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Centre for Energy and Sustainability in Buildings (ZEN), Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials
Testing and Research (Empa), Ueberlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dubendorf, Switzerland
b
Technology and Society Laboratory (TSL), Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research (Empa),
Ueberlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dubendorf, Switzerland
c
Laboratory for Energy Systems/Building Equipment, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research (Empa),
Ueberlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dubendorf, Switzerland
Abstract
Sustainability has been enshrined as a goal of society to ensure that the satisfaction of present needs does not compromise the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs. It is thus a social objective, achievable only where all areas of society co-operate in fulfilling the
associated demands. Ecological sustainability is, in turn, a basic prerequisite for sustainable economic and social development. The first step
in formulating an effective response to this challenge, focused solely on the environmental issues, entails a quantification of the contribution
required from the various areas of human activity for the achievement of sustainable development. Without binding sub-targets for the
different sectors, it will be all but impossible to move systematically towards a sustainable society. These benchmarks for sustainable
construction therefore set out to define the requirements to be met by buildings and structures in contributing to the achievement of a
sustainable society. The permissible impact of buildings, in terms of energy demand and pollutant loads, during construction, maintenance and
operation is determined. The analysis focuses on identifying the permissible levels of loads based on the specific energy consumption per m2
and year for heating, hot water, electricity and construction. A conscious attempt is made to combine existing methods with the general
political consensus by taking account of:
kobilanzen mit der Methode der
- the ecological scarcity method [G. Brand, A. Scheidegger, O. Schwank, A. Braunschweig, Bewertung in O
okologischen Knappheit (Life cycle analysis using ecological scarcity method), Environmental Publication no. 297, Swiss Agency for the
Environment, Forests and Landscape (SAEFL), 1997] used to define critical pollutant loads;
- the limitation of greenhouse gas emissions specified by the intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC) [Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change, Climate Change 2001, IPCC Third Assessment Report, www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/];
- the demands of the 2000 W society [Leichter leben Ein Verstandnis fur unsere Ressourcen als Schlussel zu einer nachhaltigen
Entwicklung die 2000-Watt-Gesellschaft (Easier living understanding our resources as the key to sustainable development the
2000 Watt society), novatlanis, sia, energieschweiz, January 2005] for the conservation of energy resources.
The study shows that buildings designed to the Passive House standard just about comply with the requirements for sustainable
construction, provided electricity generation is based largely on renewable or low-CO2 resources (Swiss power supply mix). The targets are
substantially harder to meet where mainly fossil-fuel-generated electricity (European supply mix UCTE) is used.
# 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Sustainable housing; Environmental benchmarks; 2000-W society; Sustainable construction; Environmental impact
1. Preliminary considerations
1148
their own needs. The achievement of sustainable development thus necessitates a concerted effort in all areas of
society to meet the appropriate criteria. Yet, if as in Ref. [1]
sustainability is defined as a state in which a stable social
order underpinned by a suitable economic framework can
prevail in the long term without overtaxing the earths
overall ecological capacity, provision needs to be made for
quantifying the contribution required from the various areas
of human activity to achieve such a sustainable society.
Sustainability depends on the establishment of a consensus
regarding the contribution to be made by each sector, e.g.
buildings. In this case, for instance, the permissible buildingspecific environmental loads compatible with overall
sustainability targets need to be specified. Without binding
sub-targets for the different sectors, it will be almost
impossible to move systematically towards a sustainable
society. This standard for sustainable construction therefore
endeavours to define the requirements that have to be met by
buildings in Switzerland if these are to make an appropriate
contribution to the achievement of a sustainable society.
Particular priority is attached to determining the permissible
pollutant loads resulting from the construction, maintenance
and operation of a building.
1.1. Ecological capacity of the environment
Scientists have not yet conclusively determined the
absolute capacity of our ecosystem in acting as a sink for
pollutants. Switzerland has nonetheless enacted various
laws and ordinances to specify binding thresholds for a
range of environmentally relevant materials. These thresholds represent a political compromise between potential
environmental damage, risks, possible prevention and the
associated costs. Critical flows derived from the thresholds
are used in life cycle analysis as a basis for the ecological
scarcity assessment method [2]. For the purposes of this
study, ecological sustainability is defined as that state in
which none of the flows exceeds the relevant critical flow
derived from the thresholds. In this respect, it is not the
consumption of material resources per se, but much
rather the resulting pollutant emissions that are currently
regarded as an obstacle to sustainable development.
Energy resources represent a key exception due to our
heavy economic and social dependence on a secure energy
supply. The concept of the 2000 W society developed by
the ETH Domain focuses on the requirements for a
sustainable energy supply. The vision foresees a global per
capita energy use of 2000 W (17,500 kWh/a primary
energy), a figure slightly above the present worldwide
average. This quota is designed to ensure that all societies
are provided with adequate energy resources to develop
and achieve an appropriate level of prosperity. The
ultimate goal is to promote economic and social
sustainability.
