A Collection of Limits

A Collection of Limits
March 28, 2011
Contents
1 Short theoretical introduction
2 Problems
12
3 Solutions
23
Chapter 1
Short theoretical
introduction
Consider a sequence of real numbers (an )n1 , and l R. Well say that l
represents the limit of (an )n1 if any neighborhood of l contains all the terms of
the sequence, starting from a certain index. We write this fact as lim an = l,
n
or an l.
We can rewrite the above definition into the following equivalence:
lim an = l ()V V(l), ()nV N such that ()n nV an V .
One can easily observe from this definition that if a sequence is constant then
its limit is equal with the constant term.
Well say that a sequence of real numbers (an )n1 is convergent if it has limit
and lim an R, or divergent if it doesnt have a limit or if it has the limit
n
equal to .
Theorem: If a sequence has limit, then this limit is unique.
Proof: Consider a sequence (an )n1 R which has two different limits l0 , l00 R.
It follows that there exist two neighborhoods V 0 V(l0 ) and V 00 V(l00 ) such
that V 0 V 00 = . As an l0 ()n0 N such that ()n n0 an V 0 .
Also, since an l00 ()n00 N such that ()n n00 an V 00 . Hence
()n max{n0 , n00 } we have an V 0 V 00 = .
Theorem: Consider a sequence of real numbers (an )n1 . Then we have:
(i) lim an = l R () > 0, ()n N such that ()n n |an l| < .
n
(ii) lim an = () > 0, ()n N such that ()n n an > .

n
(iii) lim an = () > 0, ()n N such that ()n n an <

n
Theorem: Let (an )n1 a sequence of real numbers.

1. If lim an = l, then any subsequence of (an )n1 has the limit equal to l.
n
2. If there exist two subsequences of (an )n1 with different limits, then the
sequence (an )n1 is divergent.
3. If there exist two subsequences of (an )n1 which cover it and have a common
limit, then lim an = l.
n
Definition: A sequence (xn )n1 is a Cauchy sequence if () > 0, ()n N

such that |xn+p xn | < , ()n n , ()p N.
Theorem: A sequence of real numbers is convergent if and only if it is a Cauchy
sequence.
Theorem: Any increasing and unbounded sequence has the limit .
Theorem: Any increasing and bounded sequence converge to the upper bound
of the sequence.
Theorem: Any convergent sequence is bounded.
Theorem(Cesaro lemma): Any bounded sequence of real numbers contains
at least one convergent subsequence.
Theorem(Weierstrass theorem): Any monotonic and bounded sequence is
convergent.
Theorem: Any monotonic sequence of real numbers has limit.
Theorem: Consider two convergent sequences (an )n1 and (bn )n1 such that
an bn , ()n N . Then we have lim an lim bn .
n
Theorem: Consider a convergent sequence (an )n1 and a real number a such
that an a, ()n N . Then lim an a.
n
Theorem: Consider a convergent sequence (an )n1 such that lim an = a.

n
Them lim |an | = |a|.

n
Short teoretical introduction
Theorem: Consider two sequences of real numbers (an )n1 and (bn )n1 such
that an bn , ()n N . Then:
1. If lim an = it follows that lim bn = .
n
2. If lim bn = it follows that lim an = .

n
Limit operations:
Consider two sequences an and bn which have limit. Then we have:
1. lim (an + bn ) = lim an + lim bn (except the case (, )).
n
2. lim (an bn ) = lim an lim bn (except the cases (0, )).

n
lim an
an
= n (except the cases (0, 0), (, )).
n bn
lim bn
3. lim
lim bn
4. lim abnn = ( lim an )n

n
(except the cases (1, ), (, 0), (0, 0)).
5. lim (logan bn ) = log lim a ( lim bn ).

n n
n
n
Trivial consequences:
1. lim (an bn ) = lim an lim bn ;
n
2. lim (an ) = lim an ( R);

n
3. lim
an =
q
k
lim an (k N);
Theorem (Squeeze theorem): Let (an )n1 , (bn )n1 , (cn )n1 be three sequences of real numbers such that an bn cn , ()n N and lim an =
n
lim cn = l R. Then lim bn = l.
Theorem: Let (xn )n1 a sequence of real numbers such that lim (xn+1 xn ) =
n
R.
1. If > 0, then lim xn = .
n
2. If < 0, then lim xn = .

n
Theorem (Ratio test): Consider a sequence of real positive numbers (an )n1 ,
an+1
for which l = lim
R.
n an
1. If l < 1 then lim an = 0.
n
2. If l > 1 then lim an = .

n
an+1
,
Proof: 1. Let V = (, ) V(l) with l < < 1. Because l = lim
n an
a
n+1
there is some n0 N such that ()n n0
V , hence ()n n0
an
an+1
< 1. That means starting from the index n0 the sequence (an )n1 is
an
strictly decreasing. Since the sequence is strictly decreasing and it contains
only positive terms, the sequence is bounded. Using Weierstrass Theorem, it
follows that the sequence is convergent. We have:
an+1 =
an+1
an+1
an lim an+1 = lim
lim an
n
n
an
an n
which is equivalent with:

lim an (1 l) = 0
which implies that lim an = 0.

n
1
bn+1
1
we have lim
=
< 1, hence lim bn = 0 which
n bn
n
an
l
implies that lim an = .
2. Denoting bn =
n
Theorem: Consider
sequence of real non-zero numbers (xn )n1
a convergent

xn
such that lim n

1 R . Then lim xn = 0.
n
n
xn1
Theorem(Cesaro-Stolz lemma): 1. Consider two sequences (an )n1 and
(bn )n1 such that:
(i) the sequence (bn )n1 is strictly increasing and unbounded;
an+1 an
= l exists.
n bn+1 bn
(ii) the limit lim

Then the sequence
an
bn
an
= l.
n bn
is convergent and lim

n1
Proof: Lets consider the case l R and assume (bn )n1 is a strictly increasing
sequence, hence lim bn = . Now let V V(l), then there exists > 0 such
n
that (l , l + ) V . Let R such that 0 < < . As lim
exists k N such that ()n k
an
= l, there
bn
an+1 an
(l , l + ), which implies
bn+1 bn
that:
(l )(bn+1 bn ) < an+1 an < (l + )(bn+1 bn ), ()n k
Now writing this inequality from k to n 1 we have:
(l )(bk+1 bk ) < ak+1 ak < (l + )(bk+1 bk )
(l )(bk+2 bk+1 ) < ak+2 ak+1 < (l + )(bk+2 bk+1 )
...
(l )(bn bn1 ) < an an1 < (l + )(bn bn1 )
Summing all these inequalities we find that:
(l )(bn bk ) < an ak < (l + )(bn bk )
As lim bn = , starting from an index we have bn > 0. The last inequality
n
rewrites as:

an
ak
bk
bk
<
< (l + ) 1
(l ) 1
bn
bn
bn
bn
(l ) +
ak + ( l)bk
an
ak ( + l)bk
<
<l++
bn
bn
bn
As
ak + ( l)bk
ak ( + l)bk
= lim
=0
n
n
bn
bn
lim
there exists an index p N such that ()n p we have:

ak + ( l)bk ak ( + l)bk
,
( , )
bn
bn
We shall look for the inequalities:
ak + ( l)bk
>
bn
and
ak ( + l)bk
<
bn
Choosing m = max{k, p}, then ()n m we have:

l<
an
<l+
bn
an
an
V lim
= l. It remains to prove the theorem
n bn
bn
when l = , but these cases can be proven analogous choosing V = (, )
and V = (, ), respectively.
which means that
2. Let (xn )n1 and (yn )n1 such that:

(i) lim xn = lim yn = 0, yn 6= 0, ()n N ;
n
(ii) the sequence (yn )n1 is strictly decreasing;

xn+1 xn
= l R.
n yn+1 yn
(iii) the limit lim

Then the sequence
xn
yn

has a limit and lim
n1
xn
= l.
yn
xn
xn+1 xn
= lim
,
n yn+1 yn
yn
and if the limit we arrive to belongs to R, then the application of Cesaro-Stolz
lemma is valid.
Remark: In problems solutions well write directly lim
Trivial consequences:
1. Consider a sequence (an )n1 of strictly positive real numbers for which exists
an+1
lim
= l. Then we have:
n an
an+1
lim n an = lim
n an
n
Proof: Using Cesaro-Stolz theorem we have:
lim (ln
ln an
ln an+1 ln an
= lim
= lim ln
n n
n (n + 1) n
n
an ) = lim
an+1
an
Then:
lim
an = lim eln
n
an
lim (ln
= en
an )
= eln l = l
2. Let (xn )n1 a sequence of real numbers which has limit. Then:
lim
x1 + x2 + . . . + xn
= lim xn
n
n

= ln l
3. Let (xn )n1 a sequence of real positive numbers which has limit. Then:
lim
x1 x2 . . . xn = lim xn
n
Theorem (Reciprocal Cesaro-Stolz): Let (xn )n1 and (yn )n1 two sequences of real numbers such that:
(i) (yn )n1 is strictly increasing and unbounded;
(ii) the limit lim
xn
= l R;
yn
(iii) the limit lim
yn
R+ \{1}.
yn+1
Then the limit lim
xn+1 xn
exists and it is equal to l.
yn+1 yn
Theorem (exponential sequence): Let a R. Consider the sequence xn =

an , n N .
1. If a 1, the sequence is divergent.
2. If a (1, 1), then lim xn = 0.
n
3. If a = 1, then lim xn = 1.
n
4. If a > 1, then lim xn = .

n
Theorem (power sequence): Let a R. Consider the sequence xn = na , n

N .
1. If a < 0, then lim xn = 0.
n
2. If a = 0, then lim xn = 1.
n
3. If a > 0, then lim xn = .

n
Theorem (polynomial sequence): Let an = ak nk + ak1 nk1 + . . . + a1 n +

a0 , (ak 6= 0).
1. If ak > 0, then lim an = .
n
2. If ak < 0, then lim an = .

n
Theorem: Let bn =
ak nk + ak1 nk1 + . . . + a1 n + a0
, (ak 6= 0 6= bp ).
bp np + bp1 np1 + . . . + b1 n + b0
1. If k < p, then lim bn = 0.

n
2. If k = p, then lim bn =
ak
.
bp
3. If k > p, then lim bn =
ak
.
bp

Theorem: The sequence an =
1+
1
n
n
, n N is a strictly increasing and
bounded sequence and lim an = e.

n
Theorem: Consider a sequence (an )n1 of real non-zero numbers such that
1
lim an = 0. Then lim (1 + an ) an = e.
n
Proof: If (bn )n1 is a sequence of non-zero positive integers such that lim bn =

n
b

n
1 n
1
, we have lim 1 +
= e, it
= e. Let > 0. From lim 1 +
n
n
bn
n

n

1
0
0

follows that there exists n N such that ()n n 1 +
e < .
n
Also, since lim bn = , there exists n00 N such that ()n n00 bn >
n
0
n
there
exists n = max{n0 , n00 } N such that ()n n
. Therefore

bn

b

1
1 n

e < . This means that: lim 1 +
= e. The same
1+
n

bn
bn
property is fulfilled if lim bn = .
n
1
n
n
cn
e. We can assume that cn > 1, ()n N . Lets denote dn = bcn c N . In
this way (dn )n1 is sequence of positive integers with lim dn = . We have:
If (cn )n1 is a sequence of real numbers such that lim cn = , then lim
cn
1+
dn cn < dn + 1
1
1
1
<
dn + 1
cn
dn
Hence it follows that:

1+
1
dn + 1
d
Observe that:

