operation. 1 Ven Stall speed with gear and flaps dew ‘The airspeed indicator uses a diaphragm that ‘This is shown by the bottom of the white arc measures the diferential pressure between pilot 2. Vsl — Stall speed with gear and flaps up. The pressure and state pressure. Pitot presse is 60n- Bottom of the green are heeted to the inside of the daphragm and state 3. Vine — Mmumum control speed with eriucal pressure to the outside a8 shown tn figure 1-29 tmgine falled. A red radial ne im the lower A pitot tube has an opening facing forward into range of indicated airspeeds. the relative wind 90 that it measures ram pressure 4. Vle— Maximum speed with flaps down. Top ‘effects. The stalle ports simply measure outside cof white are Atmosphere pressure, The faster the airplane goes, 5. Vao —Maximum structural cruise. Top of the greater will be the diference in pressure, igen are of bottom of yellow are ‘ Atrepecd Indicator Markings 6. Une — Never exceed speed. a red radial line The opeeting tiation apes Chat woud be tog hat permed speed, lo the found on a general aviation twin-engine siplane fai 7. Vyse — Best rate of climb speed with one en- are listed below (Gre imoperedne. thas Heer arene The atreraft should only be operated in the yellow fare range with caution and in smooth air. Figure 1-80 shows the colored markings for the airspeed 1ndlcator ona single-engine airplane. A twin-engine airplane would have the additional markings for Vie and Vyse. The principle of eritical engine and mein ilinstrated in figure 1-311 The eviieal engine 1s the engine whose failure would produce the most adverse effect on the handling characteristics of the airplane. Since the fight controls become more clfective at higher speeds, the concept of Vme in volves high engine power and slow speeds such fas occurs during takeoff. During initial climb after takeoll, the thrust from the propellers is offset to tne night sige as shown im gure 1-91 1 DOW” | 4 error | DuaPwnacat 4 sian Oy Tadieator 03 Cia? BS indicator Core 18propellers rotate clockwise. In this ease, the critical engine is the left engine since the thrust line for the right engine 16 farther tram the longitudinal ‘wos of the aurplane. Some twin engine atrpianes are designed so that the propellers rotate in op- posite directions. In that case, the two engines are equally eriteal, The Vine speed would be the Same no matter which engine failed. The reason ‘that the Ve marking is red ts that maintaining speed above Vine can be very important to prevent loss of control. If an engine fails after takeofT and the airplane is below Vme speed, the airplane will start fo turn and roll and the motion cannot be stopped with full opposite control inputs, This has caused many accidents and many deaths. Vine {s a critical operating limstation thatthe pilot must keep in mind. The speed for Vyse 1s obviously Inigher toa Vine, 1t 15 the speed the pllot would er after an angina fare to get the beet rate of climb. possible. table of alrspeed indicator operating limitations ‘markings for a emall twin engine airplane is shown me agure 492. ‘All of the important operating limitations atrspeeds will not be shown on the airspeed tn- ‘icator. Some of hem willbe displayed on a placard next to the airspeed indicator like that seen in ‘igure 1-33 and others will only be found in the Pilot's Operating Handbook or Airplane Flight Manual Figure 130. The airspeed indicator fora single engine ‘atplene tng tne Setar oper limitations markings. ae an oy ng ‘arg ta capt ‘Sonal one seus Be met re ot ete et ee aes Sock i teaecre Ful Flap Operating Rang {oar tnt is meinen wwelght Vag analog etouraion. Upper nt Sictinee apt Perle wih ape Uren eee | walt Va at moet forward (Coe wih ape reacted Upper tnt fe maximum ‘Shucturl ering speed. | Y ‘Single Engine Best Ratt | tiny Speed’ st simone Wate Aro Figure 1-32, A table of airspeed Indieator markings fort twin engine arplane. This table ie found fa the Pilot's Operating Handbook or Ap- roveo ‘rlane right Manual. (Courtay Geeensa Airaft Co)4. Maximum Allowable Airspeed Indicator ‘On high speed alrcraft that operate at high altitudes, 4 16 not practical to use the colored markings on the airspeed indicator because the values change signiieantly as the aierat climbs to higher altitdes, These aircraft would use a diflerent type of airspeed indicator called the maxirmam allowable iespeed Indicator. Ht i found nm. turhopemp. airplanes, Dizjets and air carrier jets. ‘The maximum allowable airspeed indicator has two pointers; one gives the normal indicated airspeed and Ue secoud one, which has striped or checked pattern, is connected to @ separate diaphragm and it shows the Vmo speed at the ex- Isuing alttude. The two pointers can be seen in ‘igure 1-34. On a jet aisplane, the maximum al- lowable airspeed indicator wil also usually include @ Mach number display as shown in figure 1-34. [A machmeter is required for jet airplanes because ‘they will have a maximum safe operating speed ex: Dressed in Mach sumbers. This 1s in addition to {he maximum safe indicated alrspeed, This is neces” sary because ifthe safe Mach number is exceeded, the airplane can become difficult or impossible to i WAX SPEED KIAS Maneuvenina a | [EXTEND GEAR ms | GEAR cow m0 Figure 1-38. The airspeed limitations placard that would be instaned near the airspeed indicator for 4 twin engine aiplana. (Courtesy Cessna ‘Aerat' Co) AIRSPEED POINTER L_ [oe ER | NZS ? jcouliol. Mach mumber indicates the ratio of te awreraft's true airspeed compared to the speed of Sound. A speed of Mach 0.8 means the alrraft 4s traveling at 80% of the speed of sound. The speed ol sound is about 760 art at sea level, but i is affected by temperature. AS the temperature decreases, the speed of sound is also decreased, ‘Since temperature decreases with an increase im alutude, the speed of sound is reduced at higher alutudes. At 95,000 ft. the speed of sound would be about 660 arm. If am airplane climbed from sea level t0 35.000 fat a eematant trie airspeed, the Mach number would steadily increase. Most efilian Jet airplanes have an Mimo (maximum operating ‘Mach number} of about 0.8 to 0.87. As an airplane approaches te erical Mach number, @ ahock wave begins to form on the upper surface of the wing ‘as seen in figure 1-36. This wall occur at fight speeds below Mach 1 because the air accelerates af it moves ver he wp oF MIE wing, Lm SHOCK Wave O:TIpLS airflow and causes the center of pressure to shift af. As aircraft speed gets closer to Mmo, the shock ‘wave gets stronger until a point is reached where control of the aircraft may be lost. A loss of control at high speed and high altitude can and has resulted ‘nthe loss ofthe alreraft—itis an important operating limitation for jet airplanes. The machmeter stra: ‘ment has a dlaphragm lke a normal airspeed in- dicator that is connected to pltot and state pressure 1 also has an additional diaphragm which modiies the mewement af the printer in rempemente for tie effects of altitude and temperature (gure 1-36), 5. Vertical Speed Indicator ‘The last of the three hasie pitettatie xystem n= struments is identified by several names a vertical speed indicator (VSI, arate of limb indicator (ROC) MACH NUMBER DISPLAY (OBSCURED BY “OFF” FLAG WHEN INSTRUMENT UNPOWERED OR ELECTRICALLY MALFUNCTIONING) — Figure 1.34. The combined manimum allowable apc indicator inl Mactate ft COT Pref BPM. (COU {ey Canadair Group, Bombardier Ine.) aand a vertical velocity indiestor (VV). This instru ‘ment measures the rate of change of static pressure, ‘Since static pressure deereases with an increase ‘m altitude, it can measure the rate of climb or descent of the aircraft. The unit of measurement 4s feet per minute (rr) as seen on the instrument face in figure 1-37 Static pressure is connected directly to the inside of the dlaphragm, but it is connected to the case pressure (outside ofthe diaphragm) by asmall orice fo restrictor opening as indicated in figure 1-38, If the airplane climbs, the pressure will decrease ‘more rapidly inside the diaphragm than outside of I. The diaphragm wall be compressed and that will move the pointer to show the rate of change of alutude in feet per minute. The opposite occurs uring descents. When the aircraft levels off, the pressures equalize and the pointer returns to 2ero, ‘The instrument case usually includes an overpres- sure valve to prevent damage at rates of climb oF Aosownt in euceee of the mantonum reeding Fr thet ‘instrument. Because of the very small size of the restrictor ‘opening, the pointer tends to react slowly to rapid changes im altitude. This problem is reduced in the Instrument called an Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator (VSN. ‘. Instantaneaws Vertical Speed Indicator ‘The IVSI has two litle cylinders with pistons and springs which can be seen in figure 1-39. They are called accelerometer operated dashpots. When {he acrarcpitenes up or down suadeniy. the pistons ‘will move and force afr into or out ofthe diaphragm to get the pointer moving quickly. In a steady rate ‘climb or descent, they will have no effect om the pointer . Variometer ‘The variometer is a very sensitive version of the ‘Vat whet is used by gliders, The mechanism uses ‘a movable vane in a small ar tight metal container. oe pressune‘The vane divides the container tnto two chambers. (One chamber 1s connected fo the static port and ‘the other is connected to an air bottle. The alr storage bottle is used because st will hold more fir than a small instrument cage and thio improves Sensitivity. With the vartometer, even small changes In rate of climb or descent can be detected & Ancelerameter ‘The accelerometer is an instrument that measures. the “G" forces or acceleration forees on an aircraft {in fight. The common application isin an aerobatic airplane where the plot needs to know how mucl "Gforce the airplane is being subjected to in order to prevent overstress of the structure. ‘The mechanism of the accelerometer consists of ‘a weight which is conneeted by a cord and pulleys to the shaft that operates the pointer. The internal arrangement of an accelerometer is shown in figure 10. The weight 10 oupported by = guide shaft ‘which only allows st to move up and down relative to the guide shaff. A positive G acceleration will cause the weight to move downward and rotate te pomter wo Stow a Inger posure © laalg, ‘There isa balance spring on the pointer shaft pulley to balance the forees. The instrument is installed ‘im the airplane so that it measures acceleration ‘along the vertical axis of the airplane. The normal fat rest indication on the ground or in level fight fs +1 Gs. The instrument face of an accelerometer is shown in Sicure 1-41. The instrument has three pointers connected to the operating mechanism. (One pointer gives a readout of the current accelera- tion foree along the vertical axis. The other two pointers have a ratchet device an that they wi Figure (97. The vorucat ype bndlato ae te avalos: ‘one forelimbe and one for descents. remain at the highest reading recorded for positive land negative forces. A kmob is included on the ‘mstrument to reset the two recording pointers. 7. Pitot-Statle Systems «a, Pitot and Static Ports ‘The system of ports and tubingon the aircraft which supplies pitot and static pressure for the instru ments 19 cauea te puorstae syste. THe plot tube is an open tube which faces forward into the relative wind in ight, It measures the ram pressure fof the airstream. On emall airplanes, the pitot tube {susually installed below the wing. On other alrralt. 4 is insalled on the nose section of the aircraft ‘The statle ports are openings at right angles to the relative wind a0 that they will mensure state pressure and not be allected by the speed of the aireraft. The static ports are most often located In pairs along the sides of the fuselage. On some fret, die mac punta are amiga akdco oF top ‘and bottom surfaces of the pitot tube so that both Dressures are measured with the same probe. A Pitot tube which includes static ports and electric Fheaters to prevent icing is shown i ngure 1-44. ‘With the statle ports tn pairs om opposite sides of the fuselage, any errors caused by sideslip will be eliminated Atroraft that must operate in adverse ‘weather conditions wil require an electrical heating system forthe pitot tubes and static ports to prevent feing. Air carrer ets and similar types of atreraft soually employ multiple pitet tubes and otate ports {for safety. A typical arrangement of this kind with three pilot tubes and three sets of statie ports 1s ‘ilustrated in figure 1-43, Notice that the instru- ‘ments on the left and night aides of the cockpit static PRESSURE pa Figure +38. The VSI hes a restrictor inthe connection 10 ‘he case which causes 2 diferonce between Gaphragee and. seve procaine aing ‘limbs and descents. 23are operated by totally separate pressure sources. By routinely cross cheelking the instrument indica. ‘ons from the left and right sides, a faulty indication, can be identified Db, Blockage of Ports When pitot-static lines or ports become blocked by fee oF other factors, it can cause the instruments to aive improver readings. Ifthe state pressure is blocked, the altimeter wil remain at the current in- dication and the VSI will continue to read zero even, ‘when the atreraR cimbs or descends. This problem ‘ould usually be noticed by the pilot. The airopeed Indicator uses both pitot and static pressure and a blockage inflight could be more dificult to detect Let's use the example of an airplane that is fying, _at 10,000 ft. when the static ports become blocked. ‘The pressure in the statle system will be sealed in and won't change when the alreraft climbs or serene Ifthe airplane climbs at »canctant epeed the airspeed indicator will show a decreasing alrspeed. I the airplane descends, the atreneed tn. ‘deator will indicate a higher than actual airspeed. Just the opposite would happen if the pltot tube eed over or was blocked in some other way in fight. A elimb would cause the alropeed indicntor to read higher than it should and a descent would cause it to read lower than actual airspeed. ‘The lines and connections ina pitot-statieaystem should be maintained in good condition. Sven though they dont have to handle high pressures, the instruments are very sensitive to small changes {pressure so that even very small leaks can cause errors in the instruments, ‘The tubing and hoses that are used are not very strongand should be inspected carefully for damage. The tangs and connechons should be installed with care and torqued to specified values. . Altimeter System Tests and Inspections ‘There are some TAR requbscuments fin Watley of altimeter systems, These will be covered next along ‘Acceuenomeren actuate Pies on DASHPOTS: Stari Por ‘Figure 1-98. The acceleration actuated deshpots Inthe IVSI reduce the lg in pointer movement. osnam pause, ‘unmv POINTER CENTERING SPRING——— aver. [| | eTuRn semNs | apmuany sone i. er ‘Negative GnoIexTON, Ince pointer accelerometer —— with the procedures for other tests which might ‘not be required at specific Intervals but would be ‘conducted whenever a problem was suspected. A portable pitot-statle system test set that could be fused for these tests Js seen in figure 1-44, FAR O11 : ‘Altimeter System and Altitude Reporting Bqulp- ‘ment Tests aad Inspections 1, Noperson may operate an airplane, a helicopter, ‘im controlled airspace under IFR unless: 1, Within the preceding 24 calendar months, each statie pressure system, each altimeter ‘instrument, and each automatic pressure alUtude reporting system has been tested nd inepected and fond tn comply wth Appendix E of Part 43 of this chapter: 2. Except for the use of system drain and allernate static pressure valves, following ewe (1. Accelerometer strument face wih three cry opening and closing of aati roo pointers. system, that system has been tested and 28snspected and found co comply with para- error euul lve Lecu lntradiced, the entire raph (a) Appendices E and F of Part 48 fystem has been tested, inspected and of this chapter: and found to comply with paragraph (c) AD- 3, Following installation or maintenance on pendix E of part 43 of this chapter. the automatic pressure altitude reporting, ‘The tests requirea by paragraph fa.) of unis system of the ATC transponder where any section must be conducted by: DRAIN HEATER S1AnIG renren | HOLE HOLES eae la ele ele elle ele ‘Figure 1-43. The pot-tatic system fora large jet airplane showing the Instruments and equipment operated by the three pot tubes and three sets of state ports. 261. The manufacturer of the atrplane or helicopter, 2. Acertificated repair station with appropri- ‘ate rating: 8, A certificated mechanic with an alrtrame ating (but only for the stale pressure sys- fem tests and inspections). FAR 43 Appendix E ‘Altimeter System Test and Inspection Bach person performing the altimeter system (ests land inspections required by FAR 91.411 shall com- ply with the following: ‘a Static pressure system: 1. Ensure freedom from entrapped moisture ‘and restrictions. 2, Determine that leakage is within the tol- 25.1325" whichever is applicable. 8 Determine that the static port heater, if Installed, 18 operative 4, Ensure that no alterations or deformation of the airframe surface have been made that would affect the relationship between air pressure in the static pressure system and tue ambient static pressure tor any fight condition. b, Altimeter —omitted here 6 Automatic precenre altinide reporting system “omitted here FAR 23.1925 Static Pressure System 3. Ia statie pressure system is necessary for the functioning of instruments, systems or de- Wices, it must comply with the provisions of paragraphs (1) through (3) of this section. 1. The design and installation of the static presaure avatem must be such that 1. Positive drainage of moisture is provided 18, Chafing of tubing and excessive distor tion or restriction tn bends is avoided; and 1, Thematertals used are durable, suitable for the purpose and protected against corrosion 2. A proof test must be conducted to dem- ‘onstrate the integrity ofthe stati pressure system in the following manner’ 1 Unpressurized Airolanes — Evacuate the static pressure system to a pressure Aiffrentia! of approximately 1 tach of mercury or to a reading of 1,000 ft. fbove the aireraft elevation at the ume fof the test. Without additional pumping for a period of ane minute. the loss af Indicated alttude must not exceed 100 A on the altimeter, 4, Pressurized Airplanes — Evacuate the ‘ferential equivalent to the maxamum cabin pressure diferential for which the lairplane is type certificated is achieved. Withont arditinnal pumping fora perio of | minute, the loss of indicated altade must not exceed 2 percent of the equivalent altitude or 100 f. whichever 1 greater, 8, Each static pressure port must be de- signed and located so that errors will not hate static ports may be used to show ‘compliance. 4, Pitot System Tests ‘There is no specific est for pltot systems as there {8 for static aystems other than the normal inspec- tHons of the entire airealt, a problem 1s reported cor suspected with a pitot system, there isa general Jeak test procedure in AC 43.13-1A, as well as some General guidelines for pltntntaie system male tenance. ‘The procedure for leak testing the pitot system Is: Apply pressure to the pitot tube to cause the airspeed indicator to show 150 knots. Seal off for 1 minute and the maxcmum loaa of indicated airspeed should not exceed 10 knots. ‘Figure 1-44, A portable pot static system tester which ‘am be sed for lok tovis and other matt tenance functions.AC 43.13.18 Precautions in Testing Pitot-Static System 1. Perform all maintenance and inspections be- fore leak testing, 2. Use a system diagram. 3. Check the test unit for leaks before beginning, the test. 4 Bin fall range teate only Utyont are then famuliar with both the aircraft and the test equipment. 5, Pressure in the pitot system must always be quel to or greater than the pressure in the statle system. 6. The rate of change of pressure during testing should not exceed the limits for any installed 7. After testing make sure that the system 1s returned to flying condition, such as removing tape from ports and drain holes. ‘There is an FAR that concerns the altimeter set- LUngwhich Is set by the plot in the Kollsman window. FAR 91.121 ‘Altimeter Settings Fach person operating an atreraft shall maintain, the altitude of the aircraft by reference to an al- limeter that 1s set: 1, Below 18,000 ft. MSL, to 1. The current reported altimeter setting of, station along the route of ight and within 100 nautical miles of the alreraft 4H, If there 48 no station within 100 nm. the ‘nearest appropriate station altimeter setting ‘Ml. If the aireraft has no radio, the elevation of the departure airport ar the setting aval ble before takeoff shall be used 2. At and above 18,000 ft. MSL, the altimeter shall be set to 20.92, €. Air Data Computer Systems ‘Aircraft that operate at high speeds and high al- Lutudee can have eigaiicant errorein the pitot tatle system instruments with the simple probes used fon smaller aircraft. These aireraft wil use an Air Data Computer (ADC) to operate the airspeed in- ficator, altimeter, VSI and any other systems that require this data. The air data computer is placed 4m the system between the sensor ports and the {instruments to automatically apply corrections in forder to increase accuracy. The air data computer hae three tnpste: pitt pressure from the pilot tube, stale pressure fom he statle ports and total air temperature (TAT) fiom a special TAT probe. The TAT measurement to needed to correct the instrument indications for fection heating of the air at high speeds. The TAT probe also permits the calculation of SAT (static air temperature) whichis used to apply corrections for non-standard temperatures for any Might ak tutude. The outputs ofthe air data computer supply a number of cockpit instruments. The three Basie pilot-static instruments are operated by the ADC nd often several others are added, The common inputs and outpuls associated with an air data computer are shown in figure 1-45. igh oped Jet alplancs require @ machmeter, this could be a separate instrument or included with the airspeed indicator. ‘Aireraft with an air data computer usually have a digital display on the Instrument panel which fgves a calculated true airspeed and total air {emperature or static alr temperature. TAT inchudes the heoting leet of the Lietion at high speed ‘whereas SAT is just ambient outside air tempera- ture The temperature indleations are especialy i= portant for turbine engines which are affected by Ge tenperstuve uf Wie Ialahe a ‘The air data computer system automatically com- _pensates for both temperature effects and the com- ‘ressibilty of the air at higher Mach numbers. This helps to ensure accurate Instrument readings throughout a wide range of altitudes and airspeeds. ‘Air data computers are typically found on turboprop, tirplanes and jet airplanes. 