Yet, if global warming is to be stabilized and natural
resources conserved, only around 500 W can be generated
2. Solution procedure
Four steps are needed to determine thresholds for the
maximum acceptable environmental load per building unit
(m2 floor area and year) in line with Switzerlands
sustainability targets (Fig. 2):
- The first step is to establish the maximum acceptable total
environmental load consistent with sustainable development. The relevant pollutant data for Switzerland have
kobilanzen mit der
been compiled in Bewertung in O
Methode der okologischen Knappheit (Life cycle
analysis using ecological scarcity method) [2].
- Second, the proportion of the total permissible load, as
defined in Step 1, allocable to the construction sector is
determined. No standard or generally recognized procedure exists here. This standard puts forward a proposal.
- The third step involves definition of the functional unit to
which the assessment relates. This may, in the case of
housing, be 1 m3 building volume, 1 m2 heated floor area
1149
Fig. 2. Procedure to determine sustainability of a building. Steps 13 serve to define threshold. Step 4 involves determination of effective values for building.
1150
Fig. 3. Expenditures as shown in the household surveys conducted by the Swiss Federal Statistical Office. The figure for habitation and energy is representing
the share for residential buildings (Survey 2002).
Sectors
Adjustment
Effect
a. Extrapolated loads
b. Projections
Technology
Demand
O
O
+
+
+
c. Spending-based
Household
Business
+
++
O
+
+
1151
4.2. Sectors
The breakdown by sector depends on the classification
detail permitted by the determined environmental load and
household spending data.
4.3. Dynamic adjustment
Dynamic adjustment is achieved by making allowance
for actual spending. This approach may be problematic in
the extreme long term should major social and technological
change occur. In the short-to-medium term, however, it
offers an appropriate means of factoring in growth and shifts
in consumer behaviour.
4.4. Regulating effect
The specification of a starting point implies the adoption
of specific base data, e.g. for 1990, for use in load allocation.
Any technological advances and optimisations achieved
before this date effectively amount to a handicap in that they
reduce the claim to future loads. However, this downside has
to be accepted. As any progress made in meeting the
permissible environmental loads is fully taken into
consideration and not cancelled out by subsequent respecification of the thresholds, the method is very effective
in regulating developments.
5.1. Definition
Buildings shall be classed as (ecologically) sustainable
where the environmental loads resulting from their
construction, operation and demolition/dismantling and
their energy demand do not exceed their allotted share of
the permissible environmental loads. The permissible
environmental loads are defined as the critical pollutant
flows determined by the ecological scarcity method [2] and
the permissible greenhouse gas emissions specified by the
IPCC [3]. Permissible energy use is specified as the
primary energy demand target defined for the 2000 W
society [4].
The total permissible environmental load is broken
down into permissible quotas for each sector using the
ratio of loads by sector to total loads in 1990 and an
adjustment factor reflecting post-1990 changes in the
sectors social significance (Fig. 4). The permissible load
of a particular sector (e.g. housing) may be determined as
follows:
Lhousing crit
Ltot crit
Lhousing 1990 Iexpenditures
Ltot 1990
where Lhousing crit is the critical load for housing, Lhousing 1990
the load for housing in 1990, Ltot crit the critical overall load
1152
Fig. 4. Present compliance with pollutant thresholds based on ecological scarcity assessment method [2] (total loads, basis: 1997). Half of the recorded
environmental loads currently exceed the critical value (100%) and have to be cut.
(current data for 1997 [2]), Ltot 1990 the overall load in 1990
and Iexpenditures is the index expressing share of sectoral
spending in relation to 1990 share.
5.2. Calculation
The permissible loads are determined in three steps:
- determination of load breakdown in base year (1990);
- uniform downscaling of loads in compliance with critical
flows;
- adjustment of permissible loads to reflect shifts in
economic significance.
5.2.1. Load breakdown in 1990
The load breakdown is based on the Swiss Total Energy
Statistics, which, particularly for the household (housing)
sector, present a reasonably faithful picture. These figures
cannot be directly applied for other (commercial/industrial) facility types as they fail to distinguish between
buildings and processes. They must therefore be supplemented by estimates based on construction-sector data and
life cycle analyses. To this end, estimates were prepared
for the individual building classes including commercial/
industrial buildings. The calculation comprised the
following steps:
- Calculation of the operating energy for heating/hot water
and domestic power for the various building categories
based on their energy reference floor area (ERFA) [5] and
representative energy indices.
- Estimation of aggregate energy demand for construction
and refurbishment for the individual building categories.
This was based on a detailed model calculation for a multifamily home (i.e. apartment block) performed with the
OGIP [6] programme, with appropriate adjustment for the
different building categories.
