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Characterization of fluctuating
harmonics from single-phase
power electronics-based
equipment

Characterization
of fluctuating
harmonics
133

U. Grasselli and R. Lamedica

Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Rome La Sapienza,
Roma, Italy

A. Prudenzi
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of LAquila,
LAquila, Italy
Keywords Electric load, Harmonics, Electronic equipment and components
Abstract The present paper is intended to analyze time-varying harmonic absorption of
single-phase non-linear loads. To this aim, it is demonstrated that a continuous harmonic
monitoring can be of a certain utility, since this practice allows a better characterization of
harmonic spectra and an improved understanding of impact due to the various stages of typical
operation. Some selected results obtained from a wide monitoring activity performed in a lab are
reported in this paper. The results are relevant to NL appliances with power ratings ranging from
less than 10 W to several hundred watts, such as desktop PC, printer (both laser and ink-jet), cell
phone battery charger, and photocopier. The data thus obtained have been processed in order to
determine probability density functions and distribution functions well evidencing the time-varying
behavior of harmonic content of the absorbed current. Since a continuous harmonic monitoring
allows to follow the nearly instantaneous evolution of the physical quantities (voltage and current)
a cross-correlation based analysis of the various harmonic quantities among themselves is more
meaningful than the monitoring activities providing longer observation time windows (up to
minutes). The results obtained with such calculations can provide good indications for determining
the origin of the time-varying behavior as evidenced.

1. Introduction
Most of the recent harmonic studies are typically based on simulation activities
requiring a detailed knowledge of the harmonic current spectrum produced and
its variability with both system changes and peculiar equipment operation
phases (Capasso et al., 1994, 1998; Dwyer et al., 1995; Mansoor et al., 1995a, b;
Pileggi et al., 1993). It has long been recognized that voltage and current
harmonics are time-variant due to variations in system configuration and load.
Variations can have a non-deterministic nature thus giving origin to a
stochastic process (Caramia et al., 2002; Heydt and Gunther, 1996; Probabilistic
Aspects Task Force of Harmonics Working Group, 1998; Testa et al., 2002).
However, in the international literature of the sector, detailed information
on time-varying harmonic absorption from low demanding single-phase NL

COMPEL: The International Journal

for Computation and Mathematics in
Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Vol. 23 No. 1, 2004
pp. 133-147
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0332-1649
DOI 10.1108/03321640410507608

COMPEL
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134

equipment is generally lacking. This is typically due to the difficulties existing

in managing field measurements implementing continuous data acquisition.
The spectrum variations with time must be captured with specific harmonic
monitoring systems allowing a continuous recording of harmonic quantities.
To this aim, specific and expensive commercial products or custom-made
equipment are required.
The present paper aims to illustrate that the continuous monitoring can be of
a certain use for low-demand single-phase NL loads as well, since this practice
allows for a better characterization of harmonic spectra and an improved
understanding of impact due to the various stages of typical operation as well.
To this aim, some selected results as obtained from a wide monitoring activity
performed in lab are reported in the paper (Capasso et al., 1999, 2000; Lamedica
et al., 2000).
The results are relevant to the following NL appliance samples, with power
ratings ranging from less than 10 W to several hundred watts:
.
desktop PC,
.
printer (both laser and ink-jet),
.
cell phone battery charger (BC), and
.
photocopier.
The data thus obtained has been processed in order to determine the
probability density functions ( pdfs) and distribution functions well evidencing
the time-varying behavior.
Indeed, the results obtained show that for almost all the investigated
appliances, a not negligible variation of harmonic currents with time can be
found.
In this paper, the results of the field investigations are commented and the
possible reasons and origins of the even significant time-varying nature of the
harmonic content as found in the field measurements are deepened and
discussed.
Finally, the cross-correlation analysis has been applied to the data available
and interesting results have been obtained are duly commented.

2. Monitoring equipment
The measurement activity has been performed by means of an oscillographic
recorder, for waveform analysis, and a custom monitoring equipment with the
characteristics illustrated in Capasso et al. (1999). This custom equipment,
based on a Pentium PC (120 MHz), allows the simultaneous and synchronous
sampling of multiple single-phase voltage and current signals by using two
different acquisition boards dedicated, respectively, to voltage and current
channels.