7 waciwcren | at | PROBE ainsPeeD | iNo1oaTon | J) “Shaw vata Pitot —S|compuren[_™ ALTIMETER THO vst TAS & TAT/SAT static INDICATOR | Ports cad Figure 1-48. An alr deta computer provides more 20- ‘curate readings on the pitot-static instu-D. Gyro Instruments ‘The instruments know as gyro instruments are re- quired for IFR flight and can also be an aid to ‘accurate flying in VFR conditions. These instra- ‘ments uulize the principles ofa spinming gyroscope to give the pilot information about the aircraft's pitch and roll attitude, heading and rate of turn. ‘Agyroscope isa device which consists of a weighted. ‘wheel or rotor which spins at high speed and is, held in an arrangement of hinged mounting rings called gimbals (gure 1-46). ‘The gyro has three axea and one to always the spin axis. Depending on the type of gimbals used, 4 will be able to move relative to the mounting base around one or both of the remaining axes. Tit has 1 degree of treedom, It ean move around fone axis and if it has two degrees of freedom it can move around both. A gyro with two degrees of freedom is also called a free avro. 1. Principles of Gyroscopes ‘There are two main properties of a spinning gyro which are of importance to atreraft use, they are: Figure 1-46. A simple gyroscope with both inner and ‘outer gimbata. 1. Rigity in Space — This means that the gyro rojor will try to maintain its position in space even when its mounting base is tilted and rotated. This ts illustrated in figure 1-47 2, Precession —This effect will cause a gyro, ‘when itis acted upon by an outside force, to Ult or rotate as ifthe disturbing force was applied to it 90 degrees ahead in the direction of rotation of the rotor igure 1-28), Gyros are also subject to other effects such as ‘oscillation. Oscillation is a problem caused by the ‘mass of the gimbals. It can be reduced by making the glmbals Iles. A muanber of Guns ean be dome to make the gyro more stable and more efficient. ‘One way is to concentrate the mass of the rotor fon its rim and reduce the mass of the web and shaft which connects it to the bearings. Another ‘way to make st more efficient 1s to inerease the ‘speed of rotation. There are two comman methods tuned to anim the ter af an nirerat eon inatenment Pneumatics makes use of a stream of air directed at the rim of the rotor to make it spin at about £8,000 rr. Electric motors can also be used to spin ‘he rotor and wil uowelly produce 9 oped of abowt 124,000 rem. A gyro can become unstable which is called tumbling. Some aircraft gyroinstruments have ‘caging knob or mechanism which is designed to return the gyro to a stable condition so that it wl give correct instrument readings. A caging knob can De seen at the bottom left of figure 1-49. The latest types of gyro instruments are non-tumbling and a8 long as the instrument is in good condition It ‘will not tumble, even in unusual atutudes. The three common types of aireraft gyro instruments are the feretional gyre (DO), the artifetal horizan and the ‘um and bank instrument. 2, Directional Gyro ‘The directional gyros the primary headingreference for IFR fight. The magnetic compass is not a goodheading reference for IFR because it tends to 08- cillate and is not as stable as a DG. This instrament uses a free gyro with a horizontal spin amd. The DG will drift due to precession errors and must bbe reset overy 15 to 20 minutes using the magnetic compass as a reference. Older style DGs had a rectangular window on the face through which the ‘numbers representing the magnetic heading could be reaa. ints olger styie Us presentation 18 sown, 1m igure 1-50. Newer style DGs show a full compass card with the indicated magnetic heading under the index mark at the top of the instrument as seen in figure 1-51. The newer style DG with a full compass card 1s often called a heading indicator. Another name for a DG type instrument is a gyro compass. The DO uses a free gyro because the spin axis must remain horizontal to gle accurate readings. When the airplane banks, for example, the rotor wil main- (aim itz horizontal spin axdo. On many modern aircraft a more sophisticated instrument replaces the DG, this instrument is the horizontal situation Indicator or HSL ‘The HSI shown in figure 1-52 1s an example of ‘a modern integrated instrument. Ithas a gyro sta- Dilized compass card like a DG that indicates the atecral's magnetic heading, Unlike the DO however, this compass card 1s slaved to a remote compass 80 it does not have to be reset every 15 to 20 ‘minutes. The HSlis called an integrated instrament because tt combines several different types of dis- plays which would normally be found in separate Pet 1 | 1331 37 on nor | 48’ on wonTtwoRTIWEST | Figure 1-50, The old style DG displayed a sma window ‘tke a magnetic compass. This type of ‘presenianon can Be aimeut 10 read.Instrumente: The wide split har in the middle js ‘connected to navigational radios and tells the pilot ‘whether to turn right or left to follow the radio navigational signals. The indicators on the right side and at the top are connected to ulle: suave ‘tonal radios to provide additional information to 9. Artificial Horizon, ‘The artificial horizon is the pilo’s most important Instrument for IFR flying. As the name implies, replaces the natural earth horizon that a pilot ‘uses in VFR fying to maintain the correct pitch ‘and roll attitude of the aireraft. When an aireraft the pilot, 4s flying in the clouds, the pilot must rely on the MAGHETIO/TAUE ANWURCIATOR og SELECT cuRsOR ome moicaron—_ course stiecr cunson FED MARKER (45% TEROM" ARROW eppeite ‘unr Mash) Pointe weaer une —__ VOR/LOC DEVIATION AR ‘COMPASS CARD Figure 1-82. The horlzontel situation indicator is an Integrated Instrument that doplays many addtional Kinds of Information besides gyro stabilized heading data. — urea cimeat a wey SX cuter cena | tear sToP PIN / evn0 0 “a ro | 2 IMMER GIMBAL (Gyre balsas) MORIZOM INDICATOR caoie to this Kame u nai Floure 1-53. The article! horizon usee a gyro rotor with 2 vertical spn ax and two degrees of freedom. a1artificial horizon to determine the aircraft attitude ‘and prevent a loss of control. The artificial horizon 4s also known as a gyro horizon, an attitude in- dicator, an attitude gyro and a bank and pitch Instrument. The arrangement of the epin me and ‘@mbals for an artificial horizon is illustrated in figure 1-53. The artificial horizon Is a free gyro ‘with a vertical spin axis: this allows it to measure ‘ie angular displacement of We alvevall tn bully pitch and roll, The internal mechanism of the ar- {ificial horizon must have some means to maintain the spin axis in a vertical orfentation. There are toro common devices used to accomplish this func ‘ton, the pendulous vane and bail erector systems. ‘The ball erector system uses a number of steel balla olmilar to ball bearings that are free to roll around on a plate mounted above or below the ‘gro rotor. One type of erector system that uses ‘steel balls is shown in figure 1-64. When the gyro 3 away om whe verucal, we bay ru ww he low side and this produces a force which pushes the gyro back to the vertical position. This device ‘wil maintain the required vertical spin axis of the gro rolor. The ball erector Is usually found on flectrie motor driven artificial horizons. When an alr-driven gyro is used, the pendulous vane erector mechanism is utilized. ‘The pendulous vanes in this type of erector mechanism are small gravity operated alr valves. When the rotor tilts away fom the vertical, the INNER, @MBal | | BALL ERECTOR a2 vanes move to open the air valves in such a way that streams of air are directed to push the rotor ‘back to the vertical postion. The swing of the pen dulous vanes to open and close the air valves can Ihe aren tm Aigner 1-58 ‘The artificial horizon has a presentation which ‘shows an airplane symbol with the horizon bebind 4. It inchudes index marks to show the angle of diferent Might attitudes are ilustrated in Agure 1-56. The newer types of artificial horizon have ‘a more user friendly presentation on the instrument face, Dilferent colors are used above and below the horizon line to make it easter to read. Converging lines are placed below the horizon line to create perepective and additional markings for piteh at ‘tude are included, These features can be seen ‘on the newer type artificial hortzon tn fure 1-57. ‘The small knob on the front ofthe artificial horizon. is used to move the airplane symbol up and down Figure 1-5, The pendulous vanes used in th eecior Inechaniem of an at-anven gyre moron ‘are opened and closed by gravity.to adjust for different aircraft Oight attitudes and for tall and short pilots. There also may be a control for quick erect that can be used to stabilize the sgyroifit tumbles. There i a newer type of integrated, instrument which replaces the artical horizan on. many modern aircraft. This instrument Is called the attitude director indicator (ADD. Itincludes com- mand bars that are operated by a flight director. ‘The Might director lo a computer whish receives signals fFom navigational radios and other sources and calculates the correct pitch and roll attitudes to keep the aircraft on course or return it to the desired tight path. The output signals trom the fight director computer move the command bars fon the ADI and the pilot follows these commands. ‘An example of the use of these command bars on fan ADI fs found in fgure 1-58 The latest kinds of ADIs use different shapes for the airplane symbol and the command bars 1s can be seen in figure 1-59. The airplane symbol 's a triangle that resembles a delta wing airplane and the command bars are two converging trian- {gular shapes above the airplane symbol. They often distinguish between the airplane symbol and com- ‘mand bar symbol. Some ADIs also include indicators for other aircraft systems in addition to the flight ‘irector micator. Te indicator pointer on the right side of the ADI is operated by the alrcraft auto- throttle system. The polnter on the left side 1s ® Figure 1-56. indications for sn artical horizon Instrument. (A) The alrplene is straight and evel (8) The arplane isin 20° Dank to he right whn te nose on ne norton. (©) The wings are level, but the nose is below the horizon. 3a‘operated by a sfideslope radio receiver and gives the pilot information needed for an instrument ILS approach. An ADI is an integrated instrument that fgves pitch and roll attitude data like an artifical ‘horizon and adaiwonal aisplays of mformavon from radio navigation sources and other aircraft systems like the Might directo. On sophisticated alrraft which hhave backup gyro instruments, a turn and bank is ‘not installed, 90 the incinometer is installed at the bottom of the ADI as ean be seen in figure 1-59. 4, Turn and Bank ‘The last of the three basic gyro instruments is the coldest and simplest. It is called the turn and bank ‘and it is really two instruments in one. The gyro part of the instrument measures the rate of turn for the aircraft. The inclinometer or slip-skid in- ‘icator is a simple mechanical instrument that con- sists of a ball in a liquid filed glass tube, This tee le curved and the bell reaste to gracty and ‘eenteifugal force. Its used by a plot to coordinate the use of alleron and rudder control. Ifthe pllot keeps the ball centered, the aircraft Is being flown cially helpfal when the aircraft 1s turning. When the ball is not centered, it means the alreraft 1s ying a little sideways. The gyro rotor of the tur ‘and bank is designed to measure the rate of turn fof the airerat. Its the only one of the three basic ‘ro instruments which 1s a rate gyro. The other two basic gyro instruments measure ‘angular displacement about the aircraft's axes. The tur and bank has a gyro with a horizontal spin ‘ameRArT FLUNG STRAIGHT AND LEVEL AND ‘icomuog te ean. ° ‘he Huth ooncoTor ts Comuanim Acco, o o "We ARORAFr Ng saTED TE CLD Figure 1-58. The command bars on an atttude director Indicator show the plot the pitch and rol ‘sumuae iat ts needed to eabsty te com ‘mands ofthe fight cirector.‘axis and one degree of freedom. The feature that ‘makes it a rate gyro are the springs that are con- nected to the gimbals. These springs oppose the precession force which 1s caused by the alreraft framing. These features of the turn and bank can be seen im figure 1-60. ‘When the aircraft turns, the gimbal holding the 970 rotor tits over against the tenston ofthe spring Shd moves the pointer to indicate the direction ‘and rate of turn, The turn and bank gives readings based on the concept of a standard rate turn. A standard rate turn isa turning rate of 9" per second. ‘This ts also called a 2 minute turn because it would PITCH REFERENCE ROLL REFERENCE “POINTER ATTITUDE SPHERE ANNUNCIATOR FLIGHT DIRECTOR ‘CUE COMMAND BAR GUIDESLOPE POINTER: GUIDESLOPE TE SCALE RADIO ALTIMETER DECISION Go AROUND | HEIGHT READOUT ee RADIO ALTINETER ‘Test BUTTON avrrrune Test BUTTON RATE OF TURN SCALE [RATE OF TURN POINTER ‘mcuwomereR L xpanoeo LOcAL2eR POINTER take 2 minutes to turn 360° at this rate. A standard rate turn is not suilable for a high speed aircrait Decause It would require a steep angle of bank. ‘These higher speed aircraft would use a4 stand- se ate tur whack Is Log” per second oF a4 ‘minute turn. Turn and banks are manufactured 4m both types: 2 minute turn and 4 minute turn, both of which are shown in Agure 1-61. The turn ‘and bank indicator 1s also called a turn and slip Indicator and a needle and ball. The face of the ‘nstrument shows a needle to indicate turn direction and rate and a ball which is the slip-skid indicator for inclinometer ROLL ATTITUDE SCALE RADIO ALTIMETER DECISION HEIGHT ‘AIRCRAFT SYMBOL RADIO ALTITUDE READOUT ‘BRIGHTNESS CONTROL FOR DIGITAL READOUTS RADIO ALTIMETER DECISION HEIGHT SET CONTROL. EXPANDED LOCALIZER SCALE ‘igure 1-39. The newer type o AUuses atferent shapes torte aurpane symbol and the command bars symbol. iso ‘may include addtional dleplays for other systems. (Courtesy of Canadalr Group, Bombardier ne) 38‘The turn and bank is shown in figure 1-81. The pointer is the rate of turn indicator and the glass Tube is the inelinometer ‘The index marks on either side of the center posiuon of the pointer on the lower snsirument are called dog houses. When the pointer is lined ‘up with a dog house, it indicates a 2-minute turn fn the bottom instrument. A 2-minute turn on the "upper instrument would be indicated by a one nee= dle width deflection of the turn needle. The turn and bank is considered to be a backup instrumnet for the artifiial horizan. If the artifical horizon falls, its possible to fy the atreraf using the turn and bank in its place. ‘Another gyro instrument called the turn coor: assign ip suet version of Ove (urn and bank ‘The only significant difference inthe Internal mech- anism ts the fact that the ult axie for the gimbal 4s changed to a 30" angle from the horizontal as hhown im figure 1-62. This causes the gro rotor to react to rotation around the longitudinal ats fas well as the vertical axis. The turn and bank only measures rotation rate about the vertical axis so that it cannot be used accurately to level the wings. The turn coordinator 1s a Better Daek-up Instrument forthe artificial horizon for this reason, Since the turn coordinator 1s not the same as a ‘turn and bank and doesn't give the same kind of information, st-has @ different appearance £0 that pilots won't confuse the two instruments ‘The turn coordinator as thustrated in figure 1-63 tases rear view of email airplane ae the indicator When the wing tp of the airplane symbol is lived ‘up with an index mark, 1 indicates a standard rate turn for the 2 minute type. The turn coordinator also includes au tucinanetes, the die uri ad ath 5. Gyro Instrument Power Sources Aircraft gyro instruments ean be powered by elec- tricity oF alr. The electric gyros can tse 14 oF26 volte DC or several diferent values of AC. The that are air driven can use either an air pump or bleed air from turbine engines. Air-driven fg70s can either use suction pressure or positive Presure. Those thet se suction pressure ale ‘usually called vacuum driven gyros. Some older aircraft used vacuum venturis to power the air- Given gyro instruments. The venturi for gyros 16 mounted on the fuselage of the aircraft and the airflow caused by the forward motion ofthe aireraft les @ low pressure or suction in the throat OUI ANTE TURN REXEATOR OAL cy Figure 1 €1 Both 9 minute and # minute tre and bark Inetrumonts are avalible. of the venturt A major problem with waing venturi for IFR fight is that the venturi tends to became blocked with fee under some flight conditions. Another disadvantage of the venturi tube 1s that te alrerafl must manila a certain minimum airspeed to generate enough vacuum for the gyros. ‘The gyros will not be spun-up and stable during takeoff for example. Examples of 2" and 4” venturis ‘Figure 1-62. By mounting the gimbal at an angle o the horizontal, the tum coordinator senses rotation about both the rolland yaw axes oftare found i gure 1-64, The 2° and 4 are not physical dimensions. They refer to the amount of ‘suction in inches of mercury that each is designed to provide, ‘The most common type of air pump used on ‘modern airplanes forthe gyro instruments is called 2 dry air pump. It does not use any oll for sealing fr hahrication I ea wane ype pimp and the wens dare made ofa carbon based material which gradwally wears away in service from rubbing against che cylinder walls. Figure 1-65 shows a dry air pump connected to operate ar 2 vacuum pump. Notioe that the gyro instruments and gauge are installed ‘in parallel. Figure 1-66 shows the same kind of dry air pump that has been connected to operate fas a posite pressure pump. In the vacuu pup ‘moeaTon system the output ofthe pump is dumped overboard land the cockpit air is Mtered before it lows into ‘the instruments. A filter is required on the regulator fof the vacuum system berstse alr tx draw tnt ‘that point to regulate the vacuum pressure. An advantage of the positive pressure system 1s that {tis better fr aireraft that operate at higher altitudes ‘24 18:000 to 18.000 8. The poctive procoure oyatem, Fequires a filter on the inlet side of the pump and a filter on the outlet side ahead of the instruments, Alters not required on the regulator in the positive preccure ayotem. There 1s also a wet pump for air driven gyros which uses engine oll for cooling land lubrication, 1 can only be used as a vacuum pump and requires an air/oll separator to retin uw dae arplane’s engine. Figure 1-67 shows the 1164. A" and 4” ventur are available to power sir-drven ayro instruments. The rtinas aDoW to the number ‘finches of Mereury vacuum tat are provised, not fo physial sie.air/oll separator in a wet pump system as well ‘ap # suction reduccr that ts used to drop the prea ‘sure for the turn and slip indicator. An air driven urn and bank or turn and slip requires about 2 inches of mercury while the other two base types Of gyros require 4-D inches of mercury. For any kind of ar driven gyros, its very important to change the fters regularly to ensure that only srry cle ait roachee the yen tnetrrmente The ine Sstraments are very delicate and can wear out rapidly Af dust and dirt are allowed to enter with the alr ‘supply. Atypical ar filter for atrraf gyro instrument systema io shown in figure 1-08, The small ter installed on vacuum regulator valves can be seen 4 figure 1-69, The tubing and hose in an air driven sro system must be checked to make certain that ‘no restrictions are present which would create higher than normal resistance to the flow of alt. The only Iubricant approved for vacuum system Stings is usu aly a silicone sprav. Thread lubricants and Teflon® {ape should not be used as they might get dawn Info the system and cause damage. recat” gD WHEN AIRCRAFT 39ae ee IRECMONAL GYRO a= | | | ‘pee [ese | Figure 1-67. A wet pump vacuum system to operate three gyro instruments. A suction reducer ls needed inthe line 10 {he turn and sip ince it requires fe vacuum pressure. 6. Inspection and Maintenance of Gyro Systems Some recommended practices for gyro system maln- tenance are: 1. Check the ime it takes for the gyro instr ments to come up to full speed and stabilize. This should normally be about 2-4 minutes. 2, Listen for unusual noise when the gyros are engines are stopped. 8. When power to the gyros is removed, measure the run-down time. If there is a shortening ‘of the normal ran down Ume, tt indicates the bearings are getting worn or some other prob lem exist 4. Check tubing and hose condition. They should pot be worn or restricted, Clicch for hiuks and dents, 5, Pitings should be in good condition and with wide Fadius bends. Do not over tighten. 6. Use only approved lubricants for tings. Sitcone spray is the most common recommendation.7. Route tubing carefully to avoid rubbing and abrasion, 8. IF becomes necessary to blow the lines to remove dirt or moleture, ensure that instra- mente are completely disconnected. Apply alr pressure to instrument end of the lines, 9. Replace filters. at recommended. intervale— more often in dusty conditions or if smokers ride tn the alrerat. ‘When installing additional alr driven gyro instra- ments oF AF probleu 1 suspected, Wxe load on ‘the pump should be evaluated. Each gyro instrument requires a certain volume of alr which 18 stated fm cubic feet per minute (CFM). Add up the re- {quirement in CFM for all the instruments and ensure that it does not exceed the rated CFM for the pump. ‘You must also evaluate the pressure drop require- ‘ments for the instruments and lines. Ariical horizons and directional gyros usually require 4.0- 5.0 in. Hg. The turn and bank requires 2.0-2.5 fm, Hg. The loss or pressure drop in all the lines and tubing ohould not exceed 2 tn. Hg. ft docs, you may have to use larger diameter tubing, E. Compass Systems 1, Magnetic Compass ‘The aircraft magnetic direction indicator or compass 4s a completely independent instrument. 1¢ does not require any electrical or tubing connections, Tt con- tans a compass card with magnets that line up with Float msrauMeNt wotcn ine —_ caro | os —— Hl | sense Senews EXPANSION UNIT BE Bans FRLLER HOLE court MECHAM Figure 1-70. The pars ofa iqud-filedalrcrat magnetic compass.22, Configure tie wlrera for tue checks by turing, fon electrical equipment and radios, running te engines and establishing a level atutude. 