1153
Table 2
Energy statistics for 1990 [5], with separate posting of buildings (including industry and commercial buildings), used as basis for study (ERFA: energy related
floor area)
Million m2
ERFA
1990
Energy index
MJ/(m2 a)
239.0
508
120
73
121330
28674
17443
Total MFH
167447
TJ real
primary
zenergy TJ
158913
83332
32340
21
274586
22
64383
11002
11460
Total SFH
86845
11782
3699
3005
18486
31754
263340
58469
42839
34
8
5
382285
169923
79424
30
13
6
Total buildings
364648
47
631632
50
80760
10
149405
12
80050
10
148093
12
Transport
253470
33
332046
26
Total
778928
100
1261176
100
Total buildings
Industrial processes
Commercial, service, agricultural sectors
38.5
539.4
562
96
100
114.6
TJ real
final
energy TJ
306
96
78
488
108
79
121698
31973
21247
11
174917
14
15432
10750
5572
Fig. 5. Relative environmental loads resulting from construction and operation of residential buildings (multi-family home, 1990). The value 1.0 is equivalent to
the critical pollutant loads determined by the ecological scarcity method [2]. The electricity demand is assumed to be met by the European power supply mix
(UCTE).
1154
Table 3
Percentage allocation of primary energy based on 1990 consumption
1990 (TJ)
1299905
670361
293579
471214
247362
108330
100
52
23
The permissible primary energy demand envisaged by the 2000 W society [4] allows for a rise in population (2005 estimate: 7,471,050).
- construction/refurbishment: 15%;
- power: Swiss Standard SIA 308/1 threshold 50%;
- heating/ventilation/hot water: total minus share for power
and construction/refurbishment.
This allocation of saving potentials is very rough and should
be investigated in more detail in a separate study. As the
calculations show (Table 4), a standard of construction consistent with the 2000 W society [11] is just about feasible
in Switzerland (Swiss power supply mix), at least in the
housing sector, given mainly solar hot-water production in
conjunction with a 50% cut in power compared to the SIA
380/1 thresholds [10]. Heating, hot water and ventilation
energy indices of 80110 MJ/(m2 a) are realistically achievable with the Passive House and Minergie-P standards. The
15% reduction in the primary energy content of construction
materials should also be possible given appropriate design
and product selection. The electricity demand, however,
remains critical, particularly where the European power supply mix (UCTE) is used. This is true for the housing
Table 4
Energy indices for various building categories: 1990 Swiss mean, SIA 380/1 thresholds [10], 2000 W society targets given Swiss or UCTE power supply mix
based on [8]
Energy indices
1990 MJ/(m2 a)
508
120
73
357
100
73
81
50
62
66
50
62
701
530
193
178
562
96
100
395
80
100
112
40
85
101
40
85
758
575
237
226
215
80
78
18
40
66
7
40
66
I. Housing: MFH
Heating, hot water
Power, including on-peak
Materials, production
Total MFH
II. Housing: SFH
Heating, hot water
Power, including on-peak
Materials, production
Total SFH
480
373
124
113
Total buildings
Heating, hot water
Power
Materials, production
488
108
79
343
90
79
80
45
68
67
45
68
676
513
193
180
Total buildings
1155
Fig. 6. Ecopoints relative environmental loads resulting from construction and operation of residential buildings applying the Minergie-P or Passive House
standard (multi-family homes). The electricity demand is assumed to be met by the European power supply mix (UCTE).
6. Interpretation of results
As the results show, the achievement of sustainable
construction poses stiff challenges. Considerable efforts will
be required to meet the primary energy targets for the
2000 W society [4], the CO2 emission targets set by the
IPCC [3] and the pollutant emission targets determined by
the ecological scarcity method [2]. These demands are set to
increase in line with future population growth and, in
particular, an expanding building stock.
6.1. Primary energy
The limitation of per capita primary energy use to 2000 W
represents the toughest target for sustainable development
1156
Table 5
Threshold values per capita
Sector
Percentage (%)
CO2-Eq
2000 W
17500 kWh/a
500 W
4375 kWh/a
1500 W
13125 kWh/a
1000 kg/a
520 kg/a
100
52
Building sector
1040 W
9100 kWh/a
260 W
2275 kWh/a
780 W
6825 kWh/a
Housing sector
745 W
6475 kWh/a
186 W
1619 kWh/a
559 W
4856 kWh/a
370 kg/a
37
7. Outlook
This study for sustainable construction has analysed
various building categories and is described in detail in Ref.
[11]. The calculations may be easily updated as soon as more
accurate or recent data ecological inventories in particular
are available for specific building classes. Likewise, the
standard may be readily extended to cover other consumption sectors, e.g. transport. Only when each area of society
knows its own specific targets and sets about meeting them, a
sustainable society can be achieved.
References
Fig. 7. Threshold values for energy demand and greenhouse gas emissions
for residential and office buildings (calculation based on average m2 energy
related floor area per capita). Electricity demand figures are prominently at
the primary energy level.
1157
[9] Swiss Federal Statistical Office (BFS): 2002 Income and Consumption
Survey, press release dated 15 July 2004.
[10] Swiss Society of Engineers and Architects (SIA): Swiss Standard SIA
380/1: Thermische Energie im Hochbau (Thermal Energy in Buildings), SIA, Zurich, 2001.
[11] M. Zimmermann, H.-J. Althaus, A. Haas, Benchmarks fur die
Beurteilung der Umweltvertraglichkeit von Hochbauten Beitrag
zur Entwicklung eines Standards fur nachhaltiges Bauen, Empa,
2005.