<
1+
1
cn
dn
1+
1
cn
cn

<
1+
1
cn
dn +1

dn +1
1
1+
dn

lim
1
1+
dn + 1
dn

= lim
1
1+
dn + 1
dn +1
1+
1
dn + 1
1
=e
and

dn +1
dn

1
1
1
= lim 1 +
1+
1+
=e
n
n
dn
dn
dn

c
1 n
Using the Squeeze Theorem it follows that lim 1 +
= e. The same
n
cn
property is fulfilled when lim cn = .
lim
Now if the sequence (an )n1 contains a finite number of positive or negative
terms we can remove them and assume that the sequence contains only positive
1
we have lim xn = . Then we have
terms. Denoting xn =
n
an

xn
1
1
lim (1 + an ) an = lim 1 +
=e
n
n
xn
If the sequence contains an infinite number of positive or negative terms, the
1
same fact happens for the sequence (xn )n1 with xn =
, ()n N . Lets
an
denote by (a0n )n1 the subsequence of positive terms , and by (a00n )n1 the subse1
1
quence of negative terms. Also let c0n = 0 , ()n N and c00n = 00 , ()n N .
an
an
Then it follows that lim c0n = and lim c00n = . Hence:
n
lim (1 +
a0n ) a0n
lim (1 +
a00n ) a00n
= lim
1
1+ 0
cn
c0n
=e
and

= lim
1
1 + 00
cn
c00n
=e
Then it follows that: lim (1 + an ) an = e.

n
Consequence: Let (an )n1 , (bn )n1 two sequences of real numbers such that
an 6= 1, ()n N , lim an = 1 and lim bn = or lim bn = . If there
n
exists lim (an 1)bn R, then we have lim

n
abnn
=e
n
lim (an 1)bn
Theorem: Consider the sequence (an )n0 defined by an =
n
X
1
. We have
k!
k=0
lim an = e.
10
Theorem: Let (cn )n1 , a sequence defined by

1 1
1
+ + . . . + ln n, n 1
2 3
n
Then (cn )n1 is strictly decreasing and bounded, and lim cn = , where is
n
the Euler constant.
cn = 1 +
Recurrent sequences
A sequence (xn )n1 is a k-order recurrent sequence, if it is defined by a formula
of the form
xn+k = f (xn , xn+1 , . . . , nn+k1 ), n 1
with given x1 , x2 , . . . , xk . The recurrence is linear if f is a linear function.
Second order recurrence formulas which are homogoeneus, with constant coefficients, have the form xn+2 = xn+1 + xn , ()n 1 with given x1 , x2 , , .
To this recurrence formula we attach the equation r2 = r + , with r1 , r2 as
solutions.
If r1 , r2 R and r1 6= r2 , then xn = Ar1n +Br2n , where A, B are two real numbers,
usually found from the terms x1 , x2 . If r1 = r2 = r R, then xn = rn (A + nB)
and if r1 , r2 R, we have r1 , r2 = (cos + i sin ) so xn = n (cos n + i sin n).
Limit functions
Definition: Let f : D R (D R) and x0 R and accumulation point
of D. Well say that l R is the limit of the function f in x0 , and we write
lim f (x) = l, if for any neightborhood V of l, there is a neighborhood U of x0 ,
xx0
such that for any x D U \{x0 }, we have f (x) V.

Theorem: Let f : D R (D R) and x0 an accumulation point of D. Then
lim f (x) = l (l, x0 R) if and only if () > 0, () > 0, ()x D\{x0 }
xx0
such that |x x0 | < |f (x) l| < .

If l = , we have:
lim f (x) = () > 0, () > 0, ()x D\{x0 } such that |xx0 | < ,
xx0
we have f (x) > (f (x) < ).

Theorem: Let f : D R R and x0 an accumulation point of D. Then
lim f (x) = l (l R, x0 R), if and only if ()(xn )n1 , xn D\{x0 }, xn
xx0
x0 , we have lim f (xn ) = l.

n
One-side limits
11
Definition: Let f : D R R and x0 R an accumulation point of D. Well

say that ls R (or ld R) is the left-side limit (or right-side limit) of f in x0 if
for any neigborhood V of ls (or ld ), there is a neighborhood U of x0 , such that
for any x < x0 , x U D\{x0 } (x > x0 respectively), f (x) V.
We write ls = lim f (x) = f (x0 0) and ld = lim f (x) = f (x0 + 0).
x x0
x>x0
x x0
x<x0
Theorem: Let f : D R R and x0 R an accumulation point of the sets

(, x0 ) D and (x0 , ) D. Then f has the limit l R if and only if f has
equal one-side limits in x0 .
Remarkable limits
If lim f (x) = 0, then:
xx0
1. lim
sin f (x)
= 1;
f (x)
2. lim
tan f (x)
= 1;
f (x)
3. lim
arcsin f (x)
= 1;
f (x)
4. lim
arctan f (x)
= 1;
f (x)
xx0
xx0
xx0
xx0
1
f
(x)
5. lim (1 + f (x))
=e
xx0
6. lim
ln(1 + f (x))
= 1;
f (x)
7. lim
af (x) 1
= ln a (a > 0);
f (x)
8. lim
(1 + f (x))r 1
= r (r R);
f (x)
xx0
xx0
xx0
If lim f (x) = , then:

xx0

9. lim 1 +
xx0
10. lim
xx0
1
f (x)
f (x)
ln f (x)
= 0;
f (x)
= e;
Chapter 2
Problems
1. Evaluate:
lim

p
p
3
3
n3 + 2n2 + 1 n3 1
2. Evaluate:
3
5x + 2 + 2
lim
x2
3x + 10 2
n
X
3n2 + 9n
, ()n 1.
2
k=1
Prove that this sequence is an arithmetical progression and evaluate:
3. Consider the sequence (an )n1 , such that
ak =
n
1 X
ak
n nan
lim
k=1
1
(an +
3
2
an1 + b), where 0 b 1. Prove that the sequence is convergent and evaluate
lim an .
4. Consider the sequence (an )n1 such that a1 = a2 = 0 and an+1 =
5. Consider a sequence of real numbers (xn )n1 such that x1 = 1 and xn =

1
2xn1 + , ()n 2. Evaluate lim xn .
n
n
6. Evaluate:
n

4

n
+ n2 sinn + cos 2n +
n
5
6
n
lim
7. Evaluate:
12
Problems
13
n
X
k! k
n
(n + 1)!
lim
k=1
8. Evaluate:

lim
1
1 2
2

1
1
1 2 ... 1 2
3
n
9. Evaluate:
s
n
lim
33n (n!)3
(3n)!
10. Consider a sequence of real positive numbers (xn )n1 such that (n+1)xn+1
nxn < 0, ()n 1. Prove that this sequence is convergent and evaluate its
limit.
11. Find the real numbers a and b such that:
p

3
lim
1 n3 an b = 0
n
12. Let p N and 1 , 2 , ..., p positive distinct real numbers. Evaluate:

q
lim n 1n + 2n + . . . + pn
n
13. If a R , evaluate:
lim
xa
cos x cos a
x2 a2
14. If n N , evaluate:
ln(1 + x + x2 + . . . + xn )
x0
nx
lim
15. Evaluate:
lim
n +n
n
X
2k 3 + 8k 2 + 6k 1
k=1
k 2 + 4k + 3
16. Find a R such that:

lim
x0
1 cos ax
sin x
= lim
x x
x2
17. Evaluate:
3
lim
x1
18. Evaluate:
x2 + 7 x + 3
x2 3x + 2
14
lim
p

p
2n2 + n 2n2 n
where is a real number.

19. If a, b, c R, evaluate:

lim a x + 1 + b x + 2 + c x + 3
20. Find the set A R such that ax2 + x + 3 0, ()a A, ()x R. Then
for any a A, evaluate:

p
lim x + 1 ax2 + x + 3
x
21. If k R, evaluate:
lim n
n+1
22. If k N and a R+ \{1}, evaluate:

r
1
n
lim n (a 1)
n+2
n+3
n1
n+1
n+2
23. Evaluate:
lim
n
X
k=1
1
n2 + k
24. If a > 0, p 2, evaluate:

lim
n
X
k=1
1
np + ka
25. Evaluate:
lim
n!
(1 +
12 )(1
22 )
. . . (1 + n2 )
26. Evaluate:

lim
2n 3
2n2 n + 1
n2 1
n
27. Evaluate:
p
lim
x0
1 + sin2 x cos x
1 1 + tan2 x
Problems
15
28. Evaluate:

lim
x
x+ x
x x
29. Evaluate:
1
lim (cos x) sin x
x0
x>0
30. Evaluate:
1
lim (ex + sin x) x
x0
31. If a, b R+ , evaluate:
a1+
a
lim
!n
n
b
32. Consider a sequence of real numbers (an )n1 defined by:
1
if n k, k N
k
k
(n
+
1)
n
an =

if n > k
n
k1
i)Evaluate lim an .
n
ii)If bn = 1 +
n
X
k=1
k lim an , evaluate:
n

lim
b2n
bn1 bn+1
n
33. Consider a sequence of real numbers (xn )n1 such that xn+2 =
N . If x1 x2 ,
xn+1 + xn
, ()n
2
i)Prove that the sequence (x2n+1 )n0 is increasing, while the sequence (x2n )n0
is decreasing;
ii)Prove that:
|xn+2 xn+1 | =
|x2 x1 |
, ()n N
2n
iii)Prove that:
2xn+2 + xn+1 = 2x2 + x1 , ()n N
iv)Prove that (xn )n1 is convergent and that its limit is
x1 + 2x2
.
3
16
34. Let an , bn Q such that (1 +

an
lim
.
n bn
2)n = an + bn 2, ()n N . Evaluate
35. If a > 0, evaluate:

(a + x)x 1
x0
x
lim
36. Consider a sequence of real numbers (an )n1 such that a1 =
3
and an+1 =
2
a2n an + 1
. Prove that (an )n1 is convergent and find its limit.
an
37. Consider a sequence of real numbers (xn )n1 such that x0 (0, 1) and
xn+1 = xn x2n + x3n x4n , ()n 0. Prove that this sequence is convergent
and evaluate lim xn .
n
p
38. Let a > 0 and b (a, 2a) and a sequence x0 = b, xn+1 = a+ xn (2a xn ), ()n
0. Study the convergence of the sequence (xn )n0 .
39. Evaluate:
lim
n+1
X
arctan
k=1
1
2k 2
40. Evaluate:
lim
n
X
k=1
k
+1
4k 4
41. Evaluate:
lim
n
X
1 + 3 + 32 + . . . + 3k
k=1
5k+2
42. Evaluate:
lim
n+1
n X
i
X
k1
i=2 k=2
k!
43. Evaluate:
11 + 22 + 33 + . . . + nn
n
nn
lim
44. Consider the sequence (an )n1 such that a0 = 2 and an1 an =
Evaluate lim ((n + 1)! ln an ).
n
n
.
(n + 1)!
Problems
17
45. Consider a sequence of real numbers (xn )n1 with x1 = a > 0 and xn+1 =
x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 + . . . + nxn
, n N . Evaluate its limit.
n
n
X
2
1
=
, evaluate:
2
n
k
6
46. Using lim
k=1
lim
n
X
1
(2k 1)2
k=1
47. Consider the sequence (xn )n1 defined by x1 = a, x2 = b, a < b and

xn1 + xn2
xn =
, n 3, > 0. Prove that this sequence is convergent and
1+
find its limit.
48. Evaluate:
n
lim
n
n!
49. Consider the sequence (xn )n1 defined by x1 = 1 and xn =
1
, n
1 + xn1
2. Prove that this sequence is convergent and evaluate lim xn .

n
50. If a, b R , evaluate:
lim
x0
ln(cos ax)
ln(cos bx)
{x}
x
if x Q
. Find all R for which
if x R\Q
bxc
x
if x Q
if x R\Q
51. Let f : R R, f (x) =

lim f (x) exists.
52. Let f : R R, f (x) =

lim f (x) exists.
53. Let (xn )n1 be a sequence of positive real numbers such that x1 > 0 and
a
3xn = 2xn1 + 2 , where a is a real positive number. Prove that xn is
xn1
convergent and evaluate lim xn .
n
54.Consider asequence of real numbers (an )n1 such that a1 = 12 and an+1 =
3
an 1 +
. Evaluate:
n+1
n
X
1
lim
n
ak
k=1
18
55. Evaluate:

lim
n
n
n2 + 1
56. If a R, evaluate:
n 2
X
k a
lim
n
n3
k=1
57. Evaluate:
n
lim 2
n
X
k=1
1
1
k(k + 2) 4
!n
58. Consider the sequence (an )n1 , such that an > 0, ()n N and lim n(an+1
n
an ) = 1. Evaluate lim an and lim n an .