8. Set the compensators to zero (there are two litle serews labeled NS and -W) 4, Polnt the aircraft north on the compass rose fand adjust the N-S screw to zero error oF as lose to 2er0 error as possible 5. Point the aireraft cast and adjust the B-W serew to zero error or as close to zero error ‘as possible. 6 Point the aircraft south and remove half the 77 Pott the atreraft west snd remove bal die ero ‘The process so far has averaged the error for ‘all headings. Now you are ready to record the error. 4, Polnt the atreraft on all headings every 30°, ‘and record the compass heading for each, 9. Prepare a placard which lists the deviation ‘error at least each 30°. Place it on or near the compass and make a logbook entry, ‘The compass correction card 15 used to record ‘the devlation error for the aircraft's compass. An example is shown in figure 1-75. ‘A newer type of compass is called the vertical card compass. It operates like the other types of Figure 1-72. Variation error for an aircraft compass isthe diflorence between true headings and magnetic headings. ‘Je rand hy th tnt that the north peooranhie pala and tha north magnate pale are not Inthe same lecation. ry‘0 wesrenty VARIATION conic ‘ight planning. Figure 1-74. Acompass rose contains the markings and ‘numbers needed for magnet direction ret ‘magnetic compass but the presentation on the face ff the instrument 1s a full compass card which ‘of oll and employs eddy eurrent damping, See figure a“ ‘igure 170: Lines of voration are dren on nerenauilen sharte 20 tat plots san apply the proper corrections during 1-76 for an tustration ofthe appearance ofa vertical ‘cara compass. ‘The fall compass card presentation of the vertical ‘card compass makes it easier to read. If the pilot ‘wants to turn to a heading of 180". the presentation ‘makes it easier to determine ifit is quicker to turn, left or right to reach that heading. The compensator screws can be seen at the botlom of the vertical card compass 8, Flux Gate Compass ‘The flux gate compass Is a special type of remote mounted compare which more stable than astand- fard magnetie compass and usually eliminates the problems of acceleration and north turning errors. ‘The sensor tsed with a fax gate compass systema 4s called a tux valve or Mux gate. It is a wheel ‘shaped device made of a ferrous material with three ‘spokes and the rim cut nto three equal parts. The ‘ux valve sensor can be seen tn igure 1-77. The ‘excitation cols in the center and the pick up calls ‘or output coils are installed with one on each spoke ‘of the Max valve core. The excitation coll is supplied ‘with AC current with a frequency of 400 Hz. It 4s designed s0 that when the current flow in the ‘excitation coll is at peak value, the core material 4s saturated, When the current falls below peak ‘the pick up colls and produce an output signalfa caus vies The excitons cul eect alvermately blocks out the earth's magnetic fed and then allows 4X to move across the output cals. This produces an AC output signa! from each of the three output otis. Sinee the angle of the earth's tux tines to FixeD. | conRECTION | as ‘SCREWS. Figure 1-76. The vertical card compass displays 2 com plete compass card and is easier fo road nan the air tyne (Cnuvtnny, Camadale Group, Bombardir nc) the Mux valve changes for esch auferent eading. the relative values of the three output voltages will be diferent for each different heading. This is Mlustrated im Ogure 1-78. An electronic component measures the three output signals and derives the ‘magnetic heading of the sireraft. In order to sve accurate readings, the fux gate “eerere meet newmally he msintained ty tml, Bow ‘zontal position with respect to the Earths surface. ‘This leveling can be accomplished in one of two ways In the fst type of flax gate sensor found on aireraf. {he sensor io suspended by a pendulous mechanism so that it can rematn level when the aireraft attitude 's changed, This ype of fx gate has a housing fled with «ght oll to dampen the motions af the moving parts. in We second wpe of Dux gate compass system, the fhix gate sensor is stabilized by a gyra system to keep it level. The output signals from ‘ux gate sensor are sent to an electronie unit which ‘amples the signals and calculates magnetic heading ‘The output of this electronic unit Is sent to eockpit Indicators that require magnetic heading information ‘and sometimes fo navigational systems that require heading information. The two common cockpit in struments that receive signals rom the fix gate sy ‘temare the HSI and the RMI [radio magnetic indicator ‘The HSI and RMI can be seen in fgure 1-79 which ‘Shows the flax gate compass system fora Challenger | PICK UP i os i i 1 t 1 i 1 ‘Figure 1-77. The fx valve sensor has an excitation coll ine enter ond the plot up cote on the Spokes or arm. 4satrplane. The fux valve sensors themselves are nor- ‘ally installed near the wing Ups to keep them away from magnetic influences in the alreraft. The location of the vertical card magnetle compass 1s alee chown in Sgure 1-70. ‘The HSI and the RMI both have a compass card which indicates the magnetic heading of the aircraft. “The heading information comes fram a fine gate compass system. The compass cards on both in- struments are driven by a remote mounted direc- onal gyro. The DG receives signals from the Sux ‘ante compass that automatically reset to the cor eet magnetic heading The remote DG is slaved to the fax gate compass and the compass cards fon the instruments are slaved to the remote DG. ‘The connections are shown in figure 1-80 which 4s a diagram of a flux gate compass system. In this system, the pilot never has to reset the in- ‘uments with his magnetic compass inthe cockpit sinless the flux gale compass system fails, ‘The face of an RMI is shown in figure 1-81. The ‘compass card in this instrument indicates the mag- netic heading ofthe aircraft as previously described, ‘The RMI can be identified by the two pointers that have a common pivot point in the center of the instrument. These pointers are connected to radio navigation systems so that they point toward the location of the ground transmitter, The selector ‘switches allow each pointer to be connected to an 7] “THE AIRCRAFT 5 HEADED NORTH a 4. FARs for Compass Systems ‘There are a number of PARS that relate directly to compass systems. FAR 23.1327 ‘Magnetic Direction Indicator 1. Met he inetalled to prevent tnfnance hy plane vibrations or magnetic felds. 2, Maximum deviation in level ight is 10 degrees fon any heading. 3. Magneticnon-stapitized may deviate more than 10 degrees due to electric heated windshield tc. if either a stabilized magnetic direction Indicator or DG is installed. Deviation over 10 degrees requires a placard. ‘Magnetic Direction Indicator Deviation Placard 1. Placard must be installed on or near the MDI eompansy 2, Placard must list calibration for level Might ‘with engines running. 3. Placard must state if calibration 1s for radios on or off 4. Calibration increments must be 30 degrees maximum, tt @ ‘Figure 1-78. The changing angle ofthe earth's flux ines tothe fux valve produces # afferent output signal foreach . Mure than 10 degrees deviation for electric heated windshield etc. must be placarded. F Electronic Instruments 1, Basic Principles ‘the term “electronic instruments" is used to refer (othe latest trend in alreraft instruments. This tmolves the use of CRTs (cathode ray tubes or ‘TV screens) to display aircraft instrument infor- imation, Another common term for this system the “glass cockpit”, The use of CRTs permits a treater use of integrated instruments which display Sumerous types of information on ane screen. It lve permite greater flexibility heeatiee the method tf displaying the information and the amount of Information on each CRT can be changed in Might salso claimed that relabiyis increased because complca cleetiurieloniel instruments are re placed by CRTs that have no moving parts. These ERTs are operated by a special type of computer contrat called a symbol generator. The latest gen- LuaBer LUNE ration of ir carrer Jets and bisjeta was designed {to use the glase cockpit displays, This group in- chides Boeing 757. 767 and 747-400: MeDonnell Douglas MD-11 and Gulfstream G-1Vs among oth Other aireraft have been retrofitted with glass ‘cockpit displays in thelr latest versions or as an fotion from the factory Some sireraft have only one or two CRT, whi others with a full glass cockpit system will use ‘si ar more CRTs, The electronic instruments that inake up a fall glasa cockpit come sn three (peer 1, Blectronte attitude director indicators (EADIS) 2. Electronic horontal situation indicators (EHSis) 8, Engine indication and crew alerting system (ICAS) ‘The appearance of the EADI and EHSI are very been covered previously. The major difference 1s ‘that the display is more versatile and the pilots cean select what types of Information they wish OFF-WARNING, FLAG. (eReeN) —— MODE SELECT ‘SWITCHES ‘Figun 11. Tha radia magnetic indleator (RD has a compass card which indleates the magnetic heading of the teratt (Courtesy Canadal Group, Bombardier ne) 49‘see and much more information can be presented th the electronic version of the instrument. A pleal EADI and BHSI are shown in figure 1-82. te EHSI can be set to a map mode which changes appearance of the display to that of a map. 1 EHSI that is showing the map mode 1s found figure 1-89. The map mode shows an airplane snbel ctong seth navtgotional ites, ieports and her features on the ground. The map mode sentation shows the aircraft moving across the ap in correct relationship to locations on the Cus, He is. very user feiendly dizplay which tows @ large amount of information to the pilot ‘2 way that makes s{ easter to read than more rnventional displays, 2. EADI sme of the information that can be presented on ‘e BADI other than the basie pitch and roll data ‘hades; radio giidestope data, Fawo iocanzer Gata, J} ‘igure 182, Eleotronke Might intruments: EADI on the {op and an EHS! below. 0 radar altimeter data, autoplot status ad wiser. ‘indicated airspeed, 3. EHSI tformauion displayed on the BAS! wicludes: mage netic heading, radio steering commands for VOR/INS, radio glideslope data, DME radio data and weather radar data. The EADI and EHS! are Installed directly in front of the pllots to maten the standard “T” configuration. 4, BICAS ‘The EICAS system usually consists of two large CRTs installed in the middle of the instrument panel, The two CRTs may be arranged vertically fr horizontally depending on the particular alreraft Involved. The EICAS display screens in igure 1-84 are positioned one above the other. The EICAS sys- tem has {wo main types of information that are itplayed, ae the nama implies ‘The engine indica ton funtion displays numerous powerplant instr ments in standard columns depending on how many ‘engines the aircraft has. The crew alerting system throughout the aircraft that monitor all the major systems such as engines, electrical, hydraulic, bleed alr, pressurization, ete, These sensors are monitored by computer and any faults or abnormal readings are displayed to the Might crew. On many aircraft ‘hese sophisticated monitoring systems replace a ‘human crew member, the fight engineer. Thisllows the alreraft manufacturer t design a large airplane like a 747-400 that only requires two Might crew members instead of three, ‘An EICAS system that waes fen CRTS stacked vertically is probably the most common and will be desertbed here. This system is shown in figure 1-84, The upper screen has a standard presen- tao which ulsplays the primary engine parameters. These are the most important engine ‘instruments that are used to set power and monitor the engines. Also on the upper screen faa list of alert and status messages concerming the aireraft systems, During routine eruise fight conditions, the lower sereen is very often blank. Ifa problem suddenly ‘developed with the hydraulic pressure, for example, ‘the EICAS computer would automatically puta mes- sage on the upper sereen and show the hydraulic system instruments on the lower sareen. The haste theory of this system is that normal readings om the instruments do not have to be displayed for the crew. When an abnormal reading occurs, then will be Gixpgyea w die crew. Thun redhnen Une ‘workload for the two-man cockpit.to see and much more mnformallon cat be presented wilh the electronic version of the instrument. A \ypieal EADI and EHSI are shown in figure 1-82. ‘The EHSI can be set to a map mode which changes the appearance of the display to that of a map. ‘An BHSI that is showing the map mode ts found fa figure 1-83. The map mode shows an airplane svmbol along with navigational sites. airports and other features on the ground. The map mode presentation shows the aireraft moving across the ap in correct relationship to locations on the round. It ie a very waer feendly Aeplay which Shows a large amount of information to the pilot tna way that makes st easier to read than more conventional displays. 2, EADI ‘Some of the information that can be presented on ‘se EADI other than the basic pitch and roll data cantuen, seni pllestoyn dal, so vali data, [GUE 12 EMOTORIC Tighe mere: EADY on de top and an EHS! below. 50 Indicated airspeed 3. EHSI Tusfaunations displayed ou the BIST hichudes. mag- netic heading, radio steering commands for VOR/INS, radio glideslope data, DME radio data land weather radar data. The EADI and EHS! are Installed directly in front of the pilots to match the standard “T” configuration. 4. EICAS the ICAS system usually consists of two large RTs installed in the middle of the instrument panel. The two CRTs may be arranged vertically (or horizontally depending on the particular aircraft involved. The EICAS display screens in figure 1-84 are positioned one above the other. The EICAS sys- tem has two main types of information that are Jleplayed ae the name impilion The engine indica tion function displays numerous powerplant instru ments in standard columns depending on how many ‘engines the aircraft has. The crew alerting system ‘roaghout the aircraft that monitor all the major systems such as engines, electrical, hydraulic, bleed air, pressurization, ete. These sensors are monitored by computer wal any fully or abuoranal readings are displayed to the Might crew. On many aircraft ‘these sophisticated monitoring systems replace a ‘human crew member, the fight engineer. This allows the alreraft manufacturer to design a large airplane like a 747-400 that only requires to Might crew members snstead of three {An FICAS system that uses two CRTs stacked vertically 1s probably the most common and will bbe described here. This system Is shown in figure 1-84. The upper screen has a standard presen- ‘ation which digplaye the primary ‘engine parameters. These are the most important engine ‘instruments that are used to set power and monitor the engines. Also on the upper screen #-a ust or vert ana starus messages Concermng, the aircraft systems, During routine cruise fight conditions, the lower screen is very often blank. If a problem suddenly ‘developed with the hydraulic preseure, for example, ‘the EICAS computer would automatically putames- sage on the upper sereen and show the hydraulle System instruments an the lower screen. ‘The hale ‘theory of this system is that normal readings on the instruments do not have to be displayed for the crew. When an abnormal reading occurs, then 1 will te dlnplaged te the crc. The veduece the workload Tor the two-man cockpttce (See oe eo cose han anton eli teppei as eee Serene ee a eee ae ober, ices mec ae el Seno anaer-auen ce rae ore ae ee Si Sot eres rw ee Recon conse weees oa eee ee es eee — epee eee ‘The glass cockpit instruments were made possible by the rapid advances made in microprocessors ‘and digital eamputer technology An even newer item of advanced cockpit displays is the Heads Up Display. The use of a HUD system was developed by the military for combat airerat. If tnformation bout Important aircraft systems is displayed in the windshield area, the pilot does not have to shift his attention down to the instrument pane! to get this information. The HUD allows the pllot 1 Keep iookmg Out tne windshield of the alrerait (ead up) and to see the information that is needed projected onto a special sereen in the windshield area. A heads up display system for commercial Jet airplanes has been developed and is installed fm some aircraft at this time. This system is called the Heads Up Guidance System (HGS) and the dis- play is shown in figure 1-86. ‘The HOS screen itself is a special type of gass plate which the pilot can look through even while {formation is being projected onto the screen. The fmageo on the screen are focused at inflty oo the pilot does not have to refocus his eyes to look at elther the world outside the windshield or the sexscreo warrootr T | ‘Figure 1-83. The appearance ofan EHSI when operating in MAP MODE. p=) = aie ANY) fo 7 ONY et ces i Ne 51‘data on the HOS. The HOS screen iz operated by ‘8 computer controlled system which has many sen sors to display different information, On a civil aireraft the information displayed on the HOS is The first airline to begin using an FAA-approved HGS system was Alaska Alrines. They retrofitted their Boeing 7278 with HOS at a cost of about '8200,000 or each firerait. Ihe use ot the HUS enables the airline to operate in bad weather con- ditions that might ground aircraft of other airlines. ‘The FAA has approved this operation because of the elimination of the need for the pilot fo switch ‘io attention from the instrument panel to the view out the windshield. The future will no doubt see fan inereasing use of HGS and other advanced dis- play systems by many other airlines and aircraft ‘operators, Versions of the heads up display designed for use in twin-engine turboprop alrerat are already ‘ings Amuetnped hy anveral rompanine G. Computers in Aircraft ‘The rapid advances in computer technology in recent years Dawe beer applied to tiny aeren aircraft systema such as cockpit displays, ‘autopilot, navigational computers, engine controls iNeurs ————_.) (saw ~~ ery 4. CENTRAL CONTROL UNIT fon modern aircraft should have a basie under- standing of computers in general and thelr applica tion to alrcraft systems. The modern digital eouputer is made possible by Use rapid advance Jn integrated circuits that have taken place over the last twenty years. A modern microprocessor 4s in effect a computer on a small chip of silicon ‘nis Smal ana powertul cmp makes possibve the manufacture of small but powerful computers. 1. Basic Parts of a Computer A computer ts made up of Unree baste parts as related to thelr functions. The basic hardware coa- sists of input devices, output devices and the CPU (central processing unit). Refer to Ngure 1-86. Input devices are things lke Keyboards, mice scanners etc. Output devices are CRTs, printers, plotters etc. The central processing unit contains Into three different units by their functon. The central control unit directs data from one place ‘© another and maintains overall contro! of the ourPurs Figure 1-86. The basic parts of computer. The CPU contain the control unit, the memory andthe arithmetic logic unit wwrien perorms cecunatons. sa‘operations. The memory stores infordation on ope. cial computer chips. The ALU is the aritametie logle ‘unit: It performs the mathematical calculations that are required. The term peripherals 1s often used Imulscussing computers, Periperals are he Various Input and output devices. examples of which were ven above. ‘The memory of a computer comes in two tyes that are known as RAM and ROM. The RAM oF volatile memory temporarily holds data that is being acted upon by the computer. It i called volatile because tie lost each time the computer is ewtched off. The operator can change and manipulate the RAM memory with keyboard entries and other ac- ‘dons. The ROM or non-volatile memory e sometimes called hard-wired. The data in the KOM area Will not be lost when the computer is switehed off and ‘cannot be altered by a simple keyboard entry. An ample of ROM is the builtin startup test that ‘most computers have. When the computer is frst ‘switched on, it tests Itself for errors and checks {to see what peripheral devices are connected to ‘tan example of RAM com he = term paper that you are typing into a computer using a word proces- sor program. If you forget to save the document fon a disk, it will be lost when the computer is fevitehed off 2, Some Applications of Computers in Aircraft A madorm jot airplane say awe many diffrent com puters that perform a variety of functions. The use of digtal systems on aircraft is becoming more and ‘more common because it offers several advantages: 4, Imereased reuabiuty 2. Faster response 9. Reduced power consumption 4, Smaller and lighter weight cquipusent 5. Lower operating cost Computers have become so common that they fare now used in many diferent aterralt syeteme ‘uch as autopilt, engine controls, navigation, fight planning, ete. 3. BITE Systems One of the features ofthe effort to reduce operating 28t is the use of BITE fouit-n test equipment) The latest types of aireraft electronic equipment ‘nd computero have apecial types of teat equljaurent $a part of the major units. BITE systems often Provide three different kinds of tests that can be ‘used. to identify and correct faults » rault Detection — continuous during equip- ‘ment operation 8. Fault Ioolation — feulty equipment can be Iso lated oF bypassed 8. Operational Verification After Defect Repatr ‘The last example 18a type of BITE program that ‘maintenance personnel would se most often, After changing a plece of equipment which is thought to be the cause of the problem, a verification test ‘now operating normally. Running this particular test usually Involves just pushing the appropriate button, ‘To simpity the troubleshooting and repair of ‘modern electronic equipment, is installed in the aircraft in the form of LRUS. An LRU is a line replaceable unit which means a standard size con- tainer which slides easily in and out of a spectal mounting rack. A typical arrangement for LRUS and equipment installations is shown in gure 1-87. ‘Tha LR wen ctandtord type afalartrionlsonmecters and mounting attachments: this makes it easy to locate and change one in a short period of time. ‘The BITE systems in an alreraft are designed to Ideally faulty LRUs 90 that Whey can be casted ‘quickly and easily. 