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Kelli Flieth
ENGL 358
Dr. Salafia
3 December 2013
Bridging the Gap:A Meta-Analysis
The gender gaps in science and science fiction are notoriously wide. Women who choose
to pursue scientific study are often met with ridicule and discouragement from peers,
assumptions of cognitive deficiencies from instructors, and in some cases, social rejection. It is
not only in academic and social setting that girls develop their sense of scientific potential. The
media, too, plays a crucial role in this process. (Flicker, 308) The way scientists are portrayed
in films and literature shapes the public perception of who is and is not a scientist. This, in turn,
influences what males and females are taught not only about science, but about what they
personally are capable of achieving. Like science, science fiction has long been seen as a male
domain, despite Mary Schelly's status as a founder of the genre. This perception is reflected in
the content of many science fiction books, films, and television shows. The characters, themes,
and plotlines of science fiction tend to be male-oriented. The few female characters are often
shown as sexual objects, rarely hold positions of power, and are often portrayed as less
competent than the male characters. A focus on male readers and flat characterizations of females
works with social influences to teach girls that they cannot engage or succeed in science. As a
result, girls are much less likely than boys to perform well in science.
The books and articles reviewed here address different aspects of this problem. First, the
use of science fiction to engage students in and enhance their understanding of scientific
concepts is addressed in Teaching Science Fact with Science Fiction by Gary Raham. Second,

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the barriers between girls and science, as well as solutions to those barriers are discussed in Girls
Can Succeed in Science! By Linda S. Samules. The third article reviewed here is Between
brains and breastswomen scientists in fiction film: on the marginalization and sexualization of
scientific competence by Eva Flicker. Flicker's article analyzes the effects media representations
have on public perceptions. Finally, Maia Pank Mertz details adolescents' reading preferences
and cognitive development as it relates to effective education in Understanding the Adolescent
Reader. While these sources address different aspects of the same problem, a commonality
between them emerges: Fiction has a profound impact on adolescents' identity and engagement
in science education.
In Teaching Science Fact with Science Fiction, Raham describes the benefits of using
science fiction to enhance interest in and the instruction of science. He includes sample lesson
plans, along with lists of science fiction media categorized by the type of science it best
describes. Raham argues that science is a creative process not unlike art. This approach
challenges the view that science is simply a collection of facts and figures, making it accessible
to a wider variety of individuals. Raham then discusses the ability of fiction to engage and
inspire. He cites the commitment to scientific facts in hard science fiction, which possesses a
strong tradition of being true to scientific principles and discoveries while still maintaining [a]
sense of wonder and excitement. (Raham, xiv) In addition, he provides examples of scientists
whose work was inspired by science fiction. One such scientist is Robert H. Goddard, the
original rocket scientist. He first dreamed of spaceflight after reading H.G. Well's War of the
Worlds. This example lends credibility to Raham's assertion that fictional stories can instruct and
inspire. Convincing as his argument may be, Raham fails to offer ways to engage students who
do not enjoy science fiction. These students may feel alienated and unimportant in a classroom

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focusing on the interests of some students, rather than all students. Those who do not enjoy
science fiction may benefit from a more mainstream work, such as Star Trek.
Girls Can Succeed in Science! describes common barriers to girls' science education and
methods to help girls overcome those barriers. Samuels asserts that environmental factors, not
cognitive deficiencies, are responsible for girls' lack of interest and poor performance in science.
By working to overcome social barriers in the classroom and at home, it is possible to increase
girls' interest and performance in science. Samuels cites the negative stereotypes and low selfesteem that commonly afflict girls. In addition, she discusses the general lack of effective science
education in elementary schools, which causes some students to receive little to no science
instruction until middle school. According to Samuels, it is more common for girls' parents to
give comments such as I was never very good at science, either than encouraging their
daughters to persevere. Samuels includes the results of several studies on the effects of restrictive
gender roles on girls. She also includes methods she has used with success in classrooms.
Samuels' asserts that students will perform better when given encouragement, positive
reinforcement, and a secure learning environment. While this idea is strong, she assumes that all
parents are willing to work against the gender roles restricting their daughters' achievement.
Samuels states that parents are one of the strongest influences on girls' self-esteem, which makes
her assumption dangerous. If parents reinforce damaging gender stereotypes, efforts made by
schools are less likely to be effective.
Eve Flicker discusses film's portrayal of women in science. In her article Between brains
and breastswomen scientists in fiction film, Flicker analyzed films portraying at least one
female scientist made between 1929 and 1997. Using this data, she asserts that representations of
women scientists in films shapes the public perception of women scientists in the real world. She