n
59. Evaluate:
1 + 2 2 + 3 3 + ... + n n
lim
n
n2 n
60. Evaluate:
1
lim (sin x) 2x
x 2
61. Evaluate:

1
lim n2 ln cos
n
n
62. Given a, b R+ , evaluate:
!n
a+ nb
lim
n
2

1 0
0
63. Let > > 0 and the matrices A =
, B=
0 1
1
i)Prove that ()(xn )n1 , (yn )n1 R such that:

n

= xn A + yn B, ()n 1

xn
.
ii)Evaluate lim
n yn
64. If a R such that |a| < 1 and p N is given, evaluate:

1
.
0
Problems
19
lim np an
65. If p N , evaluate:
1p + 2p + 3p + . . . + np
n
np+1
lim
sin(n arccos x)
x1
1 x2
lim
x<1
1 cos(n arccos x)
1 x2
x1
lim
x<1
68. Study the convergence of the sequence:

xn+1 =
xn + a
, n 1, x1 0, a > 0
xn + 1
69. Consider two sequences of real numbers (xn )n0 and (yn )n0 such that
x0 = y0 = 3, xn = 2xn1 + yn1 and yn = 2xn1 + 3yn1 , ()n 1. Evaluate
xn
lim
.
n yn
70. Evaluate:
lim
x0
tan x x
x2
71. Evaluate:
lim
x0
tan x arctan x
x2
72. Let a > 0 and a sequence of real numbers (xn )n0 such that xn (0, a) and
a2
, ()n N. Prove that (xn )n1 is convergent and evaluate
xn+1 (a xn ) >
4
lim xn .
73. Evaluate:
lim cos n

e
2n
74. Evaluate:

lim
n+1
n
tan (n1)
2n
20
75. Evaluate:
v
u n
uY n
n
lim t
n
k
k=1

a+
lim
a+
a + ... +
ln n
an
77. Evaluate:

n
4
n
78. Let k N and a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , ak R such that a0 + a1 + a2 + . . . + ak = 0.
Evaluate:

3
lim a0 3 n + a1 3 n + 1 + . . . + ak n + k
lim n ln tan
79. Evaluate:
p

3
lim sin n n3 + 3n2 + 4n 5
80. Evaluate:
2 arcsin x
sin x
x1
lim
x<1
81. Evaluate:
lim
n
X
k=2
1
k ln k
82. Evaluate:
lim lim
x0
1+
n
X
!
sin2 (kx)
1
n3 x2
k=1
lim
n
X
(k + 1)(k + 2) . . . (k + p)
k=0
np+1

84. If n 0,
is a root of the equation tan + cot = n, n 2, evaluate:
4
lim (sin n + cos n )n
85. Evaluate:
Problems
21
s
n
X
lim
n+k
2
n2
k=1
86. Evaluate:
v
u n

uY
k
n
lim t
1+
n
n
k=1
87. Evaluate:
arctan x arcsin x
x0
x3
lim
88. If > 0, evaluate:

(n + 1) n
n
n1
lim
89. Evaluate:
lim
n
X
k2
k=1
2k
90. Evaluate:
lim
n
X
(k + 1)(k + 2)
k=0
2k
xn+1 = x2n xn + 1, ()n N. Evaluate:
lim (x1 x2 . . . xn )
lim
x0
1 cos x cos 2x . . . cos nx

x2
93. Consider a sequence of real numbers (xn )n1 such that xn is the real root
of the equation x3 + nx n = 0, n N . Prove that this sequence is convergent
and find its limit.
94. Evaluate:
arctan x arctan 2
x2
tan x tan 2
lim
95. Evaluate:
22
lim
1+
22
2! +
32
3! + . . . +
n
n2
n!
x2
96. Let (xn )n1 such that x1 > 0, x1 + x21 < 1 and xn+1 = xn + n2 , ()n 1.
n
1
1
Prove that the sequences (xn )n1 and (yn )n2 , yn =
are convergent.
xn n 1
97. Evaluate:
lim
n
X
i=1
sin
2i
n2
98. If a > 0, a 6= 1, evaluate:

xx ax
xa ax aa
lim
99. Consider a sequence of positive real numbers (an )n1 such that an+1
1
1
= an +
, ()n 1. Evaluate:
an+1
an

1
1
1
1
lim
+
+ ... +
n
a2
an
n a1
100. Evaluate:
2arctan x 2arcsin x
x0
2tan x 2sin x
lim
Chapter 3
Solutions
1. Evaluate:
lim
p
3
n3 + 2n2 + 1
p
3

n3 1
Solution:
lim
n3 + 2n2 + 1 n3 + 1
p
p
n
(n3 + 2n2 + 1)2 + 3 (n3 1)(n3 + 2n2 + 1) + 3 (n3 1)2

n2 2 + n2
q

= lim
q

q

n
3
3
2
1 2
1
2
1
1 2
3
2
n
1 + n + n3 +
1 n3 1 + n + n3 +
1 n3

p
p
3
3
n3 + 2n2 + 1 n3 1 = lim p
3
2
3
2. Evaluate:
3
5x + 2 + 2
lim
x2
3x + 10 2
Solution:
3
5x + 2 + 2
lim
= lim
x2
3x + 10 2 x2
5x+10
(5x+2)2 2 3 5x+2+4
3x+6
3x+10+2
5
3x + 10 + 2
lim p
3 x2 3 (5x + 2)2 2 3 5x + 2 + 4
5
=
9
n
X
3n2 + 9n
3. Consider the sequence (an )n1 , such that
ak =
, ()n 1.
2
k=1
Prove that this sequence is an arithmetical progression and evaluate:
=
23
24
n
1 X
ak
n nan
lim
k=1
Solution: For n = 1 we get a1 = 6. Then a1 + a2 = 15, so a2 = 9 and the ratio

is r = 3. Therefore the general term is an = 6 + 3(n 1) = 3(n + 1). So:
n
1
1 X
n+3
=
lim
ak = lim
n nan
n 2n + 2
2
k=1
1
(an +
3
2
an1 + b), where 0 b < 1. Prove that the sequence is convergent and evaluate
lim an .
4. Consider the sequence (an )n1 such that a1 = a2 = 0 and an+1 =
b
Solution: We have a2 a1 = 0 and a3 a2 = 0, so assuming an1 an2
3
and an an1 , we need to show that an+1 an . The recurrence equation gives
us:
1
(an an1 + a2n1 a2n2 )
3
Therefore it follows that the sequence is monotonically increasing. Also, because
b
4b
b 1, we have a3 =
< 1, a4 =
< 1. Assuming that an1 , an < 1, it
3
9
follows that:
an+1 an =
1
1
(b + an + a2n1 ) < (1 + 1 + 1) = 1
3
3
Hence an [0, 1), ()n N , which means the sequence is bounded. From
Weierstrass theorem it follows that the sequence is convergent. Let then lim an =
n
l. By passing to limit in the recurrence relation, we have:
an+1 =
l2 2l + b = 0 (l 1)2 = 1 b l = 1 1 b
Because 1 + 1 b > 1 and an [0, 1), it follows that lim an = 1 1 b.

n
5. Consider a sequence of real numbers (xn )n1 such that x1 = 1 and xn =

1
2xn1 + , ()n 2. Evaluate lim xn .
n
2
Solution: Lets evaluate a few terms:
x2 = 2 +
x3 = 22 + 2
1
2
1 1
1
+ = 22 + (22 1)
2 2
2
Solutions
25
x4 = 23 + 22 1 +
1
1
= 23 + (23 1)
2
2
x5 = 24 + 23 1 +
1
1
= 24 + (24 1)
2
2
1
and by induction we can show immediately that xn = 2n1 + (2n1 1). Thus
2
lim xn = .
n
6. Evaluate:
n

4

n
+ n2 sinn + cos 2n +
n
5
6
n
lim
Solution: We have:
4n+1 (n+1)
5n+1
lim
4n n
n
5n
4(n + 1)
4
= <1
5n
5
n
4
= 0. Also
Thus using the ratio test it follows that lim n
n
5
(n+1)2
n+1
lim 2 2
n
n
2n
= lim
n2 + 2n + 1
1
= <1
n
2n2
2
= lim
n2
From the ratio test it follows that lim n = lim n2 sinn = 0. Therefore the
n
n 2
6
limit is equal to

lim cos 2n +
= lim cos = cos 0 = 1
n
n
n
n
7. Evaluate:
n
X
k! k
n
(n + 1)!
lim
k=1
Solution:

n
n
X
X
k! k
(k + 1)! k!
1
= lim
= lim 1
=1
n
n
(n + 1)! n
(n + 1)!
(n + 1)!
lim
k=1
k=1
8. Evaluate:

lim
Solution:
1
1 2
2

1
1
1 2 ... 1 2
3
n
26

lim
1
22

n
Y
1
1
1
1 2 1 2 = lim
1 2
n
3
n
r
r=2

n
Y r2 1
= lim
n
r2
r=2

n
Y
(r 1)(r + 1)
= lim
n
r2
r=2

1
1
=
lim 1 +
2 n
n
1
=
2
9. Evaluate:
s
lim
33n (n!)3
(3n)!
33n (n!)3
. Then:
(3n)!
an+1
lim n an = lim
n
n
an
3n+3
(3n)!
3
[(n + 1)!]3
3n
= lim
n
(3n + 3)!
3 (n!)3
27(n + 1)3
= lim
n (3n + 1)(3n + 2)(3n + 3)
=1
Solution: Define an =
10. Consider a sequence of real positive numbers (xn )n1 such that (n+1)xn+1
nxn < 0, ()n 1. Prove that this sequence is convergent and evaluate its
limit.
Solution: Because nxn > (n + 1)xn+1 , we deduce that x1 > 2x2 > 3x3 >
x1
. Using the Squeeze Theorem it follows that
. . . > nxn , whence 0 < xn <
n
lim xn = 0.
n
11. Find the real numbers a and b such that:

lim
Solution: We have:
p
3

1 n3 an b = 0
Solutions
27
b = lim
p
3
1 n3 an
1 n3 a3 n3
p
3
n
(1 n3 )2 + 3 an(1 n3 ) + a2 n2

n 1 a3 + n13
= lim q
2 q
q 2
n 3
1
+ 3 a n15 n12 + 3 na 4
n3 1
= lim p
3
If 1 a3 6= 0, it follows that b = , which is false. Hence a3 = 1 a = 1

and so b = 0.
12. Let p N and 1 , 2 , ..., p positive distinct real numbers. Evaluate:
q
lim n 1n + 2n + . . . + pn
n
Solution: WLOG let j = max{1 , 2 , . . . , p }, 1 j p. Then:
lim
q
n
1n
2n
s
+ ... +
pn
= lim j
1
j
n

+
2
j
n

+ ... +
= j
= max{1 , 2 , . . . , p }
13. If a R , evaluate:
lim
xa
cos x cos a
x2 a2
Solution:
xa
2 sin x+a
cos x cos a
2 sin 2
=
lim
xa
xa
x2 a2
(x a)(x + a)
sin x+a
sin xa
2
2
= lim
lim
x+a
xa
xa a x
2
lim
sin xa
2
xa a x
sin a
=
2a
= lim
ln(1 + x + x2 + . . . + xn )
x0
nx
lim
Solution: Using lim
x0
ln(1 + x)
= 1, we have:
x
j1
j
n

+1+
j+1
j
n

+ ... +
p
j
n
28
x + x2 + . . . + xn
ln(1 + x + x2 + . . . + xn )
ln(1 + x + x2 + . . . + xn )
lim
= lim
x0
x0
x0
nx
x + x2 + . . . + xn
nx
x + x2 + . . . + xn
= lim
x0
nx
1 + x + . . . + xn1
= lim
x0
n
1
=
n
lim
15. Evaluate:
2
n +n
lim
n
X
2k 3 + 8k 2 + 6k 1
k 2 + 4k + 3
k=1
Solution: Telescoping, we have:
lim
n +n
n
X
2k 3 + 8k 2 + 6k 1
k 2 + 4k + 3
k=1
16. Find a R such that:

lim
x0
1 cos ax
sin x
= lim
x x
x2
Solution: Observe that:

2 sin2 ax
1 cos ax
a2
a2
2
=
lim
=
2 x2
2
a
x0
x
4 x0
2
4
lim
and
lim
Therefore
sin x
sin ( x)
= lim
=1
x
x
x
a2
= 1, which implies a = 2.
2
17. Evaluate:
n
X
1X 1
1X 1
= lim n + n 2
k+
n
2
k+1 2
k+3
k=1
k=1
k=1
!
n
n
X
X
1
1
1
lim
=
2 n
k+1
k+3
k=1
k=1

1
1
1
5
lim
+
=
12 2 n n + 2 n + 3
5
=
12
2
Solutions
29
3
lim
x1
x2 + 7 x + 3
x2 3x + 2
Solution:
3
lim
x1
3
x2 + 7 x + 3
x2 + 7 3
2 x+3
= lim 2
+ lim 2
x1 x 3x + 2
x1 x 3x + 2
x2 3x + 2
1
x+1
p
+ lim
= lim
x1 (2 x)(2 +
x1
x + 3)
(x 2) 3 (x2 + 7)2 + 2 3 x2 + 7 + 4
=
=
2
1
+
12 4
1
12
18. Evaluate:
lim
p
2n2 + n
2n2 n
where is a real number.