5. Digital Data Transmission ‘The increasing use of computers and suplistested lectronie devices on modern aircraft requires that these devices be able to communicate with each other rapidly and efficiently. This rapid exchange of data 18 eccomplished with aigial data transmission usingUglies buaees, Slice Use wath pisses uf eye ‘ment that use this data bus are manwactured by ‘many diferent companies, a uniform standard for ‘hemethod ofdata transmission ie needed, The stand- ard which s used by this type ofequipment on modern fir carrier jets and bizjets 1s ARINC 429. ‘The initials ARINC stand for Aeronautical Radio Incorporated. This organization has been in exist- ence since the 19908 to provide certain services {o the airline industry. ‘The members of ARINC include the major alrines, aircraft manufacturers and eqpipment mansttar. turers. They establish many study groups that in- vestigate emerging technology and suggest standards that ean be applied to new types of equip rent. When theac standarda ere approved, they ‘wil be followed by all the members of ARINC. In le cae Uf ARINC 429, Us means iat computers and similar equipment that utilize digtal signals willbe compatibie with each other, Since the airlines often lead the way in the development of new types fof equipment, the manufacturers of equipment for ‘smaller aircraft often use ARINC standards also— leven if they are not members of ARINC. Unlike FAA and FCC regulations. ARINC standards are not laws; but anyone who wants to sell airplanes or equipment to the major airlines will comply with these accepted industry standards, ARINC 429 has been sine as an example here heeanse it applies to digital information transmission systems used on aireraft. Many of the newer types of equipment described earlier such as EADI, EHSI, EICAS, BITE, te, wil uae digital data exchange systems that are designed in accordance with ARINC 428. DIGITAL BUS SYSTEM aay eam ome oH B58 6 oo | =H [pt ae eae) | DIGITAL DATA BUS. [8° oo @oo8— | 'AFOS WODE CONTROL PANEL ‘Figure 1-88. Aalptal data bus permite api tranamission of data between the various electronic systems onthe ara The bus isl ia ahleked ised pal conductor which helps to preven interference. seCHAPTER II Powerplant Instruments and Logic Gates ‘The information presented in chapter 2 wall be in three major topic areas: powerplant instruments, loge gates and binary numbers, and position in- eating and annunciator systems. A. Liquid Quantity Measuring Systems Depending on the type of airraft involved, there Inay be just one oF there may be many diferent Iiguids carried on the airraf for which a quantity tmeanurement is required. Most of the examples ‘on here wil be fuel ouantity systems because They are the most common. Tt should be noted {hat for each type of eystem described, it could be used to measure fuel, of, wate, hydraulic Md cr come other teetd emily Most small, sigle engine airplanes only have one quid quantity indicating system inthe cockpit ‘snd that i for fuel. The simplest types of fuel quan- ‘uy systems are Mose mat use mechanical syste and require no electrical power to give readings ‘These wil be desertbed rst. 1. Sight Glace Cangee ‘The simplest kind of lquid quantity system Is the sight glass gauge. In this system a small glass or plastic tube is connected into the tank so that the level ofthe liquid in the tube matches that in the ak, Markings on the tube itself or a plate behind Stindieate the quantity. sight glass gauge is shown, tm Agure 2-1 ‘This type of quantity system has no moving parts, ‘bat the tank must be located in or near the cockpit area for it to be practical. It has been used on ‘dar aireraft for fuel and hydro Haid quamty systems. 2. Float-type Mechanical Gauges A mumber of different Kinds of mechanteal loot ‘quantity systems have been used. A very simple version utilized a float mounted 8 a metal rod which projected through a hole ‘m the gas cap so that the rod would be visible ‘rom the cockpit. The fuel tank was located directly ‘font of the cockpit in the fuselage so that it ould be easily seen. This (vpe is Mustrated by gure 2:2, ‘The float was often made of cork and st had to be coated wilh a special shellac or varnish so that € would not sink. Two disadvantages of this ‘quantity system are that the rod tends to bounce ‘up and down and there are no index markings at all. A variation ofthis system was used in many biplanes where the fuel lank was in the center section and the rod stuck down below the tank ‘Tis snverted float system with the indicator below the tank is shown in figure 2:3 ‘The gauge called the magnetic direct reading is fa noarype gauge wien uses w gear systeim wo mone _ = 38Figure 2:3. Amechanlca ost fuel quantity gauge forthe ‘center section of Biplane. rotate a pointer ina round gauge and uses a mag- tue princiole to isolate the dlass face cover and pointer from the fuel. This type of gauge was often ‘used on high wing airplanes where the fuel tanks were in the butt end of the wing, The gauge was the round face of the gauge was visible inside the cockpit. It i= shown in figure 2-4 ‘The float rotated a shaft through a simple gearing system. On the end of the shaft was a U-shaped ‘magnet which rotated along with the shaft. Separat- ‘ing the magnet and shaft from the pointer and the rest of the gauge in the cockpit was a piece of aluminum with sealing gaskets. The magnetic flux traveled through the aluminum and rotated fa plece of ferrous metal that in turn rotated the pointer. 3, Resistance Gauges ‘The type of fuel quantity gauge most common on ‘m cars. It has a float in the tank that moves a variable resistor. The variable resistor alters the current flow in a DC circuit to operate a meter ‘movement thal is somewhat similar to those used in voltmeters and ammeters ‘The gauge used with the float operated variable resistor Is most often the raflometer type seen in ‘igure 2-5. This gauge uses two opposing magnetic ‘elds so that the potnter reacts to the ratio of current flow in the two sections. In this way, it is less laffected by fluctuations Ia aystemn voltage caused by voltage regulator settings or a weak battery. 4. Underwing Fuel Quantity Indicators Many laage alsialt ave te tally diffssint Spe of fuel quantity measuring systems. One of these ‘operates the cockpit gauges and the other 1s an "underwing fuel quantity aystem, The underwing sys- tem can only be used on the ground and 1s most often employed by maintenance and service per- sonnel rather than by the Might crew. There are three kinds of underwing fuel quantity systems, Dut they all share certain features in common. They all utlize a fuel quantity stick of some type which can be extended below the bottom surface of the wing. They measure the fuel quantity in terms of volume and not mass. These underwing quantity systems typically require no electrical power to ab- ‘ain readings. This last characterise would be an advantage If it wae necessary to take fuel readings while working on the fuel system. ‘The oldest and simplest type of underwing fuel quantity system is called a drip stick. It uses ahollow tube which extends from the bottom of the ‘Wing up inside the fuel tank as tlustrated in igure 2.6. The tube ts normally stowed by being pushed ‘up inside the tank until the bottom of the tube fs flusl wills de butions sustace of the wing where Is latched in the closed position, In order to obtain a reading, the tube is unlatched and pulled down until the upper end reaches the top of the {uel level. When fael begins to drip out the bottom of the tube, a reading is taken using the markings fn the outside ofthe tube. This type of fuel quantity system Is not used on modern aireraft because of the fire danger when fuel is allowed to drip om the ground or hangar floor. Another type of underwing fuel quantity stick fs the one which eee a clear Lucite® plastic rod ‘The main features ofthis device are shown in igure 2-7. The rod Is made of clear plastic because it ~biains readings by transmitting light along the oa. The principe ivovea Is the fetraction of HEA. Fuel and air have alferent light refraction char- acteristics and if a specially shaped quartz tip 1s installed on the top of the rod, it will produce a particular light pattern when it is positioned at the top of the fuel level, In order to take a reading, the tube 1s pulled down from the bottom of the ‘Wing unlll the light pattern on the bottom of the rod is focused (0 a point of light. The reading is then taken using the markings along the length of the rod. ‘Tae nual anime type of wns mle fe yanthy stick on modern atreraft i the one which uses afloat inside the tank that bas a magnet fastened to it. The upper end of the stick has a magnet wich wit attract the foat magnet when they are Floure 246. Caer tye dip tok umdoncing ft quan ty gauge. ‘m alignment. This type of underwing fuel quantity stick is shown in fgure 2-8 ‘A fuel reading is taken by unlatehing the stick ‘and pulling it down unt the float and the topfof the stick are held tn position by magnetic at traction, The reading is then taken from the mark- ‘ngs along the tube. The magnet force is not strong ‘enough to It the float out of the fuel: so when the stick to puohed up, the magnetic attraction 4s broken and the stick can be pushed up and stowed ‘These types of underwing fuel quantity systems are not usually as accurate as the cockpit fuel ‘quantity system, but they can be used for main- tenance and troubleshooting purposes. 5, Capacitance Quantity Indicators ‘The most common type of quid quantity measuring system used on modern turbine engine aircraft 1s, the capacitance type. It has the advantage over other quantity systems in that it can give accurate readings in very large or unusually shaped tanks. Another advantage is the fact that liquid quantity featured in terme af macs or wight rather than im volume. Measuring fuel quantity in mass 4s especially useful with large turbine engine atreraft because the power produced by the engines is more the volume. In very large fuel tanks, the volume of the fuel will vary considerably due to thermal ‘expansion and contraction, but the mass would remain the same. ‘The capacitance liquid quantity system gets its name from the fact that the measuring probes lo- ‘cated im the tank are eapacitors. A simpliied reD- resentation of this (pe of fuel quantity system Is shown in figure 2-9. In the real system, the probe {s usually constructed in the form of two concentric metal tubes which are the two plates of the capacitor. When this probe is located tn a fuel tank, the to lates of the capactior will be separated by fuel ‘on the lower end and alr on the upper end. Since el and wr nave Ufc uicicctste constant values, the amount of capacitance will change as the fuel level rises or falls. The dielectric constant for the fuel is also affected by density. Therefore any tn- crease in density caused by thermal contraction ‘will result in an inerease in capacitance. The probes will automatically measure the mass or weight of the fuel. A small, symmetrical tank like an engine ‘ll tank may only require one capacitance probe ‘to give accurate readings. A large, tapered wing foe! tank might have 15 or more probes connected fm parallel th enure accurate readings. The capacitance fuel quantity system of figure 2-10 has total of 17 capacitance probes. Electronic crcults ‘measure the amount of capacitance in the probes, pply any needed corrections, and send electri 58 signals to the cockpit gauges to indicate the fret ‘quantity in pounds. Capacitance fuel quantity ey tems usually include a totalizer. The totalizer gives 2 reading of the total fuel on board the atreraf, Some fuel eysteme wil alvo ave the fuel weed since takeol B. Fuel Flow Indicators ‘There are a numberof dllerent gauges which might bbe used for aircraft fuel systems depending on the type and complexity of the particular kind of fuel system used. All powered aireraft will have a fuel ‘quantity system. On small airplanes with gravity flow fuel systems, this would be the only type of fuel system instrament required. Atreraft with pump fed engines will need a fel preasiine gauge tm ae dition to fuel quantity. Aircraft with fuel-injected ‘or large radial piston engines and alrcraft with tur- bine engines will usually havea fuel flow instrument, Come aircraft with turbine engines that operate i cold temperatures will also have a fuel temper ture indicator to guard against the danger of ice ‘erystals in the fuel. The various types of fuel flow Iateator systems wut be described in this secon. 1. Fuel-injected Engine Flowmeters ‘The type of flowmeter commonly installed on aircraft with fuelanjected reeiprocanng engines 18 not a true flowmeter at all. The sensor used with this instrument system actually measures pressure not FUEL TANK. CAPACITOR REFERENCE CAPACITOR Figure 28. Simplified circu to Mustato the principle ‘at aparation tn 9 rapactonea Hid an ty system.KL ‘TOSIGNAL CONDITIONER capacitance “TPE ary. nr. o oureut FROM ot oat tern \y "TOINDICATOR ‘Pure 2.70. The major components and thelr location for « capacitance fuel quantity system on # corporate jet (Courtesy Cane ‘Group, Bombardier Ine) 50flow rate. Since the injector lines and novales have ‘a certain restriction to flow, a given pressure stip- plied to the injection system will produce a gven flow rate for normal operating conditions. This type fof inotrument uses a Bourdon tube In the gauge ‘which Is connected by tubing and hose to the fuel ‘divider block on top of the engine. The line leading, from the fue! distribution manifold on the engine can be seen in gure Z-11, ihe taceol the instrument usually has three dilferent units of measurement: 'si, gallons per hour (ce) or pounds per hour and percent af cruise power. The instrument face shown, ‘mn gure 2-12 has these three units. This instrument will give accurate readings for all three of these values as long as everything is operating normally ‘The pressire at the fel distribution mansfold wl bbe proportional to the flow rate ifthe total restric- ‘uons to flow in the system are normal. If there 4s any fault in the system which causes the restric- instrument can give erroncous readings. For ‘example, fan Injector nozzle was blocked this would ‘cause a greater restriction to flow and an indication Of increased fuet consumption when the actual fuel flow rate winld he eeereased A leak in an injector line would decrease the restriction to flow and ‘decrease the indicated flow rate on the gauge but the fuel consumption would actually increase, 2. Vane-type Flowmeters ‘The vane-type flowmeter uses a sensor like that ‘tn gure 2-13 that is installed in the line that feeds Sct to tke agive. The vane os maui Ot ‘so that it wil rotate through an arc as the fuel pushes against it. The circular chamber that con- tains the vane has enough clearance between the feyinder walls and the vane that the Dow of fuel 48 not retarded to any significant degree. The vane ‘ype sensor will measure the volumetric fow rate of the fuel, The vane is rotated against a restraining spring 0 that the amount of rotation of the vane co responds to the volumetric flow rate. The cockpit ate Io normaly marked wo stow tie BOW Tae 4m gallons per hour. The position of the vane in ‘the sensor ts transmitted electrically to the cockpit, gauge where i{ rotates the pointer to the correct Feading, The type of electrical system that transtalts cove: IS cwonarvermonnesine, \ sansa oo ts =) ‘Figure 2-11. The fuel low indicator system for #fuetinjected reciprocating engine that measures pressure atthe fue! distributor manifold. (Courtesy Cessna Alreraft Co) ooce ee capac he cmap roma ee se oe rnin apten's shows hee Bree cat ae ae ees eae ee ee ere eso! a I 4. Synchro Systeme ‘There are three types of synchro systems and they share the same basic features and are used for similar purposes. A synchro system consists of fa transmitter unit and a receiver unit. The two are connected to each other by electrical wiring ‘The transmitter unit contains an ioput shaft and it ean be connected to anvthing which will rotate Figure 212. Fuel low indleator with three diferent ‘mossurement units: pounds per hour, Pt ‘and percent of eruise power. sae FUEL, FLOW el = | | | ‘Figure 2-14. Vano-type flowmeter system fora large airplane which includes a synchro system. 6‘this shaft through an are, The receiver unit has fa shaft which is connected fo the pointer in the instrument. Ifthe shaft in the transmatter unit 1s, rotated 20° to the right, the shaft in the receiver vil alzo rotate 20° to the right. The operation of a synchro system causes the receiver unit to move {in synchronization with the transmalter unit. Alarge Jet transport may have many different synchro sys- lems tor 2 variety of dierent instruments. The ‘ransmitter unit ean be connected to anything which produces a rotation of the shaft through an are. Figure 2-15 shows how the rotor in the receiver ‘unit will position itself automaticaly based on the ‘magnetic eld created by the three outer magnets. ‘The three different kinds of synchro systems wall now he deserthed. They do differ in details of con- struction, but the baste operation of all three 1s ‘8 deseribed above. Figure 2-5. An illustration ofthe basic operation of synchro receive unit. The rotor wit align sel! with te reeuttant ‘eld ofthe thee outer magnetic fields. TRANSMITTER, Figure 2-16. The DC:powered Selyn synchro system. oe VES “eS De Selsyn® Synchro ‘The transmitter unit in the Selsyn synchro is a variable resistor with three sections as seen in igure 2-16. The shaft is connected to the wiper arm. The Uivee secuons of tue vartable resistor are connected by wires to the three coils in the receiver unit. The ‘olor of the receiver unit is @ permanent magnet that ts connected to the instrument potnter, The Position of the wiper arm in the transmitter de- fermines the voltages that are produced by the three sections of the resistor. The permanent magnet in the receiver unit will ine wp withthe averall magnetic ‘eld produced by the three calls surrounding it ‘Any rotation ofthe shaft and wiper arm of the trans iitter will cause diferent voltages to be applied ‘w the recefver unit. Anew orientation ofthe wagucte field in the receiver unit will pull the rotor into the correct alignment | INDICATOR». Magnesyn® Synchro ‘The Magnesyn synchro system uses AC power, most often 26 volts AC and 400 Hz. The use of [AC power eliminates the need for a variable resistor ‘gad lunproves reliability because there are no ‘brushes to wear or get out of adjustment. The con- struction features of the transmitter and receiver ‘unit are similar, which can be seen in figure 2-17, ‘The rotors are permanent magnets and the three section windings are connected together. The mag. netic field produced in the recelver wil pull the rotor Into a position that corresponds to the rotor position in the transmitter unit. . Autosyn® Synchro ‘The only difleence between the Autosyn and Mag- resym synchros is that the Autosyn uses electromag nets instead of permanent magnets for the rotors. Figure 2-18 shows an Autosyn synchro system. It also uses AC power that is most often 26 volts AC "400 Hz, Many pressure and flow type instruments ‘on modern jet airplanes use a synchro system to ‘wansmait the information to the cockpit gauge. 4, Mass Flowmeters ‘The latest types of turbine engine aircraft use a flow- meter that gives a reading of the mass ow rate ROGATOR Figure 2-18. The AC powered Autoeyn synchro system. 1m pounds per hour rather than a volumetric reading ‘in gallons per hour. The mass flow rate is a more ‘useful indication for this type of aireraf. Refer to ‘gure 2-19 for a drawing of the mass Nowmeter. The mace Nowmeter conalots of a motor driven impeller a turbine and a synchro system to transmit the data toa cockpit gauge. In order to give accurate readings, the impeller must be driven at a constant speed, ‘isis accompuished wath a AL: synenronous motor for a stmlar deviee, AS the fuel Nows through the ‘impeller. ts gver a spin oF rotation by the spinning Impeller. When the fuel leaves the impeller, i strikes the turbine which is rotated against a restraining spring by the spin energy of the fuel. Because a denser fuel would impart more spin energy to the turbine. the degree of rotation of the turbine is a ‘measure of mass flow rate. The turbine is connected fo the transmitter rotor of a synchro system which ‘will cause the potnter on the cockpit gauge to rotate to the proper position to indicate the vorrect mao> flow rate. The sensor for this and other types of ow. meters is Installed in the fuel system downstream of the fuel control device so that the flaw rate rep- resents the fuel consumption rate tor that engine. 5. Computerized Fuel System ‘The computerized fuel system is a volumetric flow ‘measuring system found on some muel-injected reciprocating engines. The sensor isasmall unit which, Js installed on top of the engine in the fuel line that feeds the fuel splitter or manifold. The sensor or transducer Containe a small rotor that has the same density as the fuel to ensure accurate readings. ‘As the fuel flows past the rim of the rotor. it spins the roter at a rate which to proportional to the volumetric flow rate of the fuel. The rotor has notches on its rim which interrupt a light beam fom a light emitting diode (LED). This light beam talis ona phototransistor whieh produces an output signal with a frequency that matches the ficker rate of the light beam. The electrical output of the hototransistor is connected to the computer in ‘the cockpit instrument which processes the data ‘and displays snformation for the pilot. The input ‘signal to the computer has a frequency which 1s fn indication of flow rate, but the computer oan calculate and display fuel flow. fuel used and fuel remaining in several different units of measurement. By including a computer to process the signal froma Ure Uaueduces, dhe computeriocd fuel systens at ‘ave the pilot a number of different kinds of useful Information. The cockpit indicator is usually a lighted display ike that shown in figure 2-20. This is not a CRT but a digital Ughted display. There fare three common types of lighted digltal displays 6‘available thatuse Hight emitting diodes (LEDs), liquid exystal displays (LCDs). or gas discharge tubes. 6. FARs for Fuel Systems In chapter 1, the requirements for powerplant instruments were covered and it would be useful to look over that sectlon again to review the in- formation appropriate to the instruments covered 4m this section, Some additional FARS concerning fuel systems are given here, FAR 23.993 Fuel Systems 1. Each fuel line must be installed and supported ‘oprevent vibration and to withstand uel pres: sure and fight loads. 2. Where relative motion could exist, fuel lines must have provisions for flexbilty 3. Rach flexible hose must be approved or shown {to be suitable for the particular application. 