3. Selected monitoring results

Characterization
3.1 Desktop PC
of fluctuating
The monitoring activity on such an equipment has involved several sessions.
harmonics
The significant dispersion of harmonic current as identified, has pushed to
deepen adequately the various desktop PC typical operation phases. To this
aim, monitoring sessions have been performed in which the different possible
135
operations have been opportunely activated and duly recorded (Lamedica et al.,
2000). An example of the recorded demand is shown in Figure 1. The not
negligible variability recorded in the demand level is obtained also for
harmonic currents, as shown in the harmonic currents pdfs of Figure 2.
3.2 Printers
The monitoring activity of printers has concerned both laser jet and ink-jet
printers (Lamedica et al., 2000).
Even for printers the typical operation phases have been correlated to
harmonic spectra. In particular, the two main phases of printing and stand-by
have been differentiated. Some results relevant to the ink-jet printer (PR2)
monitoring are shown in Figures 3-5.

Figure 1.
Demand diagram
recorded for some typical
operations of PC

Figure 2.
Main harmonic currents
magnitude probability
density histograms

COMPEL
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136

Figure 3.
Selected intervals of the
power demand recorded
during typical operation
phases of PR2 (right part
of the diagram relevant
to repeated printing
operations)

Figure 4.
PR2 harmonic currents
magnitude distribution
functions

Figure 5.
PR2 main harmonic
currents phase angle
pdfs

Statistics have been calculated for PR2 and Figure 4 shows the harmonic
currents distribution functions as obtained in a monitoring session. The
discrete variations of magnitude can be easily identified in the diagram.
The monitoring activity also provided measurement of harmonic quantities
phase angle. In Figure 5, the results obtained for harmonic currents are shown.

3.3 Cell phone BCs

Characterization
Cell phones require BCs equipped with single-phase switching mode power
of fluctuating
supplies of very low demand. However, the high number of BCs dispersed in
harmonics
end-use areas can determine a significant cumulative impact on distribution
grid voltage quality.
The continuous monitoring activity has involved several samples of cell
137
phone BCs (Capasso et al., 2000). Some results obtained for a rapid BC for Li-ion
batteries are reported in Figures 6 and 7.
In particular, Figure 6 shows the BC power demand for a whole charging
cycle.
In Figure 7, the pdf histograms for the whole charging cycle of Figure 6 are
reported for the main harmonic orders.
3.4 Photocopiers
The harmonic currents absorbed by photocopiers (PH) have also been
monitored. Among several samples monitored, some selected results as
obtained for a sample copy of up to 25 pages per minute are shown in
Figures 8-10.

Figure 6.
Demand diagram
recorded for a whole BC
charging cycle

Figure 7.
Main harmonic currents
magnitude pdf
histograms

COMPEL
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138

Figure 8.
Demand diagram
recorded for some typical
PH operation phases

Figure 9.
Selected intervals of the
demand profile of
Figure 9

Figure 10.
Harmonic current
spectrum (main
harmonics) recorded at
instants evidenced in
Figure 10

The monitoring results allow a correct differentiation of the two main operation
phases of stand by and copying.
3.5 Monitoring results analysis
Some comments can be made with reference to the monitoring results so far
illustrated:

the power demand variability with different operation phases of NL Characterization

appliance is very high,
of fluctuating
the harmonic content varies with specific appliance, but is appreciable
harmonics
both for current magnitude and phase angle,
intermediate demand levels have been evidenced in statistical
distributions, and
139
in order to characterize the harmonic content variability with appliance
operation, both pdfs and distribution functions are very useful.