Solution:
lim
p
2n2 + n

p
2n2 + n 2 2n2 n
2n2 n = lim
n
2n2 + n + 2n2 n

2n2 1 2 + n 1 + 2
q
= lim

q
n
n
2 + n1 + 2 n1

2n 1 2 + 1 + 2
q
= lim q
n
2 + n1 + 2 n1
+ if (, 1)

2
=
if = 1
if (1, +)
19. If a, b, c R, evaluate:

lim a x + 1 + b x + 2 + c x + 3
Solution: If a + b + c 6= 0, we have:
30
!
r
r
r
1
2
3
lim a x + 1 + b x + 2 + c x + 3 = lim x a 1 + + b 1 + + c 1 +
x
x
x
x
x
= lim x (a + b + c)
x

if a + b + c < 0
=
if a + b + c > 0
If a + b + c = 0, then:

lim a x + 1 + b x + 2 + c x + 3 = lim a x + 1 a + b x + 2 b + c x + 3 c
x
x
b + xb
c + 2c
a
x
= lim q
+q
+q
x
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
3
x + x2 + x
x + x2 + x
x + x2 +
=0
20. Find the set A R such that ax2 + x + 3 0, ()a A, ()x R. Then
for any a A, evaluate:
lim
x+1

p
ax2 + x + 3
Solution:
We have ax2 + x + 3 0, ()x R if a > 0 and x 0, whence

1
a
, . Then:
12

p
(1 a)x2 + x 2
lim x + 1 ax2 + x + 3 = lim

x
x x + 1 +
ax2 + x + 3
(1 a)x + 1 x2
q
= lim
x
1 + x1 + a + x1 + x32

if
a
,
1
12
1
=
if a = 1
if a (1, )
21. If k R, evaluate:
lim n
Solution:
n+1
n+2
n+3
1
x
Solutions
lim n
31
n+1
n+2
n+3
nk
2
r
lim r
n (n + 1)(n + 2) n
n
n+2
+
n+1
n+3
= lim
nk
= lim
n (n + 1)(n + 2)
if k < 2
0
1
if k = 2
=
if k > 2
22. If k N and a R+ \{1}, evaluate:
r
1
n
lim nk (a 1)
n1
n+1
n+2
Solution:
1
n
lim n (a 1)
n1
n+1
n+2
nk (a n 1)
2
= lim
lim r
r
n
n
n(n + 2)
n1
n+1
+
n
n+2
1
k1
an 1
n
lim
= lim
1
n n(n + 2) n
n
nk2
= ln a lim
n n + 2
0
if k {0, 1, 2}
ln a
if k = 3
=
if
k
4
and a (0, 1)
if k 4 and a > 1
23. Evaluate:
lim
n
X
k=1
1
n2
+k
Solution: Clearly
1
n2
+n
1
n2
+k
1
n2
+1
, ()1 k n
Thus summing for k = 1, n, we get:

n
X
n
1
n
n2 + n k=1 n2 + k
n2 + 1
32
Because lim
n
n
1
= lim q
n
+n
1+
n2
= 1 and lim
n
1
n
n
n2
+1
= lim q
n
1
1+
=
1
n2
1, using the squeeze theorem it follows that:

n
X
lim
k=1
1
=1
n2 + k
24. If a > 0, p 2, evaluate:

lim
n
X
k=1
1
np + ka
Solution: Obviously
1
1
1

, ()1 k n

p
p
np + na
np + a
np + ka
Thus summing for k = 1, n, we get:

n
X
1
n
n

p
np + na k=1 n2 + k
np + a
n
1
= 1 and lim
= lim r
=
p
p
n
n
a
a
+a
n + na
1+ p
1 + p1
n
n
1, using the squeeze theorem it follows that:
Because lim
p
n
np
= lim r
lim
n
X
k=1
1
=1
+ ka
np
25. Evaluate:
lim
n!
(1 +
12 )(1
22 )
. . . (1 + n2 )
Solution: We have
n!
(1 + 12 )(1 + 22 ) . . . (1 + n2 )
n!
< 2 2
1 2 . . . n2
n!
=
(1 2 . . . n) (1 2 . . . n)
n!
=
(n!)2
1
=
n!
Thus using squeeze theorem it follows that:
0
Solutions
33
lim
n!
=0
(1 + 12 )(1 + 22 ) . . . (1 + n2 )
26. Evaluate:

lim
2n 3
2n2 n + 1
n2 1
n
Solution:

lim
2n 3
2n2 n + 1
2
n 1
n

= lim
1+
n4
2n2 n + 1
2
n 1
n
2
1)
(n4)(n
3
2 +n
2
2n
2n
2n
n+1

n4
n4
= lim
1
+
2
n
2n n + 1
n3 4n2 n+4
3
2
= en 2n 2n +n
lim
= e2
= e
27. Evaluate:
p
1 + sin2 x cos x
lim
x0
1 1 + tan2 x
Solution:
p
lim
x0
1 + sin2 x cos x
(1 + sin2 x cos2 x)(1 + 1 + tan2 x)
p
= lim
x0
1 1 + tan2 x
(1 1 tan2 x)( 1 + sin2 x + cos x)
2 sin2 x(1 + 1 + tan2 x)

p
= lim
x0
tan2 x( 1 + sin2 x + cos x)
2 cos2 x(1 + 1 + tan2 x)

p
= lim
x0
1 + sin2 x + cos x
= 2
28. Evaluate:

lim
x
x+ x
x x
34
Solution:

lim

x
x
x+ x
2 x
= lim 1 +
x
x x
x x
2x x

x x x x

2 x
2 x
1
+
= lim
x
x x
2x x
lim
= ex x x
2 x
lim
x 1 1
x
=e
=e
=
29. Evaluate:
1
lim (cos x) sin x
x0
x>0
Solution:
1
1
lim (cos x) sin x = lim (1 + (cos x 1)) cos x 1
x0
x>0
x0
x>0
2 sin2 x2
x
x
x 0 2 sin 2 cos 2
lim
=e
x>0
lim tan
x0
e x>0
x
2
= e0
=1
30. Evaluate:
1
lim (ex + sin x) x
x0
Solution:
cos x 1
sin x
Solutions
35
x1

sin x
x
lim (e + sin x) = lim e 1 + x
x0
x0
e
1
x
sin x
x
e
xex

1
sin x sin x
= lim (ex ) x lim 1 + x
x0
x0
e
x
1
x
= e ex0 sin x e
lim
= e2
31. If a, b R+ , evaluate:
a1+
a
lim
!n
n
b
Solution:
n( n b 1)
a
!n
!a
n
n
n
1
a1+ b
b
= lim
1+
n
a
a
lim
=e
1
bn 1
lim
a n n1
ln b
=e a
1
= ba
32. Consider a sequence of real numbers (an )n1 defined by:
1
(n + 1)k nk
an =
if n k, k N
if n > k
k1
i)Evaluate lim an .
n
ii)If bn = 1 +
n
X
k=1
k lim an , evaluate:
n

lim
Solution: i) We have
b2n
bn1 bn+1
n
36
(n + 1)k nk

n
n
k1
lim an = lim
(k 1)! k nk1 + . . . + (k 1)!

n (n k + 2)(n k + 3) . . . n
k! nk1 + . . .
=
nk1 + . . .
= k!
= lim
ii) Then:
n
X
bn = 1 +
k k! = 1 +
k=1
n
X
(k + 1)!
k=1
n
X
k! = (n + 1)!
k=1
so

lim
b2n
bn1 bn+1
n

= lim
1
1
n
n
= e1
33. Consider a sequence of real numbers (xn )n1 such that xn+2 =
N . If x1 x2 ,
xn+1 + xn
, ()n
2
i)Prove that the sequence (x2n+1 )n0 is increasing, while the sequence (x2n )n0
is decreasing;
ii)Prove that:
|xn+2 xn+1 | =
|x2 x1 |
, ()n N
2n
iii)Prove that:
2xn+2 + xn+1 = 2x2 + x1 , ()n N
iv)Prove that (xn )n1 is convergent and that its limit is
x1 + 2x2
.
3
Solution: i)Using induction we can show that x2n1 x2n . Then the sequence
(x2n+1 )n0 will be increasing, because
x2n + x2n1
x2n1 + x2n1
= x2n1
2
2
Similarly, we can show that (x2n )n1 is decreasing.
x2n+1 =
ii) For n = 1, we get |x3 x2 | =

have:
|x2 x1 |
, so assuming its true for some k, we
2
Solutions
37

xk+2 + xk+1
|xk+2 xk+1 |
|x2 x1 |

|xk+3 xk+2 | =
xk+2 =
=
2
2
2n+1
Thus, by induction the equality is proven.
iii) Observe that:
xn+1 + xn
+ xn+1 = 2xn+1 + xn
2
and repeating the process, the demanded identity is showed.
2xn+2 + xn+1 = 2
iv) From i) it follows that the sequences (x2n )n1 and (x2n1 )n1 are convergent
and have the same limit. Let l = lim xn = l. Then from iii), we get
n
x1 + 2x2
3l = x1 + 2x2 l =
3
n
34. Let an , bn Q such that (1 + 2) = an + bn 2, ()n N . Evaluate
an
lim
.
n bn
Solution: Because (1+ 2)n = an +bn 2, it follows that (1 2)n = an bn 2.