4..No flexible hose that might be adversely lafeoted by: sxpocure to high temperaturee ‘may be used where excessive temperatures will exist during operation or after engine ‘shutdown, FAR 29.1907 Powerplant Instruments 1. Bach line carrying flammable fluids under pressure must 8, Have restricting orifices or other safety de- ‘ices at the source of pressure to prevent the eseape of excessive Mud if a line fails: and Be installed and located so that the escape ff fluids would not ereate a hazard 2, Each powerplant instrument that utilizes flam- imable Ouide must be inotalled and located 0 that the escape of fluid would not create hazard, 8. Fuel Quantity Indicator —There must be a ‘means to indicate tthe light crew members the quanbly of fuel in each tank during fight. ‘An indicator, calibrated in either gallons or pounds, and clearly marked to indicate which ‘a, Bach fuel quantity indicator must be cal- {brated to read zero during level Might when ‘the quantity of fuel remaining in the tank de qual We Une uote Fi ou Db. Each exposed sight gauge used as a fuel quantity. indicator must be protected ‘against damage.6. Bach aight gouge that con collect water land freeze must have a means to allow ‘drainage on the ground. 4. Tanks with interconnected outlets and atr- Spaces may be considered ag one tak and need not have separate indicators 4. Fuel Flowmeter System — Each meteringcom- ponent must have a means to bypass fuel H’a'mamuncuon ot tnat component severesy festrcts fuel ove FAR 23.1553 Fuel Quantity Indicator 1 the unusable fuel supply for any tank exceeds onc gallon, oF five percent of tank capacity, Whichever is greater, a red arc must be marked fn fts indicator extending from the calibrated zero reading to the lowest reading obtainable tn level gat FAR 23.1557 Miscellaneous Markings and Placards 1, Puel and off filler openings a Each fuel filer opening must be marked fon or near the filer cover with the word Siuel™ and’ the acceptable uel grades. b, For pressure fueling systems, the maximum permissible fueling and defueling pressures ©. Of Siler openings must be marked at oF near the filer cover with the word “oll” ‘emperature Measuring Systems ‘There area numberof common methods of measur ing tampratareo tm et erat All of Ua wl Ihave a limit as to how high a temperature they can be used to measure. The common types of temperature measuring systems wil be desenibe. ‘Dut ot al of the posse appicauans can be cluded, Aircraft temperature indicators may give readings in degrees Farenheit orn degrees Cetus Most of the temperatures given here will be in degrees Fahrenheit for east of comparison. 1, Bimetailic ‘The bimetalle temperature system $6 limited to ‘measuring temperatures up to 8 maim 0! 140" ‘The outeide air temperature gruge (OAT) oF fee alr temperature gauge is an example of the bimetale ‘system. The device that reacts to changes in tempera ture f6'a bimetallic sensor that consists of two thin strips of metal Joined together. The strips are made of diferent meiats that have diferent coefficients of expansion. The metals iron and brass are often used. ‘As the temperature changes, ane ofthe metal strips ‘wil espand or contract more than the other causing the device to bend and move the indicator pointer. is shown In igure 2-21. The two metal strips are anaes | eo Row BEFORE HEATING | | | a | wow. AFTER HEATING Flaure 2.21. an testation of he baste princile of oper ‘ton tors bimetalle temperature sensor. 6soften formed into a spiral shape so that a temperature change will cause a rotating motion of the sensor ‘tips. A typieal bimetallic outside alt temperature ‘guge ts shown So figure 2-22. This (pe Is often Seated therngh the windshield 2. Mechanical Bulb ‘The mechanical bulb utlzes the principle of the i renee in provewre af somtionl Gor mth tempore increases tomeasure temperatures. Asshown n igure 2-23, the mechanical bub system consists of bout- don cube gauge to measure pressure, a thin-walled Ub width ty ut Uae poll UF aueaounencat aul {hin tube (caplary tube) to connect them together ‘The systemis fied with a chemical ch as methyt ctorde which wil be part liquid and part gas. The ‘stem Is sealed with the proper amount of the chemical so that the change im pressure with temperature changes will gjve an accurate reading fon the burden tube gouge The meckanioal bale ‘stem is found as an oll temperature indicator System on many smaller airplanes that dont have fan clectrialaystem, A mechanieal bulb is also found Gn some ye engines were i ans compressor Inlet temperature (CIT) data to the fuel control unt. ‘The maximum temperature for this type of system 4s about 300°F. 3, Wheatstone Bridge ‘This method of measuring temperature 1s powered by electricity and United to about 300°F. The ‘Wheatstone bridge system is tlustrated in igure 2-24 ‘The bridge ciroult consists of three fixed resistors \WHEATSTONE BRIDGE-TYPE RESISTANCE THERMOMETER ‘Figure 2-22. An outside ai temperature gaugetor asmail ‘airplane. This gauge uses the bimetalic principe. 6 Figure 224. The Wheatstone bridge system is used 10 ‘measure temperatures with variable esis- tance probe.‘and one variable restr. The variable resistor Ie the {emperature probe which contains a coll of fine nickel ‘wie. As the collof wires heated, its resistance increases: ‘nd alles the current fow tn the bridge which moves ‘he needle i the gauge Blecueanaprcie alaction and repulsion will move the pointer whenever the current flow through the meter changes. A disadvantage of the Wheatstone bridge 1s that any added resistance ‘due tobad connections or any fuctuations in the system vwltage can cause inaccurate readings. For this reason, st has been largely replaced by the ratiometer 4, Ratlometer ‘The ratiometer uses the same lind of electrical power and the same kind of probe that the Wheat- ‘Stone bridge uses, The diference is in the meter ‘movement that moves the indicator pointer. The ratlometer has two opposing magnetic fields that ‘nbine to produce a resultant fleld that moves two opposing flelds so that a lower voltage applied to the system will not cause inaccurate readings. ‘The ratiometer can measure temperatures up 10 SUD. and 1s usea for ou temperauure inaicators ‘and other similar requirements. The schematic for fa ratiometer is shown in figure 2-25. 5. Thermocouples ‘When st becomes necessary to measure temper- atures of about 500°F or more the thermocouple 3 most often used. The principle of the thermo- couple is shown in figure 2-26. When a junction of two dissimilar metals 1s heated, it will produce f difference of potential or voltage. The amount ‘of voltage produced 1s proportional to the temper- ture. The terms “hot junction” and “cold junction” fe used with thermocouples. The hot junction Is ‘where the temperature measurement is being taken, ‘lle the cold function ta at the opposite end of the wires in the instrument. The voltage output of the thermocouple is a result of the temperature Aiference between the hot junction and the cold ‘punetion, It sometimes 18 necessary to compensate Figure 2-25. The creuitforaratiometer temperature sys- tem that can operate on 14 or 28 volts DC. {or any temperature sariances at the cold junction 1m order to obtain accurate readings. Only a few ‘combinations of metals are used for thermocouple hot junctions. The metals must not only withstand the high temperature being measured, but they ‘must produce a usable amount of voltage. The chart In figure 2-27 shows the three commonly used pairs of metals and their voltage output at various tem peratures. ‘The actual voltages progucea are very low, particulary at lower temperatures. This ts why the thermocouple system is not usually used for temperatures below about 400°F. The three types cof thermocouples are the iron-constantan, the cop- ‘per-constantan and the chromel-alumel, Notice that the chromel-alumel can measure much higher tem- peratures than the other two types. Thermocouple Teads are available in standard lengths with specific values of resistance. The length of a thermocouple lead should not be altered in the fel ‘An application of the thermocouple on piston engines $8 the eylinder head temperature (CHT) ‘gauge. This gauge 1s used to monitor the cooling ‘of an air-cooled engine. If only ane probe is used, {it will be installed inthe hottest running cylinder. ‘This would usually be a rear cylinder on a hor- ‘zontally opposed engine. One type of CHT probe fn gasket that goes ninder the spark plug. another type fits in a special fitting in the cylinder head, ‘These two types are shown in figures 2-28 and 2.29 respectively. It is better to install CHT probes lun all Wie cylinitae. le addition to monitoring all the eylindere, it can be used to troubleshoot some types of engine problems. Another application for the thermocouple is as an exhaust gas temper: ature (BGT) gauge. All turbine engynes have an ee ‘we VOL TARE GENERATED I ATHERMIQCOUPLE VETEMIS PROPORTIONAL TO ve TEMPERATURE DIPFERENGE BETWEEN THE TWO ENO. Floure 226. An example ofa simple thermocouple sys- {am showing the hot junction and cold Junction. orEQT gauge or gas tempersture gange because turbine engines can be severely damaged by high temperatures in the {urbine sections. A number of terms and abbreviations are used for the gas temperature gauge on turbine engues. Table Inlet temperature (TIT) refers to a system where the probes are installed ahead of the turbine ‘tages. Inter turbine temperature (ITT) means the probes are located between the different sections. of the turbine. Turbine outlet temperature (TOT) and BGT refer to measurements that have the probes installed downstream of all the turbine ‘stages. These locations and abbreviations are ‘shown in figure 2-30. Turbine engines use mul- Uple thermocouple probes that are connected in parallel to give an average temperature aa seen, in Bgures 2-31 and 2-92. Some aircraft use the term measured gas ‘nperature (MGT) for the required gas temperature Ingieator. An MGT gauge lor a ‘turbine engine helicopter is shown in figure 2-33 On reciprocating engine aircraft, the EGT gauge how 2 Aifarent prrpaee Ht le weed to manvally lea the fuel-air mixture for better economy. The ther- ‘mocouple probe is installed in an exhaust pipe and connected to a simple gauge in the cockpit. The fsctual procedure for leaning the engine will vaty from one alreraft to another, the example given here 50. 20 IRON-CONSTANTAN, 22. 6 MuLIVOLTS. 300 ato DEGREES CELSIUS 4s for purposes of illustration. When ready to set the fuc-atr mixture, the plot watches the EGT gauge as the mixture contro! knob 1s pulled back. The temperature will rise as the mixture 1s leaned be- ‘cause more efficient combusnon 1S taking place When the EGT reaches @ peak, the proper mixture for maximum economy has been reached. If only ‘one probe is installed for the EGT system, the in- ‘ication is really te average EGT forall the cylinders land they can vary. It best to have an EGT probe for each cylinder as this gives more information ‘and permits the use of EGT for frashleshoating en ‘Bne faults, When the BGT gauge is used for leaning. there is usually no redline at all on the gauge. This ‘can be seen on the gauge in figure 2-34 which gan BGT system for a reciprocating engine airplane. However, a turbo-supercharged reciprocating engine will have a redline because the turbo-supercharger can be damaged by high temperatures 1m aircraft schematics, the thermocouple wires are given standard color codes for ease of iden: lufation. The standard colors for the wires are: 2. CONSTANTAN — Yellow 3. COPPER — Red 4. CHROMEL — Waite 5. ALUMEL — Green (CHROMEL-ALUNEL, COPPER CONGTANTAN, 500 1000 ‘Figure 2.27. Vohage output versus temperature for afferent combinations of thermocouple metas. 68D. Position Indicating Systems ‘Theie are smany diferent components and systems on airraft that might have a postion indicating sys. tem, There are a relatively small number of diferent methods that are used to obtain these indications, ‘The basic operation of camman types of positon in dicating systems will be explained and some specie spplications will be discussed Come of the ube mictinnls SEH uy operate position indicating systems are: 1. Mechanical — Rods, levers, cables. etc. 2. Microswitches —Sometimes called mit switches (figure 2-25), 3. Variable Resistance — Wheatstone bridge and 4. Proximity sensors — Mainly on target, more modern sairerat. 5, Synchro Systems — Selsyn, Autosyn. Magnesyn and (CONSTANTAN) Flaw 228. A cylinder head temperature (CHT) system for a small reciprocating engine. The ther- ‘mocouple probe le in the form of 9 spark plug gasket. YeLLow EE (CONSTANTAN) RED (COPPER) Figure 2-29. A cylinder hesd temperature system thet uses a hayonet.type probe which fits Into a ‘special recess inthe cylinder head. ‘Figure 2-30. The measurement points in the turbine sec- on or turbine inlet temperature, ner bine temperature, Outlet leonperatare end exhaust gas tmperature 69AAAAIA Cy | | COCKPIT INDICATOR Figure 2.91. Turbine engine gas tempersture systems auch as the ITT gauge wee multiple probee in parallel and an amplifier to supply signals to the cockpit indicator. EGT ‘THERMOCOUPLE- ‘nope, CHROMEL-ALUMEL, WIRING HARNESS Figure 2-32. Turbine engines use multiple EGT probes of the chromet / alumel type to take an average EGT for the ‘exhaust section of the talipipe. 70‘All the systems and components in an aircraft that might have a position indicating system can be divided into two categories: those that only have “vo operating positions and those that have many an infinite number of different operating posi- tions. Some examples follow: 1. Landing Gear —2 Positions Cabin and Cargo Doors —2 Positions ‘Thrust Reversers — 2 Positions Ground Spoilers — 2 Positions ‘Trailing Edge Flaps — Many Positions 6. Flight Control Surfaces — Infinite Positions 7 Trim ‘Tahs — Infinite Positions sees On smaller aircraft, the systems that only have two operating positions most often use micros- witches. Landing year pusitiun indicators are usual- % lights that are operated by microswitches on ‘wie landing gear. This type is shown in figure 2-36. Aprobiem with microswitches is that they are prone to damage from rocks, sand, water, ete. that are thrown up onto the landing gear in service. They also have problems with arcing and burning of the ‘small contact points. For these reasons, most larger aircraft employ proximity sensors instead of micros- witches. Figure 2-37 illustrates the operation of + type of proximity sensor. The proximity sensor 18 a sealed unit that operates in conjunction with a metal target. The proximity sensor produces an electromagnetic field that is distorted when the tar- get piece of metal moves close to it. This change 48 detected by an electronic circuit to give an in- ication of gear-up, gear-down ete. The target never ‘touches the proximity sensor and there are no small vontacts to cause problems. About the only dis- vadvantages of the proximity sensor systems are that they cost more and since they use electronic circuits, adjustment is more complicated than for @ simple microswitch. On simple aliusafl, the systems that have many or an infinite number of operating positions will use mechanical or variable resistance position in- dlcaluag systems. An example of a uiechancal (rit tab position indicator is shown in figure 2-38. The ‘wheel that the pilot rotates to move the trim tab comuains a spiral groove which moves a small wire Pointer to show the position of the trim tab. The Tatiometer type variable resistance system is used. ¥@ flap position indicator on small airplanes. It orks like the ratiometer system already described ‘except that the variable resistor is moved by a part of the lap mechanism. On the more sophisticated aircraft, the systems that have many or an infinite number of operating Positions use synchros. Surface position indicators are usually found on bizjets and air carrier jets to show the flight crew the position of the fight control surlaces. These use a synchro system with the transmitter unit attached to the mechanical Unkage of the flight control surface and the receiver unit in the cockpit gauge or indicator. This type of system is shown in figure 2-39. ¥. Tachometers Most types of aircraft have at least one tachometer to indicate the entational speed af the engine Aireraft with reciprocating engines have tachometers that in- dicate the crankshaft new, This is true for engines with reduction gearing also: the tachameter gives en- gine crankshaft rev, not propeller neM. Helicopters have a tachometer for the main rotor or rotors to enable the pilot to maintain a safe rotor np. Turbine engines use tachometers that give readings in percent of row rather than actual revolutions per minute, 800 - 750 °C CONTINUOUS OPERATION 760 - 780°C TAKEOFF (5 MINUTES) | 780 °C MAXIMUM TAKEOFF 900 °C MAXIMUM FOR STARTING | (12 SECONDS) L | Figure 2-33. Some gas temperature gauges are labeled MGT for measured gas temperature. The maximum operating temperatures are often time limited for specific operations. n| 1 2 imdouete 3. PROBE ee 7 a= 5. Exiaust STACK | | | | Figure 24. The components in an EGT system for a twin-engine airplane with reciprocating engines. This instrument le sometimes referred to a » mixture indestor. (Courtesy Cessna Altera Co.) ‘Split spool turbine engines contain more than one ‘main shaft in the engine. They usually have two spools or shafts, but there are some turhine engines with three. The split spool engines will have a tachometer fr each main shaft. n the case of turbojet ‘and turbofan engines, these are referred to as the ‘compressor tach and Na 1s the high pressure comn- pressor tach. The low pressure compressor and high Dressure compressor sections can be seen in the ‘arawing ofa twin-spoot turbojet engine in ngure 2-30. ‘urboprop and turboshaft engines may use diferent ‘designations for the tachometers such as gas producer | ‘soncen Faure 2:35. A mlcroswitch Is designed so thatthe con. {act points open and close with avery ermal ‘motion ofthe plunger. n tach and power section tach. The gas producer tach fora tucbine engine helicopter shown in figure 2-41 ‘shows same fime limited permicsihle ravings above 100%. Alltachometers have red radialline to indicate ‘the maamum permissible nw, On turbine engines this redline 1s not necessarily at 100%: it could be fsluveun Ino Une 100% reli ‘Tie ien gne ‘manufacturer will establish what engine section asst 1s equal to 100%. On one particular model of CF34 turbofan engine, a reading of 100% Na is equal to 1/484) hose, Some reeiprocating engine tachometers ‘wil have a red are which denotes a range of engme speeds that is prohibited due to vibration problems at those rotational speeds. A triple tach for a twin- engine helicopter is shown in figure 2-42. Its three tachometers in one to give readings for the power sections of both engines and the main rotor 4. Mecnanical rachometers Most small general aviation alrcraft use simple mechanical tachometers that utilze a flexible drive cable similar to the speedometer drive cable in a ‘ear, This flexible dive cable is connected to a deve fear in the engine accessory section and the other fend fs connected to the tachometer in the cockpit. Older etjle tachometere used rotating Hyoreghte to ‘move the pointer in the tachometer instrument as lustrated in figure 2-43. Later mechanical ‘achometers use a rotating permanent magnet and frag cup wo move une pomter. a tachometer drag ‘cap is shown in figure 2-44, The small permanent/IPCRAET INTHE Af, LANOING GEAR 1S DOWN AND LOCKED, GEAR SELECTOR SWITCH 8 J ‘vere 2-26. Te landing gear indicating and warning system Tor @ smau axplane. A numer OF microsWacTES we wttized. aFigure 257. The operation (Courtesy TARGET NOT IN PROXIMITY —— avec i or werau ThaGer (/ fseinzaror] sugcrnome | DETECTOR 3 = acnefic FieLo ‘PROXIMITY SWITCH waa "ancer proxy —— ee sacu oir 2 =f Hosciearon) ey : e 3 L 7 C=} oerecron]} |= (era DUCED EOOY CURRENTS) PROKIMITY SHITE sensrrive SURFACE PROXIMITY ~ = ~. ‘wire TVPICAL PROXIMITY SWITCH INSTALLATION (OSE GeAR WEIGHT ON WHEELS) ‘4 proximity sensor instafled on the landing gear system of a corporate jet ‘Canadair Group, Bombardier Inc.)iagnet is fastened tothe end ofthe dive mechaniam ‘90 that it produces a rotating magnetic eld. Sur- rounding the magnet isa dragcup made of aluminum, ‘As the magnet rotates, it sets up eddy currents in ‘he aluminum drag cup and the magneve Aelds of the eddy currents interact with the rotating fleld of the permanent magnet. The interaction of the two Aelds causes a torque force or drag force to be applied to the drag cup which rotates against spring tension to move the pointer. The main advantage ofthe drag ‘cup tachometer is that there Is no direct mechanical feonneetion between the drive cable and the pointer ‘mechanism, This makes it smoother in operation and less ikely to break f some minor binding occurs. 2, Tachometer Generators ‘This type of tachometer system uses an electrical generator that is mechanically driven by gears at engine and which transmits electrical energy to ‘ue cockpit inatrament fe give am indlontion of f06e There are both AC and DC tach generator systems, but the DC type ie not found on modern alreraft ‘The DC type had a small DC generator on the engine ang. cookic paige wine aden We vole atu of the generator a8 Rr, The major disadvantage of this (ype of tach generator is that any fault which ‘caused lower than normal voltage would result fm an error in the indicated tra. The AC tach generator clminates that problem by using an AC generator ‘on the engine and an AC synchronous motor in the Indicator. An AC tach generator system is shown fm figure 2-45. The primary determining factor in the motor nis the frequency ofthe AC that powers [RUDDER TRIM INDICATOR N08 A A lower vollage caused by loose connections for ‘exarople would not have much affect on the indicated rem. Both types of tach generator systems use per- ‘manent magnets so that they are totally independent Of the eleciries syste of Ue aicsat 9, Electronic Tachometers ‘There are several different types of electronic some reciprocating engines is operated by a special set of points in the engine magneto. This set of contact points opens and closes like the normal pointe, but only supplies signals tor the tach system, ‘The points in the magneto are connected by wiring to the cockpit instrument. Since the frequency of ‘opening of the painta ia propartional to the engine fist, an electronic elroult measures the frequency ‘at which the points open and close and moves the polnter to indicate the proper new of the engine. wo suguuy amierent xmas of elecuume tachometers are found on turbine engines, The first type is often used as a fan speed sensor to measure the wa of the fan section of a turbofan engine. Figure 2-46 shows this type. It uses a sensor which contains a coll of wire that generates a magnetic field. The sensor is mounted in the shroud around ‘the fan. As each fan blade goes by. it cuts the field of the coll and this Is sensed and measured bby an electronic circuit. The frequency at which the fan blades cut across the field of the sensor te dieeetly proportionel ta The fan oot ‘Another type of electronic tach used on turbine engines has a gear driven shaft on the engine which turns a rotor with a permanent magnet embedded {nits im. The sensor contains a coll which located close to the rotating magnet. Each time the Meld fof the rotating permanent magnet cuts across the call, it induces a voltage. The frequency of this ‘Signal is measured by an electronic circuit and tuted to position the pointer for the correct mat Indication. This type of tachometer Is used tn figure 9.47 for the No tent fora large turbofan engine. F. Oil Pressure Indicators ‘The oll pressure gauges on smal aircraft are usually ‘me eirect reading type. The oll pressure line bs cut ‘nected into an oll passage in the engine and transmits ‘that pressure through tubing and hose tothe cockpit ‘mstrument which contains a bourdon tube to move ‘the pointer. Larger aireraft such as corporate fur ‘boprops, bizjets and air carrer jets will use instru ‘ments that do not rely on having aids under pressure {a the cockolt area. These aircraft may use a bourdon, ‘be or alllar pressure sensor, butt wil be installed s“\ENG. 1 ~ ENG. 2 Np Np %X10 70% - 102% CONTINUOUS OPERATION 102% - 104% TAKEOFF POWER (5 MINUTES) 104% MAXIMUM. TAKEOFF 105% ONE ENGINE INOPERATIVE (0 MINUTE: LIMIT) Figure 2-42. Twinengine helicopters often use 2 triple tachometer that provides indications for ‘Dot angines and tne maln rotor. The engine ‘pts Np for twin spool engines since the {naication is for the power turbine section. | oo ee eee oe Le (2-2 MINUTE Liner) ‘cockpit gauges by electrical signals from a synchro & Seer ee Tonia iouamiacsanapeioape termine mien Ryu dss oa Retealacnmenh eet te te Span wi ata pn teeter emomepanter, eS wih a be once Te tasacapeererss | Sicrehe occas reas coaemaes ceeend 108.5% MAXIMUM ONE ENGINE INOPERATIVE.