4. Different origins of time-varying harmonics

The time-varying behavior of the harmonic content as obtained for almost
every NL appliance can be identified in one of the following reasons (Grasselli
et al., 2002):
(1) load fluctuation due to different internal circuits or components involved
in the actual phase of operation (e.g. desktop PC or printers, etc.);
(2) demand level variation due to battery status of charge (e.g. cell phone
BC);
(3) fluctuations of the value of the individual electronic circuit components
(such as capacitances, resistors, etc.) in response to possible
environmental changes (e.g. effect of temperature increase from cold
starting conditions on CFL power demand);
(4) upstream system modifications at point-of-common coupling (PCC) due
to load amount connected upstream or system impedance fluctuation;
(5) background (BG) voltage distortion level and harmonic content daily
variation at the PCC (e.g. for the impact of cancellation phenomena on
harmonic currents); and
(6) form factor of the voltage waveshape as present at the PCC (no load
BG voltage).
In particular, some lab test has been performed with the aim of analyzing the
latter aspects.
The tests have been performed by supplying a PC power supply with
different load levels from an outlet (PCC) (IEEE std. 519, 1993) with a
short-circuit impedance Zsc 1:7 V and a short-circuit power factor equal
to one.
A non-linear load characterised by different bulk condenser size is used to
simulate the BG voltage distortion at the investigated PCC (BG). In particular,
two different bulk capacitor sizes have been used, thus obtaining the current
waveshapes of Figure 11. Type I presents a larger bulk condenser.
Figures 12-14 show voltage and current waveshapes recorded at the PCC
under the following PCC load conditions:

COMPEL
23,1

(a) only PC in operation,

(b) a non-linear load including PC and a type I BG load, and
(c) a non-linear load including PC and a type II BG load.
The main figures of the tests are reported in Table I.

140

Figure 11.
Background (BG)
non-linear load: current
waveshapes related to
different bulk condenser
size, types I and II

Figure 12.
Test condition (a):
voltage and current
waveshapes at
PC terminals

Figure 13.
Test condition (b):
voltage and current
waveshapes at
PC terminals

5. Analysis procedures
The continuous harmonic monitoring allows to follow the nearly instantaneous
evolution of the physical phenomena. Therefore, the cross-correlation of the
various harmonic quantities among themselves is meaningful. The results

obtained with such calculations can provide good indications for determining Characterization
the origin of the time-varying behavior as evidenced.
of fluctuating
In an earlier work, first cross-correlation analyses of time-variant
harmonics
phenomena have been performed on the basis of the same monitoring data
sets analysed in Section 3.
Figures 15-17 show the relevant results obtained by correlating the
141
instantaneous values of the main harmonic currents magnitude with the power

Figure 14.
Test condition (c):
voltage and current
waveshapes at PC
terminals

(a)
(b)
(c)

PC current
(A)

PC power
(W)

BG type

BG current
(A)

BG power
(W)

Isc/Itot

V-THD
(percent)

1.27
1.14
1.31

178
178
177

I
II

0
5.1
4.83

0
739
682

108
22
22

1.7
3.2
3.2

Table I.
Load conditions
investigated

Figure 15.
Main harmonic currents
magnitude vs power
demand instantaneous
values for a desktop PC

COMPEL
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142

Figure 16.
Main harmonic currents
magnitude vs power
demand instantaneous
values for a 15 in.
monitor

Figure 17.
Main harmonic currents
magnitude vs power
demand instantaneous
values for an ink-jet
printer

demand of some of the investigated appliances. The calculation results

obtained for a desktop PC, an individual monitor and an ink-jet printer are
reported in the figures.
For every appliance, the result of two variables strictly correlated and the
harmonic currents magnitude closely follows the power absorption of the
appliance. The regression curves for every series of results have also been
calculated. The polynomials thus obtained are reported in Table II.

The coefficients of the curves for each harmonic order of different appliances Characterization
are similar. This fact can be explained with the power supply equipping the
of fluctuating
different appliance being of same type.
harmonics
On the basis of the above-mentioned interesting results, additional
laboratory tests have been performed.
The new test sessions have been addressed to study the influence of both
143
voltage distortion level and voltage form factor on the cross-correlation
analytical tool.
The same PCC load conditions considered in Section 4 have been used. In
addition to the analysis performed earlier, the first harmonic current magnitude
and harmonic phase angles have been considered. The relevant
cross-correlation results are shown in Figures 18-23 for both the magnitude
and phase angle variables.