Solving this system we find:
an =
i
1h
(1 + 2)n + (1 2)n
2
and
i
1 h
bn = (1 + 2)n (1 2)n
2 2
an
= 2.
and therefore lim
n bn
(a + x)x 1
x0
x
lim
Solution:
(a + x)x 1
ex ln(a+x) 1
= lim
x0
x0
x
x
ex ln(a+x) 1
lim ln(a + x)
= lim
x0 x ln(a + x)
x0
= ln a
lim
36. Consider a sequence of real numbers (an )n1 such that a1 =
3
and an+1 =
2
a2n an + 1
. Prove that (an )n1 is convergent and find its limit.
an
38
Solution: By AM GM we have an+1 = an +
1
1 1, ()n 2, so the
an
1
1 0, hence the sequence
an
3
is decreasing. Therefore (an )n1 is bounded by 1 and a1 = . Then, because
2
l2 l + 1
(an )n1 is convergent, denote lim an = l, to obtain l =
l=1
n
l
sequence is lower bounded. Also an+1 an =
37. Consider sequence (xn )n1 of real numbers such that x0 (0, 1) and xn+1 =
xn x2n +x3n x4n , ()n 0. Prove that this sequence is convergent and evaluate
lim xn .
n
Solution: Its easy to see that the recurrence formula can be written as: xn+1 =
xn (1 xn )(1 + x2n ), n N, then because 1 x0 > 0, its easy to show by
induction that xn (0, 1). Now rewrite the recurrence formula as xn+1 xn =
x2n (x2n xn + 1) < 0. It follows that the sequence is strictly decreasing, thus
convergent. Let lim xn = l. Then
n
l = l l2 + l3 l4 l2 (l2 l + 1) = 0 l = 0
p
38. Let a > 0 and b (a, 2a) and a sequence x0 = b, xn+1 = a+ xn (2a xn ), ()n
0. Study the convergence of the sequence (xn )n0 .
Solution: Lets see a few terms: x1 = a +
q
x2 = a+
(a +
2ab b2 and also
p
p
p
2ab b2 )(a 2ab b2 ) = a+ a2 2ab + b2 = a+|ab| = b
2
Thus the sequence is periodic, with x2k = b and xp
2k+1 = a + 2ab b , ()k
2
N. Then lim x2k = b and lim x2k+1 = a + 2ab b . The sequence is
n
k

1
2
convergent if and only if b = a+ 2ab b , which implies that b = 1 +
a,
2
which is also the limit in this case.
39. Evaluate:
lim
n+1
X
arctan
k=1
Solution: We can check easily that arctan

Then:
lim
n+1
X
k=1
arctan
1
2k 2
1
k
k1
= arctan
arctan
.
2k 2
k+1
k
1
n
= lim arctan
=
n
2k 2
n+1
4
Solutions
39
40. Evaluate:
n
X
lim
k=1
k
4k 4 + 1
Solution:
lim
n
X
k=1
1X
1X
1
1
2
2
2
2k 2k + 1 2
2k + 2k + 1
k=1
k=1

1
1
=
lim 1 2
n
4
2n + 2n + 1
1
=
4
k
= lim
4
4k + 1 n
41. Evaluate:
lim
n
X
1 + 3 + 32 + . . . + 3k
5k+2
k=1
Solution: In the numerator we have a geometrical progression, so:

lim
n
X
1 + 3 + 32 + . . . + 3k
5k+2
k=1
= lim
n
X
3k+1 1
2 5k+2

n k
X
1
3
1
=
lim
10 n
5k
5k
k=2

9
1
1
=
10 10 20
17
=
200
n
k=1
42. Evaluate:
lim
n+1
i
n X
X
k1
i=2 k=2
k!
Solution:
lim
n+1
n X
i
X
k1
i=2 k=2
k!
!
= lim
= lim
= lim
=e
n X
i
X
1
1
n+1
(k
1)!
k!
i=2 k=2
!
n
X
1
n+1
1
i!
i=2
!n
n
X1
1+
i!
i=1
!
40
43. Evaluate:
11 + 22 + 33 + . . . + nn
n
nn
Solution: Using Cesaro-Stolz theorem we have:
lim
(n + 1)n+1
11 + 22 + 33 + . . . + nn
= lim
n
n (n + 1)n+1 nn
n
n
n+1
1 + n1
= lim

n 1 + 1 n+1 1
n
n
e
=
e0
=1
lim
44. Consider the sequence (an )n1 such that a0 = 2 and an1 an =
n
.
(n + 1)!
Evaluate lim ((n + 1)! ln an ).

n
Solution: Observe that

ak ak1 =
k
1
1
=
, ()1 k n
(k + 1)!
(k + 1)! k!
1
1. Since
(n + 1)!
1
ln(1 + f (x))
a0 = 2 we get an = 1 +
. Using the result lim
= 1, we
(n + 1)!
f (x)
f (x)0
conclude that

1
ln 1 + (n+1)!
lim (n + 1)! ln an = lim
=1
1
Letting k = 1, 2, 3 n and summing, we get an a0 =
(n+1)!
45. Consider a sequence of real numbers (xn )n1 with x1 = a > 0 and xn+1 =
x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 + . . . + nxn
, n N . Evaluate its limit.
n
Solution: The sequence is strictly increasing because:
xn+1 xn =
x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 + . . . + nxn

x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 + . . . + (n 1)xn1
xn =
>0
n
n
Then
xn+1 >
It follows that lim xn = .
n
a + 2a + . . . + na
(n + 1)a
=
n
2
Solutions
41
n
X
1
2
46. Using lim
=
, evaluate:
n
k2
6
k=1
n
X
lim
1
(2k 1)2
k=1
Solution:
lim
n
X
k=1
2n
k=1
k=1
X 1
X 1
1
= lim
lim
2
2
n
n
(2k 1)
k
(2k)2
= lim
2n
X
k=1
X 1
1
1
lim
2
k
4 n
k2
k=1
=
6
24
=
8
47. Consider the sequence (xn )n1 defined by x1 = a, x2 = b, a < b and
xn1 + xn2
xn =
, n 3, > 0. Prove that this sequence is convergent and
1+
find its limit.
b + a
[a, b]. We can
1+
prove by induction that xn [a, b]. The sequences (x2n )n1 and (x2n1 )n1 are
monotonically increasing. Also, we can show by induction, that:
Solution: The sequence isnt monotonic because x3 =

x2k x2k1 =
1+
2k
(b a)
It follows that the sequences (x2n )n1 and (x2n1 )n1 have the same limit, so
(xn )n1 is convergent. The recurrence formulas can be written as
xk xk1 = (xk2 xk ), ()k 3
Summing for k = 3, 4, 5, . . . , n, we have:
xn b = (a + b xn1 xn ) (1 + )xn + xn1 = (1 + )b + a
By passing to limit, it follows that:
lim xn =
b + (a + b)
1 + 2
48. Evaluate:
n
lim
n
n!
42
Solution: Using the consequence of Cesaro-Stolz lemma, we have:

r
nn
n
lim
= lim n
n
n
n!
n! n
=
(n+1)n+1
(n+1)!
lim
nn
n
n!
(n + 1)n+1
n nn (n + 1)

n
1
= lim 1 +
n
n
= lim
=e
49. Consider the sequence (xn )n1 defined by x1 = 1 and xn =
1
, n
1 + xn1
2. Prove that this sequence is convergent and evaluate lim xn .

n
Solution: We can show easily by induction that xn (0, 1) and that the
sequence (x2n )n1 is increasing, while the sequence (x2n1 )n1 is decreasing.
Observe that:
x2n+2 =
1
=
1 + x2n+1
1
1
1+
1 + x2n
1 + x2n
2 + x2n
51
The sequence (x2n )n1 is convergent, so it has the limit
. Similarly
2
51
. Therefore (xn )n1 is convergent and has the limit equal
lim x2n1 =
n
2
51
.
to
2
50. If a, b R , evaluate:
ln(cos ax)
x0 ln(cos bx)
lim
Solution:
1
ln(cos ax)
(cos ax 1) ln(1 + cos ax 1) cos ax 1
lim
= lim
1
x0 ln(cos bx)
x0
cos
bx
1
(cos bx 1) ln(1 + cos bx 1)
2 sin2
ax
2
2
x0 2 sin bx
2
2
= lim
=
a
b2
Solutions
43

51. Let f : R R, f (x) =
{x}
x
if x Q
if x R\Q
lim f (x) exists.
Solution: Let
f = g h, where g : R R, g(x) = x, ()x R and h : R
bxc
if x Q
R, h(x) =
. If R\[0, 1), we can find two sequences
0
if x R\Q
xn Q and yn R\Q going to , such that the sequences (f (xn )) and (f (yn ))
have different limits. If [0, 1), h(x) = 0 and f (x) = x, thus () [0, 1), we
have lim f (x) = .
x

52. Let f : R R, f (x) =
bxc
x
if x Q
if x R\Q
lim f (x) exists.
Solution: Divide the problem in two cases:

Case I: = k Z. Consider a sequence (xn ), xn (k 1, k) Q and
(yn ), yn (k 1, k) (R\Q), both tending to k. Then:
lim f (xn ) = lim bxn c = lim (k 1) = k 1
and lim f (yn ) = lim yn = k. Therefore lim f (x) doesnt exist.

n
Case II: R\Z. Let bc = k. Consider a sequence (xn ), xn (k, k + 1) Q

and (yn ), yn (k, k + 1) (R\Q), which tend both to . Then:
lim f (xn ) = lim bxn c = lim k = k
and lim f (yn ) = lim yn = . Again, in this case, lim f (x) doesnt exist.
n
53. Let (xn )n1 be a sequence of positive real numbers such that x1 > 0 and
a
3xn = 2xn1 + 2 , where a is a real positive number. Prove that xn is
xn1
convergent and evaluate lim xn .
n
Solution: By AM-GM
xn+1 =
xn + xn +
3
a
x2n
r
3
xn xn
a
= 3 a xn 3 a
2
xn
Also
3(xn+1 xn ) =
a
a x3n
xn =
0 xn+1 xn 0, n N , n 2
2
xn
x3n
44
Therefore, the sequence (xn )n1 is decreasing and lower bounded, so its conver
gent. By passing to limit in the recurrence formula we obtain lim xn = 3 a.
n
54.Consider asequence of real numbers (an )n1 such that a1 = 12 and an+1 =
3
an 1 +
. Evaluate:
n+1
n
X
1
n
ak
lim
k=1
Solution: Rewrite the recurrence formula as
an+1 = an
n+4
n+1
Writing it for n = 1, 2, . . . , n 1 and multiplying the obtained equalities, we

find that:
an =
(n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3)
, ()n N
2
Then:
n
n
X
X
1
2
= lim
n
n
ak
(k + 1)(k + 2)(k + 3)
k=1
k=1

n
X
1
2
1
= lim
+
n
k+1 k+2 k+3
k=1

1
1
1
= lim
+
n 6
n+2 n+3
1
=
6
lim
55. Evaluate:

lim
Solution:
n
n2 + 1
n
Solutions
45

n n n2 + 1
n2 + 1
n2 + 1
!
2
2
n n + 1 n n + 1
1+
n2 + 1

lim
n
n2 + 1
= lim
n

n n n2 + 1
lim
n2 + 1
= en
lim
=e
lim
=e
lim
=e

+1
n2 + 1 + n
n2
n2
+ 1 + n n2 + 1
1
1 p 2
n+ + n +1
n
= e0
=1
56. If a R, evaluate:
n 2
X
k a
lim
n
n3
k=1
Solution: We have x 1 < bxc x, ()x R. Choosing x = k 2 a, letting k to

take values from 1 to n and summing we have:
n
X
n
X
(k 2 a 1) <
k=1
n
X
n
X
k2 a
k2 a
k=1
k=1
n
X
(k 2 a 1)
k=1
n3
<
k2 a
k=1
n3
n
X
Now observe that:

n
X
lim
(k 2 a 1)
k=1
= lim
n3
a
n
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
n
a
6
=
3
n
3
and
n
X
lim
k2 a
k=1
n3
= lim
an(n + 1)(2n + 1)
a
=
3
6n
3
k2 a
k=1
n3
46
So using the Squeeze Theorem it follows that:

n 2
X
k a
a
lim
=
n
n3
3
k=1
57. Evaluate:
lim 2n
n
X
k=1
1
1
k(k + 2) 4
!n
Solution:
lim 2
n
X
k=1
1
1
k(k + 2) 4
!n
!n
n
n
1
1X1 1X 1
= lim 2
n
2
k 2
k+2 4
k=1
k=1

n

1
1
1
3 1
= lim 2n
n
4 2 n+1 n+2
4

n
2n + 3
= lim 1
n
(n + 1)(n + 2)
n
= lim
1
n
n(2n + 3)
(n
+
1)(n
+
2)
(n + 1)(n + 2)

2n + 3
2n + 3
(n + 1)(n + 2)
2n2 3n
= en n2 + 3n + 2
lim
= e2
58. Consider the sequence (an )n1 , such that an > 0, ()n N and lim n(an+1
n
an ) = 1. Evaluate lim an and lim n an .