‘SURFACE POSITION INDICATOR oc & : ELEVATOR , . RUDDER ‘Figure 2-39. A surface position indicator system forthe fight control surfaces. Synchro tranamiters and receivers are ‘ased to transmit the information trom the contol surfaces tothe cockptindeator.ft FLEXIBLE ‘RIVE. SHAFT 3 SECTOR GEAR vena Figure 2-43, Older type of mechanical tachometer that used the centritugal force of spinning flyweights. { } { { Figure 2-44. The permanent magnet and dag cup of # ‘modem mechanical tachometer. G. Torquemeters ‘Torquemeters are used to give an indication of the torque beg produced by an engine or tie (orque ‘being delivered tothe main rotor drive ofahelicopter. ‘Turboprop airplanes and aircraft with turboshaft engines will have a torquemeter installed because itis the best way to measure the power being produced by these types of turbine engines. Figure 7” 2-498 atriple torquemeter for atwin engine helicop- ter. It supplies readings ofthe torque for each engine and the main rotor drive. Helicopters often have a torquemeter that 1s lo- cated at the rotor drive gearbox to indicate the torque ‘thats driving the main rotor. Large radial reciprocat- ing engines Hike thoes found in Tf and Comeate 240s also had torquemeters to accurately measure ‘the power developed by the engines. ‘There are several techniques used to measure torque for an alreratttorquemeter instrument. One technique is to put sensors on a driveshaft, lke ‘thematn rotor drive shaft ofa helicopter. The sensors. ccan be seen at the bottom of the main rotor drive ‘shaft im figure 2-50 whieh illustrates this principle. ‘The sensors measure the amount of twist In the shaft which 1s caused by the torque force. The ‘Acinic wignale teem the weneors are preeeeced ‘and used to position the cockpit indicator. Another ‘technique which is used relies on a measurement ‘of torque pressure. The sensor for this type of system. Jy a sual! off Med cylinder yet a piston in it ‘The sensor would be located in the reduction gear- ‘box. The reduction gearbox for a turboprop engine 4s shown in figure 2-51. The sensor 1s installed ‘n the reduction gearbox so that the torque reaction. {force ts applied to the piston and creates a build-up ‘of pressure that is proportional to the torque fore. Figure 2-82 shows another example of this type ‘of torque sensor. The torque pressure is measured ‘and causes the instrument polnter to show thecorsesponiing torque reading. The cork indicator for a torquemeter system may use a number of fiferent units of measure. Those units of measure most often seen are horsepower. Pi, foot-pounds aml perecnt H, Engine Pressure Ratio Indicators ‘This type of instrument ts used on some kinds of turbojet and turbofan airplane engines. Those engines buat by Pratt & Whitney and Rolls Royce toe an engine presenire ratio gauge (EPR) as a fengine instrument. Jet engines butt by GB and Garrett usually do not have an EPR gauge. but use the Ni tachometer in its place. As its name lnpies, Use engine pressure ratio gauge indicates the ratio of two diferent pressures measured on ‘the engine. The two pressures are most often called Pu and Pix. The total inlet pressure at the front ‘the engine 1 Mla. The total outlet pressure at the aft end of the engine is Pty. Figure 2-53 U- lustrates the location of the probes and the dl: ferential pressure transducer. These pressures are called total pressures because the probes measure both static and dynamic pressure. The probes ruuxcouPuna. “agiougreR | fnerate Hike pitot tubes since they meassire ram pressure or total pressure in the airstream. The ‘two probes are connected by tubing to a transducer mounted on the engine. The transducer is a dif- {erential preaeure devier thet produces an electrical ‘output related tothe rato of Pty/Pt. The transducer ‘may use a synchro transmitter that is connected to the synchro receiver in the cockpit instrament. tne Pg probe in the Iront of the engane 1s prone 1 fcing so st includes a heating system (o prevent Dlockage by ice. The transducer and cockpit gauge for a typical EPR system ts shown in figure 2-54. Engine pressure rato gauges often include an index ‘mark which can be set manually by the plot. When the correct power setting for takeofthhas been deter ‘mined, a knob 1 used to set the bug or index mark to the correct value on the face of the in- strument. During takeoff, the power is set by ning ‘up the EPR gauge pointer withthe bug. This makes We socier to set the correct leva! of angine power for takeot, I. Manifold Pressure Gauges Manifold pressure gauges are only found on certain reciprocating engines where they are required to 1 | DRE GEAR Rao i | I "WHICH DRIVES AMAGNETICORAG TACHOMETER MAGNET. jq LL | 1 I PICKUP. ‘Sot ——~a PERMANENT waaner >< can ofiven — @ noron '247. Tachometer eystem forthe high pressure compressor of turbofan engine. The gear-ariven rotor from the ‘ecessory section has 2 permanent magnet which Induces signals na pick-up col. (STRUMENT PANEL) ‘OIL PRESSURE TRANSUITTER ENGINE) ROTOR oro, oememin Vat von femme | | | 2 li -- [~ vaasasescar ae | inal ver == . As powen ‘igure 248. An oll pressure Indicating system fora large airplane. aigure 249. A triple torquometer for a twin-engine helicopter. Te torque for both engines and the man rotor ie given on the same instrux ment with saadings in pareent. | ier Harr MAIN. ROTOR DRIVE SHAFT RIVE GEAR OT a accurately set engine power. Aircraft with super. charged engines and alreraft with constant-speed propellers will have manifold pressure gauges, The ‘mantfold pressure gauge measures the absolute Drenaire in inches af mercury at a specific point {in the induction system of the engine. Figure 2.65, ‘shows the location of the manifold pressure (MAP) ‘measurement for a radial supercharged engine. Fig. fm the induction system of a turbocharged horizon. tally opposed reciprocating engine. The pressure {is measured downstream of the carburetor or fuel ccontrot unit and downstream of the supercharger Af s0 equipped. The pressure measuring port in the induction system is connected by tubing and hose to a bellows or diaphragm sn the instrument, Since the pressure in the induction system Is below ambient pressure at idle or low power settings, the use of absolute pressure eliminates the eon- fresion af having hnth pasitive and negative numbers ‘on the gauge. Atle. the reading on the MAP gauge wil be about 10 in. Hg. At full throttle with an tunsupercharged engine at sea level, the reading Wt be about 80 ins 11g, Wilh an wnowpercharged ‘engine the fall throtde reading wil always be below ‘ambient pressure because of friction and pressure PLANET ‘CRANKSHAFT (eum) anneNS y; RING ceaR—“ TORQUE PRESSURE ee ‘GAUGE ‘lowe 2:52. The torquemeteraystem fora turboprop engine. The rng gear ofthe planetary gear seis prevented from circumferenceJoss in the induction system. A supercharged engine ‘wil have a redline on the MAP gauge to indicate ‘the maximum permissible manifold pressure. The redline might range from 35-75 in. lig depending fon the type of engine J. Primary Power Setting Instruments ‘The spectic powerplant instruments installed in a partclar aircraft wil vary considerably depending fn the type of powerplants it has and what kinds af information the pot needs to operate the engines Propery. The most important kinds of powerplant {instruments have been described and some infor mation has been given concerning what types of ‘powerplants would se each ind of inctrament. Corder fo gain a better understanding the application of powerplant instruments to diferent powerplants, the primary pover setting instruments used wt various (ypes of engines will be described. reciprocating engine with afxed-pitch propel: ‘woes the engine tachometer ao the primary power setting instrument. This 1s normally the only in- strument available on aircraft with this engine and propeller combination that can be used 0 deter- Imune tie power setting. ine xea-puten o1aae angle {or the propeller 1s chosen so that full throttle ‘can be used for takeoff without over-speeding the ‘engine. When a constant-speed propeller is fitted on a reciprocating engine, the tachometer alone cannot bbe used to accurately set engine power. The con: stant speed propeller will automatically vary the blade angle to maintain a selected RIM. read mH Pe Py Figure 2453. The engine pressure ratio system fora Jet engine. aFairly large movements of the throttle lever can pe made without affecting the engine new, so that the tachometer by tselfcannot be used to set engine power, The primary power setting instrument for {hs Ope of aircraf is the manifold pressure gauge, “Acrulse power setting would be made by rst setting the desired engine Rew with the propeller control end then adjuating. the manifald pressure gunge othe desired power setting. Intormation is avatiable In the Pilot's Operating Handbook so the pilot can determine what settings will produce a given percent of power for cruise. Common cruise settings would be 55, 65 or 75 percent of maximum engine power. Supercharged reciprocating engines also use the ‘manifold pressure gauge as the primary power set- fing inetmement WIRING CONNECTION [O / Sears . PROBE ‘Figure 2-54. Tho EPR gauge measures engine pressure rato which ls the rao of Ptr /PlaItprovides indeations ofthe thenet hang panded hy heat ar hechatan angina pentane CARBURETOR AR ‘TeamenaTune ou.‘The primary power setung instrument for aircraft with turboshaft and turboprop engines is the tor- |quemeter. Engine am is not agood measure of engine ower because of the way these engines operate ‘The gas temperature gauge 1s 8 very important in strument for these types of englnes, The pilot needs to monitor the gas temperature reading to prevent damage to the engine by excessive heat. Turboshaft ‘ana tirnoprop engines are often given a dat Faung for the maximum permissible engine power, For ex: ‘ample, an engine might be rated at 575 st (shaft Jhorsepower) from sea level to 20.000 fl. This is in cffect a derating of the engine at lower altitudes. ‘The maximum power the engine can safely produce at low altitudes 1s limited by the strength of the rednetion gearho At higher allitces, the engine 4s less efficient and must work harder to produce horsepower. This results in higher engine tempera- tures; therefore, at higher altitudes, the maximum ‘He Ueatle oiling Uetesunioeat Uy ve real ‘un the gas temperature gauge. The torquemeter Is the primary power setting instrument because it hhas a direct relationship to engine horsepower. The ‘maximum power setting that can be safely used fs determined by the strength of the gearbox at Jow altitudes and the gas temperature at higher altitudes. ‘The primary power setting instrument for turbojet ‘and turbofan engines depends on who manufae- tured the engine. Some of these engines use the [EPR gauge and others use the N: tachometer as ‘the primary power setting instrument. There are ‘some advantages and disadvantages to each method and the choice of which one to use is based on conventional weage ‘Turbojet and turbofan engines made by Pratt & Whitney and Rolls Royce use the EPR gauge as the primary power setting instrument. Those en- fines made by GE and a few other companies use the N; tach as the primary power setting instrument. ‘There 1s a standard placement of primary engine Anatraments for virally all aie oarrier ot airplane ‘The most important engine instruments are in- stalled inthe center ofthe instrument panel toward the top. The primary power setting instrument wil rae, at worms | ‘Figure 2-56. Manifold pressure Is measured downstream of the supercharoer and downstream ofthe throttle plate in the fuet-air control unit for a turbo-eupercharged, luerinected reciprocating engine. (Courtesy Cessna Airerat Co)be the one at the top of this stack of engine in- struments, Ihe £4% gauge will Be at the top of ‘the stack on some air carrer jets, and the Ny tach on other airplanes. Figure 2-57 shows the primary engine instraments for an ait carzir jet with Pratt & Whitney engines. Figure 2-58 shows the primary ‘engine instruments for an air carrier jet with GE ‘engines. K. Vibration Indicators Areraft with turbine engines often have a vibration Indicator system which monitors vibration from the ‘engines. Any significant imbalance in a turbine en: gine can cause serious damage due to the Very high rotational speeds of the rotors. Vibration anaed hy an imbalance ar ather factors is ndleated to the crew in the cockpit so that they can take appropriate action. The vibration indicator system. shown in fgure 2-59 Is typical of the type found alee Jet ai plates Tae scans ne pavedeer ie ‘erystal which produces an electrical signal when st is vibrated. This signal 1s sent to a signal con- ditioner and den to the cockpit instrument to pro- ‘vide an indication of the amount of vibration at the sensor location on the side of the engine. L. Logic Circuits and Digital Systems Logie circuits and microprocessors have made pos- sible some of the very sophisticated electronic in- struments and similar systems on modern airerat. They are used for many different applications from telatwely simple switching functions to complex computer aystems. Certain baste principles are in- volved In these advanced systems, and these will be covered first. 1. Binary Numbers The binary number system and binary codes are the method used by logie gates to transmit and Process information. The word dgtal refers to the ee ofbiary naubers and codes. A spe exampe 4f the concept of digital and analog type signals 4 shown in figure 2-60. The values of voltage and Gurrent in the circuits represent the digital and ‘ualog systems, In a cirut with a variable resistor, are an infinite number of diferent values current flow. Another example of this would Pea simple fuel quantity system that uses fat ted variable resistor. The resistor moves in {EY small increments so that there are an inflate Riber of diferent curent ows that can occur ‘he concept of digital values. The switeh Is either fon or off with no in-between settings, This follows the binary or digital signal system because only two different values are used. The two conditions 1m a binary or digital circuit are called 1 and 0, or high and Iow, or on and off The binary number system is a base 2 number system. The decimal number system that we are ‘more familiar with isa base 10 system. The decimal systea uses 19 auterent aigus to mage up numbers. Tye 10 numbers are 0 through 9. By showing some examples of converting numbers from binary to decimal and vice versa, the binary system will be better understood, ‘The procedure for converting number from binary to decimal is tlustrated in figure 2-61. We start by writing down the binary number ao shown by row (A). Then just above each binary digit, the base 2 equivalent for that digit is written as shown by row (B). In row (C), the decimal equivalents are fenterea siarang at the Tignt and working back to the left, Notice that the decimal equivalents start with 1 at the right and are doubled each digit as Yyou move toward the left. Next you look at the binary Gigs in row (A) and wherever there is a binary 1 you bring down the decimal equivalent as shown in row (D). Where there is a binary zero in row (AL you do mot bring down any derimal equivalent since binary 2ero and decimal zero have the same value. Finally, the dectmal equivalents are added ‘up to produce the decimal equivalent of 77, ‘ne proceaure tor converting a decimal number tobinary willbe illustrated by converting the decimal ‘number 77 to its binary equivalent, The technique {or converting from decimal to binary consists of fa series of divisions by the number two. We start by setting up a table with three columns as shown 1m figure 2-62. The frst step is to divide 7 by 2 and enter the quotient and remainder in the proper column. The quotient is then brought down each time and divided by 2 and the values recorded. ‘The process Is repeated until the quotient is zero. ‘The igs i die sentalutder conan are read fom ‘the botiom up and this willbe the binary equivalent. ‘There are some terms used with binary numbers that refer to how the binary digts are grouped. For example, in the binary number { 101 110 |, there are two sets of three digits each. In digital or binary terminology. we would say that there arc three bits im each byte, A bit te a binary dig, while a byte sa group of bits together. As an analogy, we might compare them to letters and words. The previous ample would be like a group of words with three Jeuiers in each word. Thus 18 WHat 1S meant BY BIAry codes, how the binary digits are grouped. a‘Figure 257. Powerplant Instruments for an alr carior jot with Prat and Whitney engines that utize an EPR gauge. EGT ENG °ex100 EGT ENG °ex100| | | 0 LB/Hx 1000™: FE ‘igure 2-58. Powerplant instrument yout tor ana carriejt with G.E. engines and the Ns tachs atthe top ofthe stack. a9‘Two common types af binary codes that are used vith loge circuits are Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) ‘and Octal. An example of BCD coding would be { 1001 1101 1110 }. The rule for BCD is that there are four hits im each byte. An example nf Oren enti 4s { 100 111 101 |. This is the same as an earler ‘example. There are three bits in each byte. The reason. ‘that standard coding systems such as these are used. {8 that it ie more effcient than having a variable ‘number of bits in each byte. The Octal code gets ‘ts name from the fact that there are eight diferent ‘decimal equivalent numbers that can be encoded in. ‘-taree bit byte. Yor example, UUV is equal to decimal © and 111 is equal to decimal 7. 2. Logic Gates ‘Loge gates can be thought ot as the most simple ‘and basic building blocks for digital control systems. ‘Figure 2462. An example of converting 2 number trom ‘decimal to binary notation. A logle gate uses binary signals as its inputs ‘and outputs. It is a semi-conductor device which ls manufactured using techniques sail to those used to produce diodes and transistors. Since logic gates are found in all types of systemas on modern aircraf, its useful to know something about them ‘so at thearfucuon mn a cireurt can Be underst004, ‘There are six basic kinds of logie gates that can ‘be kdentified by their standard schematic symbols ‘Al of them have certain things in common: they ‘may have different numbers of inputs, but cach logic gate has just one output. Logic gates can abe thought of as spectal types of electronie switches, fm faet, they are often used {0 perform svitehing functions. For simplicity, logic gates with no more than two inputs will be described here. a. AND Gate ‘The AND gate is shown in figure 2-63 along with {ts truth table. The truth table shows all the possible rambinatinne of tnpuite and the eutpit that ll be produced for each set of inputs. The truth table ‘can be explained with a statement: the AND gate produces a binary 1 output only when all inputs fie Dinay 1. The mane of is gic gate cat ae it easier to remember the truth table, b. OR Gate “The OR gute fe shown in figure 2-64. The statement which describes the truth table is: the OR gate produces a 1 output when any input is 1. Notice that in the truth table for the OR gate, the input Tuoinations are sted i tie same order as they Were for the AND gate. This makes it easier to remember the truth tables. All logic gates with two Inputs have the inputs Usted in the same order. ©. INVERT Gate ‘The Invert gate is shown in figure 2-65. This 4s very simple logic gate, t only has one input and the output ts always the opposite of the input. ‘The Invert gate simply inverts any signal that 18 applied to it. Notice the small open circle on the output side of the Invert gate svmbol, This will be tsed in combination with the baste shapes al- ready covered to identify other kinds of logic gates. 4. NAND Gate ‘The NAND gate 19 shown in figure 2-66. Nouce the small open circle on the output side. This dis tinguishes i fom the AND gate and also tells how 4k works. The NAND gate is Just in AND gate with the ouputs inverted. This can be stated as: the [NAND gate produces a 0 output only when all the inputs are 1 ‘e. NOR Gate ‘The NOR gate is shown in figure 2-67. The NOR gate Is an OR gate with the outputs inverted. The ‘umn table can be described as: me AUK gate produces a 0 output when any input 181. Notice the small open circle on the output side which distinguishes it from the OR gate. £. EXCLUSIVE OR Gate ‘The Exclusive OR gate is shown in gure 2-66. ‘The truth table can be explained by the statement: the Exclusive OR gate produces a1 output whenever the inputs are dissimilar. It is the only loge gate ‘with two inputs that has equal numbers of ones land zeros in the outputs ealuma ‘An airerat schematic using lie gates is shown fm figure 2-75. It is evident that in order to ‘Figure 2-63. The AND gate and its ruth table. ‘Figure 2.66. The NAND gate and its ruth table. Figure 2-64. The OR gate and its truth table. Figure 2467. The NOR gate and ts truth table.