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provides relevant statistics on women in academic fields. For example, women make up about
half of all university students and 45% of assistant professors. However, only 23% of professors
are women. Likewise, media representations of scientists suffer from great gender discrepancy.
In the films Flicker analyzed, 82% of scientists were males. Nearly 50% of the female scientists
were found in science fiction. This is not surprising, given that science fiction films portray more
scientists than any other genre. Flicker provides six stereotypical categories for the female
scientists portrayed. For each category, Flicker gives an example character. She also discusses
the facets of these stereotypes, and why they are problematic. While Flicker supports her claims
with previously established data, she does not take cultural context into account. This is
especially important for films made in the early and mid twentieth century. The mere presence of
female scientists in such films is progressive, given the cultural context.
In Understanding the Adolescent Reader, Maia Pank Mertz details the cognitive
development of adolescents and how it relates to effective education. She asserts that it is vital to
understand the cognitive changes that occur during adolescence in order to facilitate reading and
comprehension. Mertz cites the onset of abstract thinking as an important consideration in
education. Those who have not yet developed the ability to think abstractly will have difficulty
understanding many concepts, especially in science and history. Fictional stories that deal with
these concepts make the abstract personal, and thus easier to understand. She cites, too, the
search for identity present in adolescence. While forming their identities, teenagers often search
for models, such as fictional characters and celebrities. Through these models, teens try on
various roles, attitudes, and beliefs to develop and fulfill their conception of self. Mertz suggests
assigning books with characters to whom teens can relate in order to provide role models. Mertz
also discusses the results of a study on gender differences in teens' reading preferences. She

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emphasizes that, while age and gender differences likely influence preferences, existing gender
roles are also a major influence. Mertz's summary of the cognitive development of adolescents
provides a strong ground for her argument. While her assertion that culture is an influence on
teenagers' reading preferences is supported by the research she presents, she does not develop
this assertion. This makes her argument seem incomplete. Because adolescence is a time a search
for identity, it is important for parents and educators to be aware of the content of teens' books.
Negative representations can become a part of a teen's world view just as easily as positive
representations.
It is clear that fiction has a profound impact on adolescents' identity and engagement in
science education. The barriers to scientific competence girls face is well documented, as is the
effectiveness of using science fiction in science classrooms. The effect of media representations
on public perceptions, while still somewhat controversial, is gaining academic ground.
Adolescents' cognitive development is established as factual in developmental psychology.
However, there is little to no discussion of using science fiction to increase girls' interest in
science. By increasing the number of fully developed female characters and gender-neutral plots
in science fiction, adolescent girls will be able to conceptualize their own success in science.
Increasing diversity in scientific fields increases diversity of ideas, and thus the potential for
innovation. Further, making science education more accessible to girls is another step toward
gender equality.

Works Cited
Raham, Gary. Teaching Science Fact with Science Fiction. Portsmouth: Teacher Ideas
Press, 2004. Print.
Samuels, Linda S. Girls Can Succeed in Science! Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press, Inc.
1999. Print.
Flicker, Eve. "Between brains and breastswomen scientists in fiction film: on the

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marginalization and sexualization of scientific competence." Public Understanding of Science.
12 (2003): 307-318. Web.
Mertz, Maia Pank. Understanding the Adolescent Reader. Theory Into Practice. 14.3
(2001): 179-185. Web.