n
Solution: Start with the criterion

lim n(an+1 an ) = 1 () > 0, ()n N, ()n n |n(an+1 an ) 1| <
Let (0, 1). Then for n n , we have:

1
1+
< an+1 an <
n
n
Summing for n = n , n + 1, . . . , n, we get:
< n(an+1 an ) 1 <

(1)
1
1
1
+
+ ... +
n
n + 1
n

< an+1 an < (1)
1
1
1
+
+ ... +
n
n + 1
n
Solutions
47
By passing to limit, it follows that lim an = . To evaluate lim

n
n
that in the above conditions we have:
an , recall
1
1+
1
an+1
1+
< an+1 an <
<
1<
n
n
nan
an
nan
Thus lim
an+1
= 1, and the root test implies that lim n an = 1
n
an
59. Evaluate:
1 + 2 2 + 3 3 + ... + n n
lim
n
n2 n
Solution: Using Cesaro-Stolz lemma, we have:
1 + 2 2 + 3 3 + ... + n n
(n + 1) n + 1
lim
= lim
n
n (n + 1)2 n + 1 n2 n
n2 n
p
(n + 1)3
= lim p
n
(n + 1)5 n5
p

p
(n + 1)3
(n + 1)5 + n5
= lim
n
(n + 1)5 n5
n4 + 4n3 + 6n2 + 4n + 1 + n8 + 3n7 + 3n6 + n5

= lim
n
5n4 + 10n3 + 10n2 + 5n + 1
q
1 + n4 + n62 + n43 + n14 + 1 + n3 + n32 + n13
= lim
n
5 + 10
+ n102 + n53 + n14
n
2
=
5
60. Evaluate:
1
lim (sin x) 2x
x 2
Solution:
48
lim
x
2
1
(sin x) 2x
sin x 1
1
2x
= lim (1 + sin x 1) sin x 1
x 2
lim
sin x 1
2x
lim
cos y 1
2y
=e
x
2
=e
y0
sin2 y2
y
= ey0

2
sin y2
y
lim

y
y0
4
2
=e
lim
= e0
=1
61. Evaluate:

1
lim n2 ln cos
n
n
ln(1 + xn )
= 1. We have:
xn 0
xn

ln 1 + n1 1
1
1
2
2
lim n ln cos
= lim n cos 1 lim
n
n
n
n
n
cos n1 1
1
= lim 2n2 sin2
n
2n

1 2
sin
1
2n
= lim
1
n
2
2n
1
=
2
Solution: Well use the well-known limit lim
62. Given a, b R+ , evaluate:
n
lim
a+
2
!n
n
b
Solution: Using the limits lim (1 + xn ) xn = e and lim n( n a 1) = ln a,

xn
we have:
Solutions
n
lim
49
a+
2
!n
n
b
n
1+
= lim
= lim
n
a1+
2
b1
!n
n( n a1)+n( n b1)
2
2
!
n
n
n
n
a1+ b1
a1+ b1
1+
n( n a1)+n( n b1)
lim
2
= en
ln a+ln b
2
= eln ab
= ab
=e
63. Let > > 0 and the matrices A =

1
0

0
0
, B=
1
1

1
.
0
i)Prove that ()(xn )n1 , (yn )n1 R such that:

n

= xn A + yn B, ()n 1

xn
ii)Evaluate lim
.
n yn
Solution: i) We proceed by induction. For n = 1, we have

= A + B

Hence x1 = and y1 = . Let

k
= xk A + yk B
Then

k+1
= (A + B)(xk A + yk B)
Using B 2 = A, we have:

k+1
= (xk + yk )A + (xk + yk )B
50
Thus xk+1 = xk + yk and yk+1 = xk + yk .
ii) An easy induction

shows
that xn , yn > 0, ()n N . Let X M2 (R)
xn yn
such that X n =
. Because det(X n ) = (det X)n , it follows that
yn xn
(2 2 )n = x2n yn2 , and because > , we have xn > yn , ()n N . Let
xn
zn =
. Then:
yn
xn + yn
zn +
xn+1
=
=
zn+1 =
yn+1
xn + yn
zn +
Its easy to see that the sequence is bounded by 1 and . Also the sequence is
strictly decreasing, because
zn+1 zn =
(1 zn2 )
zn +
zn =
<0
zn +
zn +
Therefore the sequence is convergent. Let lim zn = l, then

n
l +
l=
l2 = 1
l +

xn
l cant be 1, because zn 1,
, hence lim
= 1.
n yn
64. If a R such that |a| < 1 and p N is given, evaluate:

lim np an
Solution: If a = 0, we get np an = 0, ()n N. If a 6= 0, since |a| < 1, there

1
. Let now n > p, then from binomial expansion
is a > 0 such that |a| =
1+
we get:
(1 + )n > Cnp+1 p+1
1
(p + 1)!
<
n
(1 + )
n(n 1)(n 2) . . . (n p) p+1
Then:
0 < |np an |
= np |a|n
np (p + 1)!
n(n 1)(n 2) . . . (n p) p+1
np1 (p + 1)!
=
(n 1)(n 2) . . . (n p) p+1
<
Keeping in mind that
Solutions
51
np1 (p + 1)!
=0
n (n 1)(n 2) . . . (n p) p+1
lim
and using the Squeeze Theorem, it follows that

lim np an = 0
1 p + 2 p + 3 p + . . . + np
n
np+1
Solution: Using Cesaro-Stolz lemma we have:
lim
1 p + 2 p + 3 p + . . . + np
(n + 1)p
= lim
p+1
n
n (n + 1)p+1 np+1
n

p
np +
np1 + . . .
1

= lim
n
p+1
p+1
p
n +
np1 + . . .
1
2
1

=
p+1
1
1
=
p+1
lim
sin(n arccos x)
x1
1 x2
lim
x<1
First solution: Recall the identity:

n
n
n
n1
n n
cos nt + i sin nt =
cos t + i
cos
sinn t
t sin t + . . . + i
0
1
n
For t = arccos x, we have:
sin(n arccos x) =

n n3 p
n n5 p
n n1 p
x
( 1 x2 ) 3 +
x
( 1 x2 )5 . . .
x
1 x2
1
3
5
Then:
sin(n arccos x)
= lim
x1
x1
1 x2
lim
x<1
x<1

n n1
n n3
n n5
x
(1 x2 ) +
x
(1 x2 )2 . . . = n
x
1
3
5
52
Second solution:
lim
x1
x<1
sin(n arccos x)
sin(n arccos x)
n arccos x
= lim
lim
2
n
arccos
x
x
1
x
1
1x
1 x2
x<1
x<1
n arccos x
= lim
x1
1 x2
x<1
ny
= lim
y0
1 cosy
y>0
ny
y 0 sin y
= lim
y>0
=n
1 cos(n arccos x)
1 x2
x1
lim
x<1
Solution:
n arccos x
2 sin2
1 cos(n arccos x)
2
lim
= lim
1 x2
1 x2
x1
x1
x<1
x<1
n arccos x
2 sin2
n2 arccos2 x
2
= lim
n arccos x 2 lim
x1
x 1 4(1 x2 )
x<1
x<1
2
n2 arccos2 x
= lim
x 1 4(1 x2 )
x<1
n2 y 2
2
y 0 2 sin y
= lim
y>0
n2
2
68. Study the convergence of the sequence:

xn+1 =
xn + a
, n 1, x1 0, a > 0
xn + 1
yn+1
1. Thus, our
yn
+ (1 a)yn = 0, whence yn =
Solution: Consider a sequence (yn )n1 such that xn =

recurrence
formula reduces
to : yn+2 2yn+1
(1 + a)n + (1 a)n . Finally:
Solutions
53
(1 + a)n+1 + (1 a)n+1
lim xn = lim
1
n
n
(1 + a)n + (1 a)n

a
(1 a)
(1 + a) + 1
1+ a
n
= lim
1
n
a
+ 1
1+ a
(1 + a)
=
1
= a
69. Consider two sequences of real numbers (xn )n0 and (yn )n0 such that
x0 = y0 = 3, xn = 2xn1 + yn1 and yn = 2xn1 + 3yn1 , ()n 1. Evaluate
xn
lim
.
n yn
First solution: Summing the hypothesis equalities, we have
xn + yn = 4(xn1 + yn1 ), n 1
(
Then xn + yn = 4 x0 + y0 ) = 6 4n . Substracting the hypothesis equalities, we

get
yn xn = 2yn1 , n 1
Summing with the previous equality we have 2yn = 2yn1 +64n yn yn1 =
3 4n . Then
y1 y0 = 3 4
y2 y1 = 3 42
y3 y2 = 3 43
...
yn yn1 = 3 4n
Summing, it follows that:
yn = y0 + 3(4 + 42 + . . . + 4n ) = 3(1 + 4 + 42 + . . . + 4n ) = 3
Then xn = 2 4n + 1, and therefore:
xn
2 4n + 1
1
= lim
=
n yn
n 4 4n 1
2
lim
4n+1 1
= 4n+1 1
41
54
xn
2an1 + 1
so that an =
. Now let an =
yn
2an1 + 3
Second solution: Define an =
bn+1 3
to obtain 2bn+1 5bn + bn1 = 0. Then bn = 2n + 2n for some
bn
2
, R. We finally come to:

lim an = lim
3
2n+1 + 2n1
2n + 2n
2

=2
3
1
=
2
2
70. Evaluate:
tan x x
x0
x2
lim

Solution: If x 0,
, we have:
2
2 tan x sin2 x2
tan x sin x
tan x(1 cos x)
tan x x
<
=
=
x2
x2
x2
x2

2 tan x sin2 x2
sin x2 2
tan x
and because lim
= 0, using the
=
lim
lim
x
x0
x0
x0
x2
2
2
Squeeze Theorem it follows that:
0<
tan x x
=0
x2
x0
lim
x>0
Also
tan x x
tan y + y
tan y y
= lim
= lim
=0
2
2
x
y
y2
x0
y0
y0
lim
x<0
y>0
y>0
71. Evaluate:
lim
x0
tan x arctan x
x2
Solution: Using the result from the previous problem, we have:

lim
x0
tan x arctan x
tan x x
x arctan x
= lim
+ lim
x0
x0
x2
x2
x2
x arctan x
= lim
x0
x2
tan y y
= lim
y0 tan2 y
tan y y
y2
= lim
lim
2
y0
y0 tan2 y
y
=0
Solutions
55
72. Let a > 0 and a sequence of real numbers (xn )n0 such that xn (0, a) and
a2
xn+1 (a xn ) >
, ()n N. Prove that (xn )n1 is convergent and evaluate
4
lim xn .
n
xn+1
xn 1
Solution: Rewrite the condition as
1
> . With the substitution
a
a
4
1
xn
, we have yn+1 (1 yn ) > , with yn (0, 1). Then:
yn =
a
4
2
2
4yn+1 4yn yn+1 1 > 0 4yn yn+1 4yn+1
+4yn+1
4yn+1 +1 < 0 4yn (yn+1 yn ) > (2yn+1 1)2
So yn+1 yn > 0, whence the sequence is strictly increasing. Let lim yn = l.

n

2
1
1
a
1
Then l(1 l) l
0. Hence l = lim xn = .
n
4
2
2
2
73. Evaluate:
lim cos n

e
2n
af (x) 1
= ln a, with a R, we have:
f (x)
f (x)0

lim cos n 2n e = lim |(1)n cos n 2n e n |
n
n

!
1

e 2n 1

= lim cos

1
n

2
2n

!
1

e 2n 1

= cos
lim

1

2 n 2n

= cos

2
=0
Solution: Using
lim
It follows that lim cos n

n

e = 0.
2n
74. Evaluate:

lim
Solution:
n+1
n
tan (n1)
2n
56

lim
n+1
n
tan (n1)
2n

= lim
1
1+
n
n n1 tan (n1)
2n
tan (n1)
2n
n
= en
lim
lim
= en
tan
2n
cot 2n
= en n
lim
lim
=e
n tan 2n
2
2n
n tan
2n
=e
lim
2
= e
75. Evaluate:
v
u n
uY n
n
lim t
n
k
k=1
Solution: Using AM-GM, we have:
n! =
1 2 3 ... n <
1 + 2 + ... + n
n+1
=
n
2
(n + 1)n
(n + 1)n
> 2n lim
= . So:
n
n!
n!
n+1
Y n + 1
v
u n
k
uY n
(n + 1)n
n
= lim k=1n = lim
=
lim t
Y n
n
n
n
k
n!
k=1
k
Therefore
k=1

lim
Solution:
a+
a+
a + ... +
ln n
an
Solutions
57
a+
lim
a+
a + ... +
ln n
an
a1
ln(n + 1) ln n
n ( n+1 a 1)
n
= lim
n ln 1 + 1
n
" 1
#
a n+1 1
n
= lim
1
n
n+1
n+1
n+1
= lim
= ln a
77. Evaluate:
lim n ln tan

n
Solution:
lim n ln tan

4
n

= lim ln tan
+
n
n
4
n

n
tan
+
1
1
4
n

tan + 1
4
n
= ln lim 1 + tan
+
1
n
4
n

1
4
n
= ln en

= lim n tan
+
1
n
4
n
1 + tan
n
= lim n
1
n
1 tan
n
2n tan
n
= lim
n
1 tan
n
= 2 lim n tan
n
n
tan
n
= 2 lim
n
n
= 2
lim
tan
78. Let k N and a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , ak R such that a0 + a1 + a2 + . . . + ak = 0.