‘understand and troubleshoot this alreraft system, ‘he fechmican shouls be famiar with togte gates ‘and thetr ruth tables. 4 Amplifier or Butfes ‘The buffer oF amples Ss shown ln gute 2-09. 1 produces no change in the logic state of the ;nput signal. It used to amplify or increase signal strength. It can also be used to Isolate one part ofa circuit from another part of the same cireult fr from some other unit 1, Positive and Negative Logic Lang yates uve Ulferet values of vole to represent binary ones and zeras. The terms pasiive and negative logic refer to whether the vollage value for a binary 11s more postive or more negative than the voltage value for binary 0. Figure 2-70(A) shows examples of positive loge. The voltage value for binary 1 is mote positive for Tess negative) than the value for ‘inary 0. Fiture 2-70(8) shows examples of negative we which Is the opposite sttustian. 3. Integrated Cireuits The evolution of electronic circuit technology $8 shown in figure 2-71(A) and figure 2-71(8), For many years, the vacuum tube represented the state of {he aft in delicate contral of electron flaw for radios and early computers, The development of the tran- ‘sistor m the 1960s allowed much smaller and more ‘efficient electronic components to be made. ‘The transistor was made from a semi-conductor miterial ike silicon or germanium. In the 1970s, the integrated circuit was invented. An integrated with the equivalent of many transistors on it. It was no longer necessary to manufacture transistors one ata time m individual units. Since the snvention (oF the integrated circuit, the technology has ad- vanced rapidly by crowding more and more tran- ‘sistors onto this small chip of siieon or germanium {ne wires connect the chip tothe outer pins.‘The term microprocessor refers to an integrated circuit that has the equivalent of Uiousands of tran- sistors on one tiny chip of silicon. The microproces: sor has made possible the widespread use of ‘computer controls for caro, radio, and in alrplanice ‘as well. The logic gates that we have been discussing fare nol manufactured one at a time. Logie gates fare contained within integrated circuits, Integrated ‘areuits vary considerably in complexity. Simple in tegrated circuits that contain 6 or & logic gates cean be purchased for about 25 cents, The most complex integrated circuits are those called ‘microprocessors, which would have the equivalent of tiousands of logic gates on one chip. A schematic representation of the logie gates in a simple in- tegrated cireuit is chown in figure 2-72, Integrated eireults are manufactured from silicon, that has been specially processed. The circutt that ‘will be placed onto the silicon is drawn with great ‘curacy. The circuit drawing 1s then shrunk to small size using techniques similar to those for reducing a photograph. The circuit tracings are transferred to the chip of silicon by etching therm into the chip. The small chip of silicon 1s then ‘sealed in a housing of plastic or ceramic. The in- tegrated circult has connector pins along the sides tocary sigaals to and from the small chip of nllcon, within. Figure 2-71(B) shows these features of an Integrated circuit with very fine wires connecting the chip to the outer contact pins along the sides. One of the goals when designing integrated cir- cuits 1s to make the chip as small as possible. (On a very high speed microprocessor, the time it 4 takes eleetrnns ta mowr the width of the ehip limite the speed of computation Integrated circults are divided into categories based on thetr complexity. The four categories nor ‘mally reterred to are 1. Small seale integration (SSH) 2, Medium scale integration (MSD) ©. bege ovale dntugration (LON) 4. Very Large scale integration (VLSI) Tra digtal system has many diferent integrated circuits that are connected to each other. they must bbe compatible with each other. Integrated circuits ‘that use the same values of voltage for binary ones and zeros and operate at similar speeds are said tw be in the same family. Two of the more common families are TTL (transistor-transistor logic) and ‘CMOS (complimentary metal oxide semi-conductor) _ Tie TTL family or instance, uses poste le ju bmary 1 = +8¥ and binary 4. Dip Standards Integrated circuits (ICs) are manufactured tn stand- ard sizes and shapes. Tis means that ICs made bby diferent companies can be installed in the same ‘way and simpliles replacement. The DIP (dual inline package) standard concerns the numbering of the ‘connector pins and the shape and size of the in- tegrated circuit. A typical DIP integrated circuit 1s, shown in figure 2-72, With the notch at the top, and then up the right side. The spacing of the pins ‘ts the standard pattern. The total number of pins vvarles from about 8 to more than 40 depending fon the compleally uf Wie lteyraied eircall. Loge gates can be used for many diferent purposes. The ‘smaller ones can be used as high speed switches. Adders and subtractors are used in a computer ‘to perform mathematical calculations. Clocks are loge gates that supply a set frequency to synchronize ‘the operation of fferent units. Latches and fip-ops are used for memory functions. A typteal compisier Contains many integrated elreults that perform a variety of fonctions such as those mentioned here. 5. ARINC 429 Digital Standards ‘The latest air carrier Jets bave many different com= puters and digital systems on board the aircraft. ‘These many digital eystems must have a rapid and ‘lfcient way to communicate uoing binary coded ‘Signals. ARINC 429 is the standard for Digital In- formation Transfer Systems that is used on these ‘airplanes. This standard specifies the use of a dual ‘gia! data bus where the various units connected will recelve messages on both sections of the busbut only transmit on one of them. The type of mes- sage transmission is serfal which means diferent messages are sent in a series one after the other. The messages are separated by time intervals. This Industry standard also speciies what coding sys- tems will be used such as binary, binary coded decimal and discrete, The standard length of an (RING 490 word le 29 ite ae shaw tn Agere 2.73, The use of ARINC 429 by the equipment ‘manufacturers permits the airlines and other users to purchase electronic equipment from different sources and iow that the diferent units will be compatible with each other 6. Digital Aircraft Systems ‘The trond im the decign of modern aircraft and aircraft systems is to make greater use of digital fireuits and digital signals because of the ad- vantages they have over older style analog systems. Sutomated monitoring and control systems. ‘Some of the fundamental concepts involved in the design of electronic systems for current produc- ‘ion alreraft are 1. The use of proximity sensors to replace mieroswitches, 2. The ae of tranatotora to replace potentiom ters, relays ete 8. Designing equipment to At io standard size LRUS (line replaceable units) 44. increased use oH (bustin test equipment. 5. Computer controls for navigation, engines, sys- tems instruments, ete 6. Electronic instruments (CRTs! to replace elec- tro-mechanteal instruments and displays 7. LEDs and LCDs employed for lighted displays ‘that replace older style displays and control. ‘The use of computer monitoring systems ike EICAS ‘nas permitted the elimination ofa fight crew member (on many aircraft, The fight engineer is replaced by the sophisticated computer monitoring systems and automatic control systems to create what 1s called the two-man cockpit in aireraft such as the Boeing 747-400 and McDonnell Douglas MD-11. ‘more efficient tstallation and maintenance of aircraft equipment. Many of the LRUs contain BITE systems which can be used. to troubleshoot ‘robles and Kentily autty LXUS tor replacement Maintenance technicians ill need to be very familar with the atreraft systems so that they ean {do-a better job of troubleshooting ané repair, and ‘20 that the numberof false removals of good LRUs ‘can be reduced. M. Takeoff Warning Systems A takeoff warning system is designed to sound ‘a warning if the fight crew tries to takeoff in ‘an airplane with the flaps or other important sys~ ‘Air cartier Jets will have takeol? warning systems while most simpler aircraft will not. The eritical ‘tems that are monitored by the takeoff warning, system are. 1, Piteh trim or stabilizer trim 2. Speed brake 1 Leading edge ope and clate 4, Trailing edge flaps A schematic of a typical takeoff warning system 4s shown in figure 2-74, The two series switches are on the throttles and landing gear. When there Js weight on the wheels and the throttles are ad- vanced for takeoff, both of these switches will be owes evres ee | aaee 2 { : ( | aD { | i 5 q {closed. If any of the parallel switches is closed, a takeoff warning will be initiated, ‘A more detailed schematic ofa take warning sys- tem is shown in figure 2-75, Notice the use of loge (gate symbols en this relatively almplealreraR system, ‘There have been aircraft accidents caused by the failure of the takeoff warning system and an attempted takeoff with one of the critical systems Set improperly. It isan important system that should bbe inspected regularly and maintained properly to give warnings when needed. N. Angle of Attack Indicators ‘The angle of ack madicator 1 a system that ges ‘an instrument indication in the cockpit of the angle of attack forthe wings of the airplane. Angle of attack 4s the ange between the chord tine of an arf and the relalve wind. The angle of attack ‘instrument NUMBER 1 THROTTLE ‘ADVANCED ed i} ij NUMBER 2 THROTTLE "ADVANCED SuaTs. WOT IN TAKEOFF POSITION EXTENDED NOT IN THE GREEN BAND la AIRCRAFT ON THE GROUND { ‘GROUND | ‘SENSING. RELAY A, sus Bar PITcH TRIM 'SPEEDBRAKE a Z THROTTLE WOW | SwiTcH SWITCH LE: FLAPS: | HORN . Figure 2-74. A simpliied schematic ofa takeott warning system. Neen NOT IN TAKEOFF POSITION if 4 pou cA, HORIZONTAL STABILIZER TRIM NOTE: SWITCH LABELS SHOW THE SWITCH CLOSED LOGIC. AND) TO TAKEOFF WARNING HORN Figure 2-75. The takeof warning system for an air carrier jet airplane. Logic gate symbols are often found on alrraft ‘schematics. 96cam be very useful in critical fight conditions where ‘maximum performance must be employed. During landing and takeoff from short runways and in an encounter with wind shear, the angle of attack in- Srument can allow more precise contol of the farplane, There are two common types of sensors used for AOA systems. The first type is a small vane fon a pivot that Is installed on the forward fuselage f the arrprane. ims type can ve seen as a part computer of the stall warning system shown in figure 2-76. Angle of attack sensors can be used with a stall ‘warning system. an AOA gauge, or both. The vane rotates to all itself with the relative wind and this {formation ie transmitted to. the cockptt with ‘synchro system where t moves a pointer an the AOA. ‘instrument. The second type uses a sensor which 4s a tube with two slots that projects out Into the fursweam, normally mom ie frward Misclage TS LEFT ADA VANE ‘ransbUceRS NOATOUTBOARDS ‘yore -r0. 1n@ sta warning system ror @ corporate jet aipiane iat employs vane-ype angle-oratiaex sensors. (Courtesy Canedair Group, Bombardier inc) ”type of probe, along with the ADA indicator. shown. sn igure 2-77. The two slots in the probe are connected to two chambers. As the angle of attack changes, the relative pressure in the two slots changes alang withthe pressuses i the alt chambers, The diference fn air pressure rotates a vane in the unit inside the fuselage which is connected by synchro tothe cockpit ‘instrument. The units displayed on the cockpit in- strument face can be a percent or decimal nurabers that indicate the angle of attack. The reading of 100% 0 1.0 woul alice lalla of lack, 9 Ose pilot can readily determine if safe margin is being ‘matntained from the stall angle-of attack. ©. Stall warning systems A stall warning system is required for all modern airplanes. Several of the common types will be Aesertbed, but they all rely on some measurement of angle of attack to activate the stall warning sys- tem, The airspeed of the airplane cannot be used to operate a stall warning system because the steplane coun tall many different alrspecals. Ant airplane will stall at a higher airspeed in a steep ‘bank than it wall in level fight because some of the wing lift is being used to make the airplane ‘urn. The airplane will stall at the same angle of attack in both straight and turning Might, so AOA ‘a better indicator for stall warning than airspeed, ‘The stall warning cyelom found om many alder airplanes used a vibrating eed and required no out- side power source. Figure 2-78 shows this type of system. A small hole in the leading edge of the wang fy connected By tubing w a reed and born near the cockpit. At high angles of attack close to a stall, a low pressure or suction is produced at the opening fn the leading edge and this pulls air through the reed to make It vibrate and produce a molse. (On later small atrplanes, a vane operated switch 1s located on the leading edge and this switch 18 closed by the upward movement of the vane at Inigh angles of attack. This system uses DC power tooperate the stall warning horn Figure 2-79 shows, ‘this type of stall warning sensor. “Modern igh performance airplanes use an AOA probe ‘a5 previously described which Is connected to a stall ‘warning circuit. These alrplanes usually have several cother sensors connected to the stall warning crcult ‘or computer. Sensors for Nap and slat position are used to gle an accurate stall warning for any fight condition. Most jt airplanes have a stick shaker as part ofthe stall warning system. This device actually shakes or vibrates the control column to warn the pilot of an approaching stall. The stick shaker can be seen at the left side of gure 2-76, P. Annunciators Other than simple single-engine airplanes, most aircraft have an annunclator nanel which groups {ogether a number of diflrent indicator ligits for a variety of aircraft systems and equipment. Thereare usually three categories of annunciator indications ‘based on how important the information is to the flight crew. Warnings are the most serious and nor: rally activate a red light, For very serious conditions. ike fires. sound warning is also given. Caution ‘annuneiators are usually amber in color. Status or spectal purpose annunciators may be white or some ther color lights. ifthe airplane has a large number head or some other location which is not in front of the crew, master caution and warning lights are employee. With this system, there is one red light fand one amber light in plain view in tront of the ‘plot and or copilot. When any warning light on the ‘main pane! is Dhuminated, the master warning light ‘also comes on. The crew 1s alerted to look up at the main annunciator panel to find the source of the warning. The master warning light is then reset so it wail be available to ve any additional warnings ‘Faure 2.72. The components ina vibrating reed stall warning system. (Courtesy Cessna Alrcraft Co) ‘that might be needed. The master caution light works {na similar manner. Some of the typical indications for an annunciator panel for a small twin-engine airplane are shown in figure 2-60 Q. FARs for Warning Systems and Annunciators Some of the FAA requirements for warning systems and annunciators ae given below to faiarize the reader with the kinds of rules that apply to these systems, FAR 23.207 ‘Stall Warning ‘A. There must be a clear and distinctive stall ‘warning with flaps and landing gear in any normal position in straight and turning fightB. The stall warning may be inherent busfet or device. Ia device is used, visual indications by themselves that require the pilots attention tobe directed in the cockpit are not acceptable. ©. The stall warning must begin not less than 5 knots above stall speed: but not more than 10 knots or 15% above stall speed, whichever 4s greater. The stall warning must continue 10 the sta Retractable Landing Gear A. There must be a position indicating system for extended and retracted, B. Warning system, 1. There must be a warning if one or more throttles are retarded and the landing gear 1s not down and locked. 2. There must be a warmmy wae Une Maps are extended to or beyond the approach fap setting and the landing gear is not ‘down and locked FAR 23.1203 Fire Detector System For multi-engine, turbine-powered airplanes, ‘multi-engine reciprocating engine airplanes incor- porating turbosuperchargers and all commuter category airplanes: ‘A. There must be a means which ensures the prompt detection of a fre in an engine com- artment. R 23.1303 ae Flight and Navigation Instrumente ‘The following are required fight and navigation Instruments: E. A speed warning device for: 1, Turbine engine powered alrplanes 2. Other airplanes for which Vmo/Mmo and Va/Md are established under FAR 23 if ‘Vuww/Manw Is greater than 0.8 Vd/B4d, FAR 23.1959 ‘Storage Battery Design and Installation Nickel cadmium battery mstallations capable of being used to start an engine or auxiliary 100 1. A system to control the charging rate of ‘the battery automatically 50 as to prevent battery overheating. 2. A battery temperature sensing and over- temperature warning system with a meane for disconnecting the battery rom its ‘ng source in the event of an over-tem- perature condition. 2. Atbattary fahure oonaing and warning oyst tem with means for disconnecting the | i | | | battery from its chargingsource in the event of a battery failure aR 01.219 { Altitude Alerting System or Device ; ‘Turbojet Powered Civil Airplanes: | 1. No person may operate a turbojet powered civil airplane unless it i$ equipped with an alice alerting ayutem ine Hotien that STALL WARN UNIT } "TE VANE 8 PLACED AT THE STAGNATION PONT ‘ONTHE LEADING EDGE OF Te WING. o THE VANE ACTUATES A PRECISION SWITCH o Figure 2-79. The electrialy powered sta warning sys- wom for a sma mrpane inet uses 3 Vane ‘operated switch.‘9, Wil alert the pilot upon approaching a pre- in sulMetent tine to establish level fight at seleeted alttude in either ascent or descent, the preselected altitude. bya sequence of both aural and visual signals The control and operation of a typical altitude alerting system are shown in figure 2: 2, DOOR OPEN LIGHT (RED) — Indicates that the forward baggage compartment door, the cabin | fenty doors ana/or te emergency ex door are nol secured safely fOr Mh 9, HEATER OVERHEAT LIGHT (AMBER) — Indicates an abnormally high temperature has occurred | ‘im the combustion heater and st has been automatically shut off. Once the light illuminates, the heater will not operate until the overheat switch in the right forward nose section (accessible | fn nosewheel well) has been reset 4, LEFT ALTERNATOR OFF LIGHT (AMBER) — Indicates the left alternator is not supplying electrical current. 5. LOW VOLTAGE LIGHT (RED) — Indicates slectrical system bus wattage fe lees than 24 5 anit 6, WING AND STABILIZER DEICE SYSTEM PRESSURE LIGHT (GREEN) — Indicates pressure Js being applied to the surface deice boots to inflate them. 7. RIGHT ALTERNATOR OFF LIGHT (AMBER) — Indicates the right alternator 1s not supplying electrical current. 8, WINDSHIELD ANTLICE SYSTEM LIGHT (GREEN) — Indicates that heating elements in the ‘windshield antl-ice system are operating. 9. RIGHT ENGINE FIRE LIGHT (RED) — Indicates an excessive temperature condition or possible fire has occurred in the right engine compartment. 10. RIGHT LOW FUEL LIGHT (AMBER) — Indicates fuel quantity in right main fuel tank ts 60 Ts. oF less. 11, LEFT LOW FUEL LIGHT (AMBER) — Indicaties fuel quantity in left main fuel tank is 60 Ibs. or less. 12, LEFT ENGINE FIRE LIGHT (RED) — Indicates an excessive temperature condition or possible fire has occurred in the left engine compartment 13, DAY/NIGHT SWITCH — Sets brightness level of annunclator panel indicator lamps for either ‘day oF night operation. 14, TEST SWITCH — Tests operation of annunciator panel lampe, landing gear system position undicator Ute, and usa warning Loves of landing fea, fie detection and stall warning systems, ‘Also, switch can be used to silence an activated engine fire detection warning tone ene Fr tart ny St Se depen! ppm | 1. AUTOPILOT OFF LIGHT (AMBER) — Indicates the autopilot has disengaged. Floua 2.00. (Courtesy Cesena Aires Oo) ‘@) The annunciator pe! for 2 small twin-engine aplane, (©) The meanings for the various annuncitor lights 101Couprapiequieg ‘dnotn sspeue9 ksounon) umteke Bupseye epnmysreaydks e yum pevezosse eBUILsEM june fue Yona 6uL'16-Z Bid avows 2,038» SRN wun ‘oaioanas 1800031 ssmons MOGNIME / | | | | 102CHAPTER III Communication and Navigation Systems ‘The avionics and radio equipment found in aircraft hee cern mere change and aticennement tn recent years than any other part of the aircraft. Most of ‘these changes have resulted from the same tech- nology that has produced personal computers and 2 world wide (cleeoummunteatlons Indusity. Ale ‘though early radios were in use prior to World War 1, it 8 only since the 1940s that extensive use ‘has been made of radios for communication and ‘navigation in all types of aircraft. The basic VHF communications and navigation systems that are tused in aviation were developed in the 1940s, but ‘asing dramatically in recent years. This chapter wall cover the types of avionics equipment that are already in widespread use and the latest develop- Sinla that arc only beginning to be totalled ou Airplanes. Most of the systems described utilize radio waves, so we will begin with the fundamentals of radio systems. A. Radio Fundamentals The basic components found in radios and the cpevating prinnipiee ined will he explained here so that’ the specific aircraft avionles systems described later can be understood more easily. 1. Types of Aircraft Radio Systems ‘The frst radios installed in airplanes were used ‘oe communications and it was only much later at navigalonal radio systems were developed. allo systems for olher purposes have also been developed, especially in the last 20 to 30 years ‘Some of the uses for radio in modern aircraft can be categorized as follows. 1, Communications — Both voice and data, 2, Navigation — Many different systems are in ‘use today. 9. ATC Radar —The Ar rate Control system relies on radar. 4. Weather Avoidance — Used to avold areas of adverse weather. 5. Approach Alds—A specialized type of nav- ‘gation to guide an aircraft down to the runway tn bad weather, tude above ground level. 7. Airborne Collision Avoidance — Warns the bilot of nearby aircraft. All of these examples use radio waves, but there are other avionics systems that do not rely on the use of radio waves. 2. Electromagnetic Waves 1, Frequency Bands ‘The range and diversity of electromagnetic waves, or EM waves, 1s very broad. The entire spectrum ‘of EM waves includes not only radio waves but visible light, gamma rays, infrared, ete. The range of radio ‘lustrated in figure 3-1. The frequencies are divided {into bands which, starting at the low end, are: very low frequency (VLF), low frequency (LF), medium fre- ‘queniey Qa), mga nequency tr, very nigh mequency (VHP), ultra high frequency (UHF), super high tre- quency (SHF) and extremely high frequency (EHF) ‘Common aircraft radio systems are included on the ght side in gure 3-1. Notice that there isan aviation application for all ofthe bands except EHF. The two ‘common radio broadcast bands are also listed for All EM waves consist of two different invisible ‘energy flelds that travel through space, The electric field and the magnetic Held are at right angles to each other and t0 the direction af propagation or travel. Figure 8-2 shows the two fields and the direction of propagation. Radio waves are produced when a radio frequency electrical signal is sent down a conductor toan antenna. The antenna trans- forms the electrical signal into EM waves which propagate outward from the antenna through space. ‘The EM waves traval Usrough apace at the velocity of light, which 1s 186,284 mules per second ot 300,000,000 meters per second. When the EM waves strike a receive antenna, they induce voltage land current t0 produce an electrical signal that ‘matches the one applied to the transmit antenna, but of course the signal is much weaker. The basic ‘operating frequency of a radio is called the carrier frequency, because this is the signal that carries ‘the data or information that needs to be transmitted fom one place to another ‘The wavetenyglt EM waves ivofien se in ese ‘mg antennas and other radio components. Theas VERY Low [omen 0-14 Kitz ae ae aoe s | seo nie | AM BROADCAST 550-1800 KHz oo oe ph Ey [30 Miz FM BROADCAST 88-108 MHz oo ore pcos a eae (VHF) ee ee ae ecules eee chon TRANSPONDER 130 ANO 800 tr fa ' aa arene oe aaa FREQUENCY WEATHER RADAR 9.375 GHz ee carey on L200 itz Figure 3-1. Radlo frequency chart showing the operating frequencies of common aircraft systems. 104wavelength of an EM wave isthe distance from peak to peak for the invisible waves in the electric and ‘magnetic fields. Wavelength is measured in meters. ‘and sts inversely proportional tothe frequency. The ‘worrlengih in meters ean he found hy dviding the ‘constant 300,000,000 by the frequency in hertz At higher frequencies. it I$ easier to use 300 divided by the frequency in MHz to obtain the wavelength », Modulation If we design a radio transmitter that sends out @ steady carrier wave, we would not be able to transmit vaRYING ELECTRIC VARYING MAGNETIC. any data or information. The receiver would only reduce a steady hum or nothing at all depending fon the design of the receiver. In order to transmit any data or intelligence, 1 is necessary to vary or alter the earrier wave in anee wy. The proves of changing or varying the carrier wave 1s called modulation. When the Itallan inventor Guglielmo Marconi was developing the first practical radio sys- radio wave in order to transmit voice, so he used 8 method of switching the transmitter on and off to transmit Morse code signals. This simplest form of modulation is called CW or radio telegraphy since 4 borrowed the Morse code from the telegraph in- dustry. Figure 3-3 shows a radio carrier wave which "uses CW to send Morse code dots and dashes. Within ten years, new inventions permitted voice and music to be transmitted by radio using improved types of modulation. Figure 2-4 ihustrates the principles tor bor oor ash ‘Figure 3-3. The simplest form of ansmitting data with ‘radio waves Is with Morse code dots and dashes or CW. "ANTENNA, ‘TRANSMITTER MICROPHONE ‘gure 3.4. Simpitied voice radio system. HEADSET ‘ANTENNA RECEIVER LOUDSPEAKER 105‘of a simple voice radio system. A microphone con- ‘erts sound waves (o elecrical signals that are com bined with the carrier wave using AM of FM. ‘modulation, The recelver picks up the modulated ‘carrier wave and then separates out the audio fre- quency using a demodulator. The audio output of the demodulator drives a speaker or headset to reproduce the sound waves that were picked up ty the microphone in the transmitter, Current radio systems use a number of different types of modula tion, the two most common being amplitude modula- ‘ton (AM) and frequency modulation (FM). When amplitude ‘modulation 1s used, te intensity or ‘amphtude of the carrier wave signal 1s varied up {THE CARIUER A HaHeREQUENCY “ACTemnates CURRENT ip ® ‘awpLTUBETO COME WT THE AUDIO FRESUENCY THE SIGNALS TRANGUITED MTHS FORM. o and down as shown in figure 8-8. The frequency of the carrier wave is changed when fequency ‘modulation is used. Figure 3-6 shows a carrier wave with this type of modulation. The two commercial broadcast radio bands are a good example here sinor ‘one uses AM and the other FM. One of tae advantages of FM is that its less affected by atmospheric noise from thunderstorms and ther disturbances. ©. Audio and Radio Frequencies ‘Two terms that are often used in discussions about radio systems are audio frequency (AF) and radio Gequency (RF) Audio Geyueucies ate those of 20.000 He or less. They are called audio because Je Aurrupe woo ATED CARRIERS 0 } {WE SONAL Is PASSED THROUGH A DETECTOR “WHERE ONE HALE IS RONOWED. | | BY THE MICROPHONE, @ Figure 3-5. An example ofthe use of amplitude modulation (AM). 106these are approximately the frequencies of sound waves that can be heard by the human ear. Radio frequencies are those above 20,000 He. These terms fare most often used when discussing the electrical ignals that are produced and used by radio receivers and transmitters, 4. Ground, Sky and Space Waves ‘the behavior of radia wavee af Uhey travsl Harough the earth's atmosphere and beyond are classified by the terms ground, space and sky waves. The propagation characteristics of ground waves, sky ‘waves and space waves are lustrated 1m gure 3:7. Radio waves at frequencies below the HF band (below 3 MHz) are called ground waves because they wil follow the curvature ofthe earth and bend, Radio waves that operate in the HF band from 3 MHz to 30 MHz are called sky waves. They tend to travel in straight lines and will not follow the curvature of the earth. Sky waves will bounce or act off the fonosphere. The fonosphere ts made up of layers of ionized particles from about 60-200 miles high. When sky waves strike a layer of the fenoophere tn the right way. they will be rafranted ‘0 that they will come back to earth hundreds of miles sway. This characteristic of sky waves can bbe used to achieve long range transmission of radio siguala, Space waves ve Uae venules of radio waves at frequencies above 30 MHz or above the HF band. Space waves travel in straight lines, but they will not bounce off the ionosphere. ‘Theradio signals used to communicate with orbiting safelites are above 80 MHz, A good example can be given here for those who are familar with AM ‘and FM radio receivers. The commercial broadcast Stations known as AM broadcast in the MF band so that the EM waves behave as ground waves, At night, tis not unusual to pick up an AM station that is hundreds of miles away because the signal hhas followed the curvature of the earth. Commercial FM stations operate in the VHF band and the recep ‘ton range is limited to line-of-sight or straight lines Lecauve Diey ate seice waves. The uuanlun seer tion range for these stations 1s usually about 60 miles because they are blocked by the earth's sur face at greater distances. 3. Basic Radio Components . Amplifiers ‘An amplifi is a device that increases the strength of @ signal. They are found in both transmitters ‘and receivers. A transmitter must increase the Strength of the signal sent to the antenna so that from the antenna. A recetver needs amplifiers be- cause the strength of the signal from the antenna 4s very low and must be increased to enable the signal to be heard. Up until the 19009, moot amplifiers reed on vacuum tubes to increase the ‘strength of signals. The transistor has replaced the vacuum tube for most ampliner applications, ‘Ampuiers can be categorized as Class A, Class B and Class C. The diflerence between these is ‘the shape of the output waveform. Figure 9-8 shows the output of a Class A amplifier, its complete ‘sine waves just like the input. The Class B amplifier hhas an output which shows only half of each sine wave as shown in figure 3-8. The Class C amplifier Flgure 3-8. An example ofthe use of trequeney modulation (FM). 107hhas an output waveform which is less than half of the sine wave as shown at the bottom in figure 3-8, The Clase C ampliie is often used as a power ‘amplifier because ofits higher efficiency. The output Of the Clase © amplifier ean he sent throngh an LC creutt or other device to restore the complete sine wave shape, », Oscillators ‘An oscillator is device that produces the frequen- ‘les needed by both receivers and transmitters. A ‘simple oscillator is an LC eireult or tank circuit ‘made up of a capacitor and inductor in parallel. ‘The LC exrcuit will have a resonant frequency which matches the desired frequency. An LC circuit by ‘itself will not continue to oseillate because of resis- tance in the components and wares. Figure 3-9 shows an LC tank eireult which can be connected toa battery to produce oscillations. If the switch fn Bigure 3-9 is moved to position A, the capacitor “A be charged by the battery. if the switch is ‘Gen moved 0 position C, the tank circuit wil start to oscillate as energy 48 transferred rapidly back ‘seillations will become weaker and die out because of the resistance in the circuit. In order to maintain oscillations, some energy must be fed back into STATION STATION the tank circuit. In earlier radios a vacuum tube was used to supply the needed feedback. A tran- Sistor is used instead of a vacuum tube in newer radio designs as shown in figure 3-10. The resonant frequency or cxcillation frequency ie determined by the values of capacitance and inductance in the tank circutt. The LC circuit will not be stable lover a period of time and may drift off the correct Rreyueany. A uum Wenger te otalalie Use oselllator and produce a more accurate frequency 4s to use a crystal as shown in figure 3-11. The plezoelectrc effect of the crystal wll produce a more ‘Accurate and consistent output Irequency trom the oscillator. . Modulators and Demodulators We will use a vive commmuntealios sal as a ‘example ofthe purpose and function of modulators ‘and demodulators. In the radio transmalter, a device 4s needed which will combine the AF signal with the RF carrier wave signal before it 1s sent to the ‘antenna. This is the function of a modulator. it ‘combines the AF and RF signals s0 that information conn he tranemitied. The output of the modulator 4s called modulated RF. The signal produced by the antenna in a recelver will be modulated RF. In order to hear the voice as an output of the ‘SPACE WAVE (o) ‘Figure 3-7. The propagation characteristics of ground waves, sky waves and space waves. 108CLASS A | AMPLIFIER, w ‘CLASS B AMPLIFIER, ce CLASS © AMPLIFIER c) ee Figure 3-8. An example ofthe output waveform or Class ‘A’BandC empiers. Cts] js SY RESISTANCE INTHE CCU “\ Floure 2.0 & paral 1 tank cic Witt fost ‘the oscilations willbe weakened by resis- tance ia the circu and die out. sevelver, Ue AP cumpoucut usust be separated out ‘The demodulator removes the RF component of the ‘modulated RF signal and produces an AF output When the AF and RF signals are combined in the modulator, they must bave the proper relative _ Figure 3-10. An oscillator crcut with feedback supplied bya wansistor. i || cavsra Figure 3-11. A erytal controlled osciator.strengths for maximum efficiency. The amount of modulation 1s called the modulation rate. If the AF signal ts too weak compared to the RF signal, ‘the modulation rate will be low and the efficiency +2y | +tev + will also be low. I the modulation rate is over 100%, there wil be distortion in the signal due to the ‘gaps created. Figure 3-12 gives examples of 50%, 100% and more than 100% modulation rates with -w ~18v -2v “ +2y ow -w +e +W ; lNMinnnal yeuavey -w -2v e i Figure 3-12. Examples of diferent modultion rates. (a) 50% @) 00% (©) Over 100% 110‘AM modulation. Most radio transmitters are ad- Justed to about 80-95% modulation to puuvide litle margin to prevent distortion. Shouting into a microphone when using a radio can cause over ‘modulation and should be avoided. \. Filters Alter ts used in a radio clreutt to remove or flter ‘out unwanted frequencies. The signals that are processea by ine circuits in a raaio atten nave ad- ditional ffequencies present that are not needed. If the proper filter is installed, it will Miter out the frequency or frequencies that are not wanted. A filler is usually made up of an arrangement of in- ductors and capacitors as shown in figure 3-13, A low pass filter will remove all frequencies above ‘certain value and pass the low ones. A high pace {iter does the opposite. If a range of frequencies ‘must be blocked. a band reject filter will be used. A bandpass filter will allow a certain band of fre- shores w go dough and bivck mequencies euer favove or below that range, fe. Antennas signals into EM waves in the case of a transmit antenna, or transforms EM waves into electrical ‘signals in the case of a receive antenna, Depending ‘on the particular radio system mvotvee, an antenna may be used for transmit only, receive only, or Doth. The maintenance, inspection and installation of antennas is usually the responsibility of the airframe technician since they are attached to the Structure or skin of the aircraft. Antennas often hhave general names that describe some of their I ‘basic characteristies. Two ofthe more common types we Gwe Heruz dipole antenna ana the Marconi ‘monopole antenna. The Hertz dipole antenna has ‘two metal conductors in a straight line with the ‘connection in the middle. It is called a half-wave antenna because the overall length 1s equal to one hhalf the wavelength of the EM wave it is designed to be used with. Figure 3-14 is an example of a Herts dinnie antenna The Marcant ontenma te > single metal conductor with a length of Vt wavelength as Hlustrated in figure 3-15. In order to work properly, the Marconi antenna raust have metal surrounding the mounting base. Tle utetal at the base is needed for efficent operation of the antenna. The necessary metal at the base is called the groundplane or counterpotse. In figure 3-15. ‘the groundplane is the four metal rods at the base of the antenna; the metal skin of an aircraft is used as a groundplane for most aircraft antennas. Most antennas must be installed with the correct HEN THE VOLTAGE 5 AKUMA THE ENDS ‘OF THE ANTENNA ® commer ws a asa cere sree ‘ | ‘igure 3-15. Haale requency Miers are combinations of Inductors and capacitors. Figure 3-14. The Hertz pole antenna ie 2 halfarave antenna.polarization. Polarization refers to the orientation fof the electric Meld relauve to the earth. irthe lettre field Is vertical, st has vertical polarization. ‘The Marcon! antenna will produce a vertically polarized radiation pattern as shown in figure 3-16. Horizontal polarization means that the electric eld will be parallel to the earth's surface. The hor- ‘zontally polarized pattern of a Hertz dipole antenna Jo ahowns i gure O17. Auatlice way te wanes tani polarization 1s that the polarization of the aircraft antenna should normally match the polarization of the ground based antenna and the EM waves ‘it will wile, An aireraft VHF communications an: ‘enna is an example of a Marcon! antenna with vertical polarization. The common example ofa Hertz antenna Js the VHF navigation antenna found on ‘mall airplanes. IC is a V-shaped dipole antenna ‘wilh horizontal polarization, Antennas must not only be matched to the per radio, but the conductor that connects tie radio and antenna is very critical. A special type of conductor used to connect radios and ne antennas is called a coaxial cable or coax. Figure 9:18 shows tne basic parts ot a coaxial cable designed to carry RF signals. It consists of acenter conductor covered by a special kind of insulation and an outer conductor around the insulation, Plain wires cannot be used for radio frequency signals because the energy loss would be too great al these frequencies. The antennas and coaxial ables wust be maintained im good sondition to ensure proper performance from the radio system The connection between an antenna and a radio normally requires a coupler in order to give the best transfer of energy between the two of them, Two common types of antenna couplers are the LC clreuit and the transformer types. A transformer {ype of antenna coupler is shown in the antenna connection in figure 9-19. The use of an LC circuit asa coupler between the coax and antennal shown In figure 3-20. Most aircraft antennas are speed tated Pon caauipte, is autetia tated at 250 1 should not be installed on an aircraft with a higher Vne speed, soitoN [peace the ype of radiation patiorm am© Tuning Circuits ‘An antenna will intercept many different EM waves of different frequencies 80 some method must be ‘used © separate out the desired frequency. The tuning circuit performs this function. A simple tuning circuit 18 shown in figure 3-23, st consists ‘of a variable capacttor and an inductor in parallel As the tuning knob is rotated on the radio, it moves the Variable capacitor until the resonant frequency of the cireuit matches the frequency of the desired station. This signal is passed into the radio and the other frequencies are blocked out. A better type fof tuner which is found an most modern radios uses a frequency synthesizer which contains a num- ber of crystals that can be combined to match the desired frequency. The basic operation of a fre- ‘quency synthesizer is shown in figure 3-22. Each crystal has a particular frequency and by using switches the erystals can be combined to produce "ny adaiuonal requencies. when wo Meauencies ‘are combined, two new frequencies are created that fare equal to the sum and the difference of the to frequencies. By using this technique, hundreds of frequencies can be created using relatively small number of fixed frequency crystals & Transmitters ‘The components that have been described will be ‘combined in a block diagram to see how they work together. A voice radio transmitter is shown in figure 3-29, The microphone changes the sound waves ‘ofa human voice into AF signals that are amplified ‘and then sent to the modulator. The oseilator in Figure 3-19. An isolation transformer can be used as an antenna coupling device. {ss radto operates at one half the carrer freauency, 0 Its output is amplified and then doubled. The modulator combines the AF and RF signals which ‘are then amplified in the power amp before being tent down the coax to the antenna 1h Receivers In the 1920s, a new type of radio receiver was Invented that produced better eotnd quality Te wae called the superheterodyne or superhet radio. The only major difference between the superhet and carller radios was that it reduced the modulated RP sil Gout dee autenna Wo an AF sigual in ‘more than one jump or stage. Since modern radio components are miich smaller and more efficient than in the 1920s, virtually all modern radio receivers are superhet, Figure 3-24 shows a block ‘diagram of a VHF superhet aircraft receiver. The [RF signal from the antenna 1s combined with a local oscillator freauenev to produce a lower IP fe quency. The intermediate frequencies found in a superhet radio are abbreviated as IF. The basic principle of the mixer 18 that when two different created; the sum and the difference of the two com- bined frequencies, in this example. the output of the mixer isthe difference between the RF frequency land the local oscilator frequency. The IF siya ‘is amplified and then sent to the detector and demodulator. The detector chops off half of each sine wave to produce a varying DC signal from an AC signal. The AF signal is amplified and used to drive the speaker. ns4. Speakers and Microphones Aircraft radios often supply an audio output for the pllot and voice transmitters require an audio Input from a microphone, A speaker is a device that ansforme electrical signals into sound waves A dynamic speaker 1s shown in figure 9-25. ‘When the audio frequency signal is applied to the windings in the speaker, It sets up a magnetic field that expands and contracts at an audio rate ‘This field causes the metal diaphragm to vibrate at a corresponding rate to produce the movement of air that generates sound waves. Dynamle mi ‘crophones are available which operate in the op- posite way. Many newer and more efficient types ‘of microphones are now being manufactured, but they all work by traneforming the vibrations of sound waves into varying electrical signals. 4. Audio Control Panels When an airraft has more than one radio, an efficient “ans of switching the microphone and speaker connections from one radio to another is needed. ne Figure 3-21. This simple radio receiver uses a variable Canectorto tune dterentequencia by ging the resonant requocy ofthe tank creat us ‘The audio control panel performs this function. & typlcal audio control pane! is shown in gure 3-26. ‘An audio control panel is not a radio because it only uses audi frequencies, bu itis associated with the radios ia the aircraft. This audio contrat panel thas a row of toggle switches that can be used to ‘connect the audio output of the various radios to the speaker or headphones. Italso has arotaryselector itch te connect the microphone audio output to {he different radio transmitters and intercom systems avallable for the alreraft. The audio control panel Alustrated also has three lights that are the indicators for the marker Deacon system on the arcrafl. The ‘marker beacon system will be described later B. Regulations and Standards for Radios Aircraft avionics equipment might have to comply with ‘a number of diferent regulations and standards de- [Penang on te (ype of epupment ana we ype oF ‘arcraft in whieh iti Installed. Regulations from the FAA and the FOC apply to the manufacture and use ‘of most types of equipment and carry the farce of law. FAA standards for equipment are usually in the frta of TSO (Technical Standard Order) approvals. FCC. tiles generally apply to equipment which produces radio waves, An FOC Station License is required for aircraft ~~. r—* 0 |r — CRYSTALS ‘igure 322. The frequency synthesizer isa crystal con- rolled tning device found on many mod- ‘om radios and other electronic units.