Appliance

Third harmonic

Fifth harmonic

Desktop
PC
15 in. PC
monitor
Ink-jet
printer

y 0.0054x + 0.0032

y 2 1E 2 5x 2 +
0.0049x20.0055
y 2 2E 2 5x 2 +
0.0046x2 0.0012
y 2 6E 2 5x 2 +
0.0047x +0.0074

y 0.0053x + 0.0023
y 0.0052x + 0.0068

Seventh harmonic
y 2 2E 2 5x 2 +
Table II.
0.0036x2 0.003
Analytical expression of
y 2 3E 2 5x 2 +
regression curves of
0.0032x + 0.0022
Figures 15-17 (R 2 never
y 20.0001x 2 +
less than 0.8)
0.0034x + 0.0145

Figure 18.
Main harmonic
currents magnitude
vs power demand
instantaneous values
for test condition (a)

Figure 19.
Main harmonic
currents magnitude
vs power demand
instantaneous values
for test condition (b)

COMPEL
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The regression curves for every series of results have been analogously
calculated. The polynomials thus obtained are reported in Tables III
(magnitude) and IV (phases).

144

6. Conclusions
This paper deals with the time-varying characterization of single-phase
non-linear appliances of high penetration into end-use such as PC, printer,
photocopier, and cell phone BC.

Figure 20.
Main harmonic currents
magnitude vs power
demand instantaneous
values for test
condition (c)

Figure 21.
Main harmonic currents
phase angle vs power
demand instantaneous
values for test
condition (a)

Figure 22.
Main harmonic currents
phase angle vs power
demand instantaneous
values for test
condition (b)

The time-varying behavior of harmonics could be investigated through Characterization

the use of specific measurement equipment allowing continuous harmonic
of fluctuating
monitoring.
harmonics
Pdfs and distribution functions have been calculated with the data obtained
from monitoring results.
The power demand and the harmonic spectrum of the investigated
145
appliances typically present a not negligible variability with time.

Figure 23.
Main harmonic currents
phase angle vs power
demand instantaneous
values for test
condition (c)

Test
condition

First harmonic

Third harmonic

(a)

y 0.0061x

y 0.0055x

y 0.0044x

(b)

y 0.0063x

y 0.0052x

y 2 9E 2 6x 2 +
0.0048x

(c)

y 0.0063x

y 0.0058x

y 2 6E 2 6x 2 +
0.0056x

y 2 6E 2 6x 2 +
0.0039x
y 24E 2 6x 2 +
0.0016x+
0.0883
y 21E 2 6x 2 +
0.0049x

Test
condition
(a)
(b)
(c)

Fifth harmonic

Seventh harmonic

First harmonic

Third harmonic

Fifth harmonic

Seventh harmonic

y 2 9E 2 5x 2 +
0.0429x 2
3.342
y 2 0.0004x 2 +
0.1587x 2
7.7713
y 2 0.0002x 2 +
0.1038x 2
8.6559

y 2 0.0003x 2 +
0.1697x 2
2.0901
y 2 0.0009x 2 +
0.4273x 2
28.784
y 2 0.0005x 2 +
0.2625x 2
28.293

y 2 0.0006x 2 +
0.3142x 2
6.2653
y 2 0.0013x 2 +
0.7112x 2
50.579
y 2 0.0009x 2 +
0.4437x 2
47.665

y 20.0009x 2 +
0.4713x 2
9.4216
y 20.0007x 2 +
0.8779x 2
68.427
y 20.0011x 2 +
0.623x 2
67.108

Table III.
Harmonic current
magnitude versus
power demand
analytical expression
of regression curves
of Figures 18-20
(R 2 never less than 0.9)

Table IV.
Harmonic current phase
angle versus power
demand analytical
expression of regression
curves of Figures 21-23
(R 2 never less than 0.9)

COMPEL
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146

Some possible causes of the observed time-variant behavior have been

deepened with particular reference to the influence of both VTHD level and
voltage waveshape form factor.
The cross-correlation based analysis between instantaneous values of the
monitored variables has been applied to the bulk data made available from
several lab tests.
The obtained results show that both harmonic current magnitude and phase
angle are strictly correlated to power demand variation. This behavior is more
evident for the main harmonic orders.
Finally, tests performed with different load conditions and voltage distortion
levels confirm the possibility to extend the validity of regression curves to more
numerous clusters of non-linear loads.

References
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Characterization
of fluctuating
harmonics
147