Evaluate:

3
lim a0 3 n + a1 3 n + 1 + . . . + ak n + k
n
58
Solution:
lim
a0 n + a1 n + 1 + . . . + ak n + k = lim
= lim
= lim
= lim
a0 n +
k
X
ai n + i
i=1
k
X
ai +
i=1
k
X
ai

3
k
X
ai n + i
i=1
n+i
3
n
i=1
k
X
p
3
i=1
(n +
i)2
iai
p
3
3
+ n(n + i) + n2
=0
79. Evaluate:

p
3
lim sin n n3 + 3n2 + 4n 5
Solution:

p

p
3
3
lim sin n n3 + 3n2 + 4n 5 = lim sin n n3 + 3n2 + 4n 5 n(n + 1)
n
n
p

3
= lim sin n
n3 + 3n2 + 4n 5 n 1
n
= lim sin
n
n(n 6)
p
3
3
2
(n 5) + (n + 1) 3 n3 5 + (n + 1)2
= sin lim q
n
= sin
3
3
=
2
80. Evaluate:
2 arcsin x
sin x
x1
lim
x<1
Solution:
6
n
5
n3
2
1
q
+ 1 + n1 3 1
5
n3
+ 1+

1 2
n
Solutions
59

sin arcsin x 2
arcsin x 2
2 arcsin x
lim
= 2 lim
lim
sin x
sin x
x1
x1
x 1 sin arcsin x
2
x<1
x<1
x<1
p
1 y2
= 2 lim
sin x
x1
x<1
p
y(2 y)
= 2 lim
sin
(1 y)
y0
y>0
p
2(1 y)
= 2 lim
sin y
y0
y>0
y
2y
= 2 lim
lim
y 0 sin y y 0 y
y>0
y>0
=
81. Evaluate:
lim
n
X
k=2
1
k ln k
Solution: Using Lagrange formula we can deduce that

1
> ln(ln(k + 1)) ln(ln k)
k ln k
Summing from k = 2 to n it follows that
n
X
k=2
1
> ln(ln(n + 1)) ln(ln 2))
k ln k
Then it is obvious that:

lim
n
X
k=2
1
=
k ln k
82. Evaluate:
lim lim
Solution:
x0
1+
n
X
k=1
!
sin2 (kx)
1
n3 x2
60
n
X
lim lim
x0
n
X
!
! 31 2
sin
(kx)
n
n
n
x
X
X
2
2
= lim lim 1 +
sin (kx) k=1
1+
sin (kx)
n x0
k=1
k=1
n
X
sin (kx)
k=1
lim
n3 x0
x2
= lim e
12 + 22 + . . . + n2
n3
= en
lim
lim
en
(n + 1)(2n + 1)
6n2
lim
n
X
(k + 1)(k + 2) . . . (k + p)
np+1
k=0
Solution: Using Cesaro-Stolz, we have:
lim
n
X
(k + 1)(k + 2) . . . (k + p)
k=0
k=1
np+1
n
X
k=0
(k + p)!
k!
np+1
(n + p + 1)!
(n + 1)!
= lim
n (n + 1)p+1 np+1
(n + 2)(n + 3) . . . (n + p + 1)

= lim p+1
p
p+1
n n
+ p+1
1 n + ... + 1 n
p
n + ...
= lim
n (p + 1)np + . . .
1
=
p+1
sin2 (kx)
n3 x2
Solutions
61

84. If n 0,
is a root of the equation tan + cot = n, n 2, evaluate:
4
lim (sin n + cos n )n
Solution:

n
lim (sin n + cos n )n = lim (sin n + cos n )2 2
= lim (1 + 2 cos n sin n ) 2

n
n
2
1+
= lim
n
sin2 n + cos2 n
cos n sin n
n

2
2
= lim 1 +
n
tan n + cot n

n
2 2
= lim 1 +
n
n
=e
85. Evaluate:
s
n
X
lim
k=1
n+k
2
n2
First solution: Cesaro-Stolz gives:

s
lim
n
X
k=1
n+k
2
n2
s

= lim
s
s

2n + 1
2n + 2
n+1
+
2
2
2
2n + 1
p
p
p
1
2n(2n + 1) + (2n + 1)(2n + 2) n(n + 1)
= lim
2n + 1
2 n
r
r
r
2
6
2
1
4+ + 4+ + 2 1+
1
n
n
n
n
= lim
1
2 n
2+
n
3
=
2 2
n
Second solution: Observe that:
62
n+k
2

=
(n + k 1)(n + k)
n2
=
2
2

1+
k
n

k1
1+
n
for which we have

n2
2
2
n2
k1
1+
n
k1
1+
n
k
1+
n

2
k1
n2
k
1+
1+
n
2
n
therefore
n
s
n+k
2

k
1+
n
Summing from k = 1 to n, we get:

s

n
X
k1
1 X
1+
lim
n
n
n 2 k=1
k=1
n+k
2
n2

n
k
1 X
1+
n
n 2 k=1
We can apply the Squeeze theorem because

1
3n 1
1 X
3
k1
n1
=
= lim
= lim
lim
1+
n+
n n 2
n 2n 2
n n 2
n
2
2 2
k=1
and

n
k
3
1 X
n+1
1
3n + 1
=
1+
n+
= lim
= lim
n n 2
n n 2
n 2n 2
n
2
2
2
k=1
lim
Thus
s
lim
n
X
k=1
n+k
2
n2
3
=
2 2
86. Evaluate:
v
u n

uY
k
n
lim t
1+
n
n
k=1
Solution: Using Cesaro-Stolz well evaluate:
Solutions
63
n
X
v
u n

uY
k
n
t
= lim
lim ln
1+
n
n
n
k
ln 1 +
n
k=1
n
k=1
= lim
= lim
n+1
X

ln 1 +
k=1
n
X
ln
k=1

= lim ln
n
k
n+1
k
1 + n+1
1 + nk
4n + 2
n+1
n
X
k=1

k
ln 1 +
n
+ ln 2
n
n+1
n
= ln 4 1
It follows that:
v
u n

uY
k
n
t
lim
1+
= 4e1
n
n
k=1
87. Evaluate:
lim
x0
arctan x arcsin x
x3
Solution:
lim
x0
arctan x arcsin x
tan(arctan x arcsin x)
arctan x arcsin x
= lim
lim
x0 tan(arctan x arcsin x) x0
x3
x3
= lim
x0
x3
x
x
1
1 x2
= lim 3
x
x0 x
1+
1 x2
1
1 x2 1
= lim 2
x0 x
1 x2 + x2
1
= lim
x0 ( 1 x2 + x2 )( 1 x2 + 1)
1
=
2
88. If > 0, evaluate:

(n + 1) n
n
n1
lim
64
Solution: Let

n 1 + n1 1
(n + 1) n
1
xn =
=
=
n
1
+
1
n1
n1
n
xn
Then lim
= 0. Observe that:
n n
n xn

n

x
1
xn
1
n x
1+
=
1+
1+
= 1+
n
n
n
n
lim xn
By passing to limit, we have en
= e . Hence lim xn = .
n
89. Evaluate:
lim
n
X
k2
k=1
2k
Solution:
lim
n
X
k2
k=1
2k
= lim
n
X
k(k + 1)
k=1
n
X
2k
k
2k
#
X
n
(k + 1)2
3k + 1
k
+
= lim
n
2k1
2k
2k
2k
k=1
k=1
"
#
X
n
(n + 1)2
2k + 1
= lim
1
+
n
2n
2k
k=1
"
#

n
n
X
X
(n + 1)2
1
k
= lim
1
+
+2
n
2n
2k
2k
k=1
k=1
#
"

X
n
n
X
(n + 1)2
k
k+1
1
1
= lim
1
+2
k + k +
n
2n
2k1
2
2
2k
k=1
k=1
"
#

n
X
(n + 1)2
n+1
1
= lim
1
+
2
1
+
3
n
n
n
2
2
2k
k=1

n2 + 4n + 3
1
= lim 3
+
3
1
n
2n
2n

n2 + 4n + 6
= lim 6
n
2n
n2 + 4n + 6
= 6 lim
n
2n
"
Because:
k2
Solutions
65
(n + 1)2 + 4(n + 1) + 6
n2 + 6n + 11
1
2n+1
lim
= lim
=
2
n
n 2n2 + 8n + 12
2
n + 4n + 6
n
2
n2 + 4n + 6
= 0, therefore our limit is 6.
it follows that lim
n
2n
90. Evaluate:
lim
n
X
(k + 1)(k + 2)
2k
k=0
Solution: Using the previous limit, we have:
lim
n
X
(k + 1)(k + 2)
k=0
2k
!
n
n
n
X
X
X
k2
k
1
= lim
+3
+
n
2k
2k
2k1
k=0
k=0
k=0

1 21n
n+2
= 6 + 3 lim 2 n
+ lim 2 +
1
n
n
2
2
= 16
xn+1 = x2n xn + 1, ()n N. Evaluate:
lim (x1 x2 . . . xn )
Solution: Substracting xn from both sides of the recurrence formula gives

xn+1 xn = x2n 2xn + 1 = (xn 1)2 0 so (xn )n1 is an increasing sequence.
x1 (0, 1) is given as hypothesis. Now if there exists k N such that xk (0, 1),
then (xk 1) (1, 0), so xk (xk 1) (1, 0). Then xk+1 = 1 + xk (xk 1)
(0, 1) as well, so by induction we see that the sequence in contained in (0, 1).
(xn )n1 is increasing and bounded from above, so it converges. If lim xn = 1
n
then from the recurrence, l = l2 l + 1 which gives l = 1. Thus, lim xn = 1.

n
Now rewrite the recurrence formula as 1xn+1 = xn (1xn ). For n = 1, 2, . . . , n,

we have:
1 x2 = x1 (1 x1 )
1 x3 = x2 (1 x2 )
...
66
1 xn = xn1 (1 xn1 )
1 xn+1 = xn (1 xn )
Multiplying them we have:
1 xn+1 = x1 x2 . . . xn (1 x1 )
Thus:
lim (x1 x2 . . . xn ) = lim
1 xn+1
=0
1 x1
lim
x0

x2
Solution: Let
an = lim
x0

x2
Then
1 cos x cos 2x . . . cos nx cos(n + 1)x
x2
cos x cos 2x . . . nx(1 cos(n + 1)x)
= lim
+ lim
x0
x0
x2
x2
1 cos(n + 1)x
= an + lim
x0
x2
2 (n+1)x
2 sin
2
= an + lim
x0
x2
!2
sin (n+1)x
(n + 1)2
2
= an +
lim
n+1
x0
2
2
an+1 = lim
x0
= an +
(n + 1)2
2
Now let n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n 1:
a0 = 0
a1 = a0 +
1
2
Solutions
67
a2 = a1 +
22
2
a3 = a2 +
32
2
...
an = an1 +
n2
2
Summing gives:
an =
1
1
1 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
1
n2
+ 2 + ... +
= (12 + 22 + . . . + n2 ) =
2 2
2
2
2
6
Finally, the answer is

n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
=
2
x0
x
12
lim
93. Consider a sequence of real numbers (xn )n1 such that xn is the real root
of the equation x3 + nx n = 0, n N . Prove that this sequence is convergent
and find its limit.
Solution: Let f (x) = x3 + nx n. Then f 0 (x) = 3x2 + n > 0, so f has only
one real root which is contained in the interval (0, 1)(because f (0) = n and
f (1) = 1, so xn (0, 1)).
The sequence (xn )n1 is strictly increasing, because
1 xn
>0
x2n+1 + xn+1 xn + x2n + n
xn+1 xn =
x3
Therefore the sequence is convergent. From the equation, we have xn = 1 n .
n
By passing to limit, we find that lim xn = 1.
n
94. Evaluate:
arctan x arctan 2
x2
tan x tan 2
lim
Solution: Using tan(a b) =
tan a tan b
, we have:
1 + tan a tan b
68
lim
x2
arctan x arctan 2
arctan x arctan 2
tan(arctan x arctan 2)
= lim
lim
x2 tan(arctan x arctan 2) x2
tan x tan 2
tan x tan 2
x2
1+2x
= lim sin(x2)
x2
cos xcos 2
x2
cos x cos 2
lim
sin(x 2) x2 1 + 2x
cos x cos 2
= lim
x2
1 + 2x
cos2 2
=
5
= lim
x2
95. Evaluate:
22
1+
lim
2! +
32
3! + . . . +
n
n2
n!
Solution: Using Cesaro-Stolz:

lim
1+
22
2! +
32
3! + . . . +
n
n2
n!
= lim
(n+1)2
p
(n + 1)!
Also, an application of AM-GM gives:

1
(n+1)2
n+1
<
n+1
n+1
r
r
(n + 1)!
p
n+1
1 2 3 . . . n (n + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n + n + 1
n+1
n+2
2
Thus
1 lim
(n+1)2
p
(n + 1)! lim
n+1
n+2
=1
2
From the Squeeze Theorem it follows that:

lim
1+
22
2! +
32
3! + . . . +
n
n2
n!
=1
x2
96. Let (xn )n1 such that x1 > 0, x1 + x21 < 1 and xn+1 = xn + n2 , ()n 1.
n
1
1
Prove that the sequences (xn )n1 and (yn )n2 , yn =
are convergent.
xn n 1
Solutions
69
x2n
, so the (xn )n1 is strictly increasing.
n2
1
1
x2 = x1 + x21 < 1
> 1 y2 =
1>0
x2
x2
Solution: xn+1 xn =
Also
1
1
1
1

+
xn+1
n xn
n1
1
xn+1 xn
=
n(n 1)
xn xn+1
1
xn
=
n(n 1) n2 xn+1
1
1
2
>
n(n 1) n
1
= 2
n (n 1)
>0
yn+1 yn =
Hence (yn )n2 is strictly increasing.
Observe that xn =
yn +
lim xn =
1
n1
So
1
. Assuming that lim yn = , we have lim xn = 0, which is
n
n
lim yn
a contradiction, because x1 > 0 and the sequence (xn )n1 is strictly increasing.
Hence (yn )n2 is convergent. It follows that (xn )n2 is also convergent.
97. Evaluate:
lim
n
X
i=1
sin
2i
n2
First solution: Lets start from

sin x

sin x

lim
= 1 () > 0, () > 0, ()x (, )\{0}
1 <
x0 x
x
Let some arbitrary > 0. For such , () > 0 such that ()x (, )\{0}, we
2
sin x
< 1 + . For > 0, ()n N such that < , ()n n .
have 1 <
x
n
2i
2
Because 0 < 2 , ()1 i n, n n , we have:
n
n
2i
sin 2
n
1<
<1+
2i
n2
70
Summing, we get:
(1 )
n
n
n
X
X
X
2i
2i
2i
<
<
(1
+
)
sin
2
2
2
n
n
n
i=1
i=1
i=1
Or equivalently:
(1 + )(n + 1)
2i
(1 )(n + 1) X
<
sin 2 <
n
n
n
i=1
By passing to limit:
n
X
1 lim
sin
i=1
2i
1+
n2
Or

n

X
2i

sin 2 1 , () > 0
lim
n

n
i=1
which implies that:

lim
n
X
i=1
sin
2i
=1
n2
Second solution: Start with the formula

n
X
sin
sin(x + yi) =
i=1
Setting x = 0, y =

(n + 1)y
ny
sin x +
2
2
y
sin
2
2
, it rewrites as
n2
n+1
1
sin
sin
2
2i
n
n
sin 2 =
1
n
i=1
sin 2
n
n
X
whence
1
n+1
sin
n2
n
n+1
1
2
n
n lim n + 1 = 1
1
n
n
sin 2
n
1
n2
sin
lim
n
X
i=1
sin
2i
= lim
n
n2
98. If a > 0, a 6= 1, evaluate:
Solutions
71
xx ax
xa ax aa
lim
Solution: As lim x ln
xa
x
= 0, we have:
a
ex ln x ex ln a
xx ax
=
lim
xa
xa ax aa
ax aa

x
x ln a
e
ex ln a 1
= lim
xa
aa (axa 1)

x
x ln xa
ex ln a 1
ex ln a
xa
lim
= lim
lim
lim
xa
xa aa
xa axa 1
xa x a
x ln xa

1

1
x xa
=
lim x ln
ln a xa
a
1
a
a

a
x a x a
=
lim 1 +
ln a xa
a
lim
1
a
ln e a
ln a
1
=
ln a
99. Consider a sequence of positive real numbers (an )n1 such that an+1
1
1
= an +
, ()n 1. Evaluate:
an+1
an

1
1
1
1
+
+ ... +
lim
n
a2
an
n a1
Solution: (an )n1 is clearly an increasing sequence. If it has a finite limit, say
l, then
l
1
1
2
=l+ =0
l
l
l
contradiction. Therefore an approaches infinity. Let yn =

yn+1 = yn + 4. So
y2 = y1 + 4
y3 = y2 + 4
...
1
+ a2n . Then
a2n
72
yn+1 = yn + 4
Summing, it results that yn+1 = y1 + 4n, which rewrites as
a2n+1 +
an+1 +
1
a2n+1
1
an+1
= y1 + 4n
an+1 +
2
1
an+1
= y1 + 2 + 4n
p
p
4n + y1 + 2 a2n+1 4n + y1 + 2 an+1 + 1 = 0
4n + y1 + 2 4n + y1 2
from which an+1 =
. If we accept that an+1 =
2
4n + y1 + 2 4n + y1 2
, then:
2
lim an+1 = lim
4n + y1 + 2
2
which is false, therefore an+1 =
4n + y1 2
= lim
n
4n + y1 + 2 +
2
=0
4n + y1 + 2 + 4n + y1 2
4n + y1 2
By Cesaro-Stolz, we obtain:
1
lim
n
n
1
1
1
+
+ ... +
a1
a2
an
1
an
= lim
n
n+1 n
n+ n+1
= lim
n
an+1
2( n + n + 1)
= lim
n
4n + y1 + 2 + 4n + y1 2
r
1
2(1 + 1 + )
n
r
= lim r
n
y1
2
y1
2
4+
+ + 4+
n
n
n
n
=1
100. Evaluate:
2arctan x 2arcsin x
x0
2tan x 2sin x
lim
Solution:
Solutions
73
2arctan x 2arcsin x
2arcsin x (2arctan xarcsin x 1)
= lim
tan
x
sin
x
x0
x0
2
2
2sin x (2tan xsin x 1)
2arctan xarcsin x 1
= lim
x0
2tan xsin x 1
arctan xarcsin x
2
1
tan x sin x
arctan x arcsin x
= lim
lim
lim
x0 arctan x arcsin x x0 2tan xsin x 1 x0
tan x sin x
1
arctan x arcsin x
= ln 2
lim
ln 2 x0
tan x sin x
arctan x arcsin x
x3
= lim
lim
3
x0
x0 tan x sin x
x
arctan x arcsin x
x3
= lim
lim
lim
x0 tan(arctan x arcsin x) x0
x0 tan x(1 cos x)
x3
x
x 1x2
lim
1+
= lim
x0
x
1x2
x3
x3
x0 2 tan x sin2
lim
x
2
x 2
1 x2 1
x
= lim
2 lim 2 x
lim
x0 x2 ( 1 x2 + x2 ) x0 tan x
x0
sin
2
2
x
= 2 lim
x0 x2 ( 1 x2 + x2 )( 1 x2 + 1)
= 1

A Collection of Limits

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A Collection of Limits

March 28, 2011

(ii) lim an = () > 0, ()n N such that ()n n an > .

(iii) lim an = () > 0, ()n N such that ()n n an <

Theorem: Let (an )n1 a sequence of real numbers.

Definition: A sequence (xn )n1 is a Cauchy sequence if () > 0, ()n N

Theorem: Consider a convergent sequence (an )n1 such that lim an = a.

Them lim |an | = |a|.

Short teoretical introduction

2. If lim bn = it follows that lim an = .

2. lim (an bn ) = lim an lim bn (except the cases (0, )).

4. lim abnn = ( lim an )n

(except the cases (1, ), (, 0), (0, 0)).

5. lim (logan bn ) = log lim a ( lim bn ).

2. lim (an ) = lim an ( R);

lim cn = l R. Then lim bn = l.

2. If < 0, then lim xn = .

2. If l > 1 then lim an = .

which is equivalent with:

which implies that lim an = 0.

such that lim n

(ii) the limit lim

is convergent and lim

Short teoretical introduction

that (l , l + ) V . Let R such that 0 < < . As lim

exists k N such that ()n k

there exists an index p N such that ()n p we have:

Choosing m = max{k, p}, then ()n m we have:

2. Let (xn )n1 and (yn )n1 such that:

(ii) the sequence (yn )n1 is strictly decreasing;

(iii) the limit lim

Short teoretical introduction

(iii) the limit lim

Then the limit lim

Theorem (exponential sequence): Let a R. Consider the sequence xn =

4. If a > 1, then lim xn = .

Theorem (power sequence): Let a R. Consider the sequence xn = na , n

3. If a > 0, then lim xn = .

Theorem (polynomial sequence): Let an = ak nk + ak1 nk1 + . . . + a1 n +

2. If ak < 0, then lim an = .

1. If k < p, then lim bn = 0.

3. If k > p, then lim bn =

, n N is a strictly increasing and

bounded sequence and lim an = e.

Hence it follows that:

Short teoretical introduction

Then it follows that: lim (1 + an ) an = e.

exists lim (an 1)bn R, then we have lim

Theorem: Consider the sequence (an )n0 defined by an =

Theorem: Let (cn )n1 , a sequence defined by

such that for any x D U \{x0 }, we have f (x) V.

such that |x x0 | < |f (x) l| < .

we have f (x) > (f (x) < ).

x0 , we have lim f (xn ) = l.

Short teoretical introduction

Definition: Let f : D R R and x0 R an accumulation point of D. Well

Theorem: Let f : D R R and x0 R an accumulation point of the sets

If lim f (x) = , then:

3. Consider the sequence (an )n1 , such that

5. Consider a sequence of real numbers (xn )n1 such that x1 = 1 and xn =

12. Let p N and 1 , 2 , ..., p positive distinct real numbers. Evaluate:

16. Find a R such that:

where is a real number.

22. If k N and a R+ \{1}, evaluate: