Inscriptions on Romano-British Mosaics and Wail-Paintings

Author(s): Roger Ling

Source: Britannia, Vol. 38 (2007), pp. 63-91
Published by: Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies
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BritanniaXXXVIII (2007), 63-91

ROMA

on Romano-British
Inscriptions
Mosaics and Wall-Paintings
By ROGER LING
The

topicofinscriptions
onRomanmosaicsandwall-paintings
is onethatdeserves
more

has beengivento dedicationsandsignatures,1

studythanithas received.Some attention
butthesomewhatlargercategoryof textsthatelucidateor commenton visual images
has been strangely
Theyraise a numberof interesting
questions.Whatwerethey
neglected.2
designedto achieve?Who was expectedto readthem?Whydo some imagescarrytextsand
notothers?Whatdo thetextstellus aboutliteracyand responsesto artin theRomanworld?A
butshe has so far,to my
studyon suchquestionshas beenpromisedbyAngeliqueNotermans,
paper.3
knowledge,publishedno morethana briefconference
fromBritain,to determine
the
The objectof thepresentstudyis to reviewtheinscriptions
categoriesintowhichtheyfall,and to see whattheytell us aboutliteracyand culturein the
bythecorpusofRomano-British
mosaicsbeing
province.Herea new opportunity
is presented
compiledby D.S. Neal and S.R. Cosh, thefirsttwo volumesof whichhave now appeared.4
withthematerialalreadycollectedfortherelevantsectionofthecorpusofinscriptions
Together
in Roman Britain(RIB)5 and formy own catalogueof Romano-British
this
wall-painting,6
fruitful
providespotentially
evidenceforsuchan enquiry.
whichwerepurposelysupplied,forvarious
I am, of course,limitingmyselfto inscriptions
reasons,by themosaicistor thepainter,
and ignoregraffiti
or dipintiadded 'aftertheevent'.I
ofinscriptions
also pass overfragments
whichareillegibleortooincomplete
forinterpretation.7
The materialinquestioncoversthestandard
Thisleavesa totaloftenmosaicsandone painting.
thenamesofpatronswho have commissioned
range:artists'signatures,
a work,dedicationsto
figures
andobjectsdepicted,andquotationsfromliterature
orpseudodeities,labelsidentifying
literary
commentsrelatingto scenesdepicted.Threeof theexamplesI have alreadydiscussed
in a coupleof earlierarticleswherenew or variantreadingsare proposed.8For theremaining
to offer,
butin somecases thereis a needto adjudicate
itemsI havefewradicalreinterpretations
betweentheconflicting
opinionsofearliercommentators.

1 See e.g. Donderer1989; Dunbabin1999a,270-7.

2 For some generalcommentssee Dunbabin 1999b, 741-4. For verse inscriptions
on mosaics of the early
Christianperiodsee Fevrier1994.
3 Notermans2001.
4 Neal and Cosh 2002; Cosh andNeal 2005.
5 Frereand Tomlin1992.
6 Davey and Ling 1982.
7 This appliesto mostof theexampleslistedin Davey and Ling 1982,44, whereonlyodd letterssurvive.The
at Kingscotetherereferred
to is indecipherable
and mayhave belongedto a tabletor thelike which
tinyinscription
Amongthe inscriptions
on mosaics I omitthreeexampleswhichare either
formedpartof the actual figure-scene.
or knownonlyfromdescriptions:
indecipherable
Frereand Tomlin1992,nos 2448.4 (Winterton),
10 (Colerne),and
12 (Littleton).
8 Ling 2003 and 2005.

C World
ofRomanStudies
forthePromotion
TheSociety
2007
LicencetoPublish:
reserved.
copyright
Exclusive

64

ROGER LING
SIGNATURES AND DEDICATIONS

BIGNOR, SUSSEX

The one inscription

thatis regularlycitedas the signatureof an artistis TER, said to be the
on a mosaic at Bignor(FIG. 1). But a recent
abbreviatedformof a name such as Terentius,
articleby StephenCosh has challengedthetraditional
interpretation
and suggestedalternative
possibilities.9

FIG.

1. Bignor(Sussex),villa,Room26: fragment
TER. (Photo:S.R. Cosh)
ofmosaicwithinscription

9 Cosh 2001. Interpretation

as a signature:see mostrecently
Donderer1989,111-12,no.A 87,pl. 51, 1. Generally
FrereandTomlin1992, 91, no. 2448.11.
on theinscription:

INSCRIPTIONS ON ROMANO-BRITISH MOSAICS AND WALL-PAINTINGS

65

The inscription
panel,the sole survivorof whatwas probably
appearsin a smalltriangular
of a largeroundel.Virtuallyall of
a seriesof eightsuch panels set withinthe circumference
theinterior
of thisroundelwas alreadydestroyed
whenthepavementwas excavatedin 1811;
butaccordingto thereconstruction
of theexcavator,SamuelLysons,thetriangleswouldhave
The factthatonlyone
alternated
witheighthexagonalfieldsgroupedrounda centraloctagon.10
in whichcase
trianglehas survivedleavesopenthepossibility
thatall eightcarriedinscriptions,
thecontents
butwas rather
one ofeightlabelsdefining
TER is unlikelyto havebeena signature,
readings.First,TER could be short
of theadjacenthexagons.Cosh suggeststhreealternative
fortertiusand signifythethirdday of the eight-daymarketweek,withappropriate
planetary
deitiesin thehexagons,as in a villa at nearbyBramdean(Hants.).11Secondly,itcouldstandfor
Terpsichore
in a sequenceofnineMuses (theninthoccupyingthecentralfield).Thirdly,
itcould
HereCosh links
be thesecondhalfofAVSTER (theSouthWind)dividedbetweentwotriangles.
thelabel notwithone ofthehexagonsbutwitha 'Cupid-like'figurein an ellipticalfieldoutside
theroundel,at thecomerof theroom;butanybipartite
wouldmorelogicallyhave
inscription
bythetwotrianglesconcerned.
to a figurein thehexagonbracketed
referred
is seductive,because it would be a remarkablecoincidenceif the surviving
The argument
trianglewerepreciselytheonlyone withan inscription.
But noneof Cosh's proposalsis fully
restoration
is thelackofa parallelfortheuse ofa numberinplace
convincing.
Againstthetertius
ofa namefora dayoftheweek.AgainstTerpsichore
is theabbreviated
formofthename,which
notonlyomitsmostoftheletters
butalso has a ligatureofE andR: wouldtheviewerreallyhave
understood
theabbreviation?
- assumingthatthelabel relates
AgainstAusteris thedifficulty
candidatesforthefouradditional(and unlabelled)figures
to one of thehexagons- of finding
of eightequally
withthe fourWindsto make up a complement
whichmusthave alternated
weightedsubjects;and,again,wouldtheviewerhave foundit easy to understand
thebipartite
labels,whichwouldpresumably
havetakensuchformsas ZEPH andYRVS, EVR andVS, and
AQV and ILO? These difficulties
have now been discussedin an articleby RogerWilson,who
pointsout,moreimportantly,
labelsin Romanmosaicsto be
thatitis notnormalforidentifying
setin a separatepanelfromthatofthefigureor scenethattheyelucidate.12
The questionofthe
meaningofTER mustremainunresolved,
butforthemomentitis bestto continuetoregarditas
Terentius
thesignature
ofthecraftsman,
whether
or another(Tertius?Tertullus?).
LONDON

Anothercandidatefora craftsman'ssignatureis a fragmentary

on a mosaic in
inscription
(FIG.2).13Thetext,whichdisplays
Londonknownonlyfroma drawingofthenineteenth
century
panel,is partly
partsof fourlinessetwithinwhatwas probablyan octagonalor half-octagonal
incomprehensible,
and one suspectsthatthereare errorsin thetranscription.
The reasonis not
preservedin a portfolio
oftheSociety
hardto seek.The originaldrawing,
volumein thelibrary
ofAntiquaries
ofLondon,is accompaniedbythelegend'HenryHodgemadethisdrawingfrom
MrJ.W.Tolly'ssketchandthefragments
theninhispossession'.14MrTolly'ssketchis probably

10 Lysons1817b,pl. XIII left.

11 Smith1977, 111,no. 15; 116-17, nos 32-3; 117,no. 36; 119,no. 46; 128, no. 79; 133, no. 98; 134, no. 103.
in theeighth
musthave been introduced
As therewereonlysevenplanetarydeities,an extradeityor personification
field:Toynbee(1964, 258) and Smith(1977, 111,no. 15) proposeFortunaor thelike.
12 Wilson2004, 18-19.
13 Frereand Tomlin1992, 92, no. 2448.13; cf. Royal Commissionon HistoricalMonuments1928, 176, no. 60,
fig.88.
14 Red PortfolioLondon IV (P-Z), folio 1 verso. I am gratefulto the President,Fellows and Librarianof the
Societyforallowingme to examineit.

66

ROGER LING

FIG.

50

100

cm

2. London,remainsof inscription
on a mosaicfoundbetweenBotolphLane and PuddingLane in 1887.
(AdaptedfromRCHM, RomanLondon,fig.88)

theseparatedrawingstucktothesamefolioattheleft,whichshowsjusttheelementsattherighthandtipof thelargerdrawing:theletters...VS and ...T plustheadjacentpiece of theframing

have been wronglyassembled.
geometricpattern.One suspectsthatthe additionalfragments
Thereare signsof a crackwhichmayrepresent
a missingsectionat themiddle(to theleftofG
and ESSEL in thetwomiddlelines).But thephrase[PAV]IMENT(VM) TESSEL(LATVM)
and thereseems
STRAT(VM) ('... tessellatedpavementlaid ...') is a plausiblereconstruction,
to be partofa personalnameEGNATIVS in thelineabove.Was thispavementtheworkofa
mosaicistnamedEgnatius?
therestof theinscription
However,theletters
is too defectiveforrestoration.
Unfortunately
linemaypossibly,as suggestedbytheeditorsofRIB, be corrected
DSTD at theendofthefourth
witheach
This,together
to DSPD (de sua pecunia dedit).15
withthelargescale ofthelettering,
characterabout7 cm highand thelongestline at least 1.10 m in length,makesit likelythat
Egnatiusandanyco-signatories
werethesponsorsrather
ofthemosaic.In
thanthepractitioners
shouldbe classifiedas therecordofa donationor dedicationrather
otherwords,thisinscription
thana signature.16
15 Frereand Tomlin1992,92.
16 For a similarformulain a mosaic at Avenchesin Switzerlandsee von Gonzenbach1961, 72, no. 5.23, pl.
26; B6gli 1984, 35, fig. 36; Fuchs 1994: M(ARCVS) FL(AVIVS) MARC[IA]NV[S] ..../ MEDIA[M] .... / ET
EXEDR[AM] .... /TESSELLA(TO) STRAV[IT] .... /D(E) S(VA) [P(ECVNIA)] [D(EDIT)]. Cf. Donderer1989,29,
30. The restoration
me of thisparallel.
tessella(to)is mine.I am gratefulto StephenCosh forreminding

INSCRIPTIONS ON ROMANO-BRITISH MOSAICS AND WALL-PAINTINGS

67

THRUXTON,HANTS.

QuintusNataliusNatalinuset Bodeni on a mosaic fromthe Roman villa at

The inscription
Thruxton,
partlypreservedin theBritishMuseum(FIG.3), is in suchlargeletters(nearly20 cm

(Hants.),villa,Bacchusmosaic.Engraving
byJohnLickman(1823-24). (Photo:S.R. Cosh)
FIG.3. Thruxton

68

ROGER LING

high)and such a conspicuouspositionthatit is once again unlikelyto be the signatureof an

This would appearto be reinforced
by
artistor artists,butmustnamethepatronor patrons.17
theremainsof letterson theoppositeside ofthepavement,
visibleat thetimeof itsexcavation,
whichhave been interpreted
as belongingto a lineendingin thephrase[EX] V[OT]O. Various
haveprovideda precedingverb:fecerunt,
posuerunt,orpromiserunt.18
dederunt,
commentators
Q. NataliusNatalinusandBodeni... wouldtherefore
havecommissioned
themosaicinfulfilment
foundinreligiouscontexts,
andthereareno grounds
ofa vow.Butthephraseex votois normally
in anysenseas a temple,as believedin the
functioned
forbelievingthattheroomat Thruxton
nineteenth
Thereis, in fact,
or serveda domesticcult,as arguedin a recentstudy.19
century,
no compellingreasonto restore...]V[..]O to makeex voto:it is noteven certainthattheO is
thelastletter.We have no meansof knowingwhatwas in thesecondline.It couldhave given
names afterBodeni,and indeedhave providedthe missingpartof the nameBodeni,
further
whichis likelyto be incompleteratherthana nominative
plural(the Bodeni,fatherand son?
two brothers?)or a genitive(son of Bodenius?).20In any case thisdoes notaffectour basic
conclusionthatthenamesin thefirstlinearethoseofthemosaic'ssponsors.
LYDNEY, GLOS.

Certainlydedicatedin honourof a deitywas a mosaicinscription

foundin 1805 in frontofthe
tripleshrinewithinthecella of thetempleat Lydney.This templehas been identified
froma

FIG.

inmosaicpavementof cella. (FromW.H. Bathurst

and C.W. King,
4. LydneyPark(Glos.), temple:inscription
RomanAntiquities
at LydneyPark (1879), pl. VIII)

17 Frereand Tomlin1992, 90-1, no. 2448.9. Cf. Donderer1989, 147-8, no. C 31, pl. 63, 3. Generallyon the
mosaic: Henigand Soffe1993.
18 See Henigand Soffe1993,4-5.
19 Henigand Soffe1993,4-7. Againstthisview Smith1977, 109-10.
20 Fordifferent
interpretations
ofBODENI see FrereandTomlin1992,91; Henigand Soffe1993,4. An argument
againstthe second line havingcontinuedthe names is the changeof lettersize and spacingsuggestedby the two
packedto cramin thenamesand leave
ofthefirstline is moretightly
survivingletters:itlooks as thoughthelettering
thesecondline freeto recordtheact of sponsorship.

69

INSCRIPTIONS ON ROMANO-BRITISH MOSAICS AND WALL-PAINTINGS

numberof dedicationsas thatof a nativedeity,Nodens,who was assimilatedto Mars,and the

butknownfroman earlydrawing:FIG.4) can be restoredas D(eo)
(now destroyed
inscription
M(arti) N(odenti)T(itus)Flavius Senilispr(aepositus?)rel(igionum?)ex stipibuspossuit
o[pitu]lante Victorinointerp[re]tiante:
'to the god Mars Nodens Titus Flavius Senilis,
superintendent
withthe assistanceof Victorinusthe
of rites(?),had thislaid fromofferings,
ofthetemple'scella,whichincluded
Itreferstothemosaicpavement
interpreter
(ofdreams?)'.21
roundelsand a friezeofmarinefauna.
guilloche-framed
HAWKESBURY,GLOS.

inscription
Partof a fragmentary
REG[...]S fromtheborderof a mosaicpavementwas found
in excavationsof a villa sitein 2003 and 2004 (FIG. 5). A verticalelementafterthe 'G' could
thathisbestguesswouldbe thenameREG[INV]S,
belongto an 'I' andRogerTomlincomments
The size is startling:
provinces'.22
a 'commoncognomen'and one 'favouredin Celtic-speaking
thelettersare 30 cm highand theinscription
1.70 m long.This can hardlybe a signature,
so, if
itdoes represent
a name,itis probablythatof a donororpatron.23

FIG.

50

100cm

(Glos.), villa: remainsof inscription

in mosaicpavement.(Aftera drawingbyS.R. Cosh)
5. Hawkesbury

GOOD LUCK MESSAGES

WOODCHESTER, GLOS.

villaatWoodchester
is a mosaicpavement
In Room 10 ofthegrandfourth-century
witha scheme
Largepartsof thepavementhad already
of fiveoctagonalpanelsset in a quincunxformation.

21 Frereand Tomlin1992, 84, no. 2448.3.

22 For the mosaic and its inscriptionsee Cosh 2004, 4-5, figs 1-2. Tomlin'sopinionis citedby Cosh in the
of RomanMosaics Newsletter45 (September2004), 2. Cf. now Tomlin
Associationforthe Studyand Preservation
and Hassall 2005, 483 and n. 30; Cosh 2005, 4, fig.3.
seems to have turnedthe cornerof theroom,witha new line beginningwithV, and Tomlin
23 The inscription
REG[IBV]S V[..., whichcould
and Hassall (2005, 483 n. 30) and Cosh (2005, 4) consideran alternative
restoration
make a quotationseem
be partof a literaryquotation;but the large scale and marginalpositionof the inscription
unlikely.

70

FIG.

ROGER LING

by SamuelLysons(Roman
6. Woodchester
(Glos.), villa: mosaicpavementin Room 10. Colouredengraving
Antiquities
at Woodchester
(1797), pl. XIX). (Photo:PA. Witts)

(FIG.6),24but
century
beendestroyed
whenitwas drawnbyLysonsat theendoftheeighteenth
enoughsurvivedto revealthatone of thecomeroctagonscontaineda dancingcouple,almost
24 Lysons 1797, 6-7, pl. XIX; 1817a, pl. XXIII bottom.See also Smith1977, 114, no. 25; 142-3, no. 127; pl.
6.XXXIc. Whatremainsofthepavementis now reburiedand inaccessible.

INSCRIPTIONS ON ROMANO-BRITISH MOSAICS AND WALL-PAINTINGS

71

thelegs of
certainly
a satyranda bacchante,whileitsdiagonallyoppositecounterpart
preserved
malefigure
whomay(ormaynot)havebeenaccompaniedbya partner.
a further
A thirdoctagon,
and beneaththem
at thesouth-west
comer,showeda pairof Cupidsholdinga basketof fruit,
appearedtheinscription
BONVM EVENTVM. In thenorth-east
octagonno figuresremained,
buttherewas partof anotherinscription:
BIINII C[....].
The second inscription
was restoredby Lysonsas bene colite,and combinedwiththefirst
to forma singleexhortation
BonumEventumbene colite: 'worshipBonus Eventusin thedue
way'.25If thisis right,themessagewouldbe a religiousone. Bonus Eventus('good outcome'
worshippedin Italy by farmersanxious to ensurea
or 'success') was a deitytraditionally
in theagricultural
successfulharvest,as testified
treatisesof Cato and Varro;and in Imperial
timeshis image sometimesappearedon coins, wherehe was shownas a youthpouringa
libationwhile holdingears of corn,or sometimesa cornucopia,in his freehand.26That he
was thesubjectof cultin Britainis demonstrated
by two dedicationsinscribedon stone,one
fromYork and the otherfromCaerleon.27However,in bothcases the dedicationcombined
Bonus EventuswithFortuna,and at Caerleonit is accompaniedby a reliefof thetwo deities
standingside by side. Thereis as yetno firmevidencefora Romano-British
cult of Bonus
Eventusin isolation.28
exhortation
are
Moreover,thetwohalves of theputativeWoodchester
at oppositecornersof thepavementand facein oppositedirections.
Theycouldnothave been
butwouldhave requiredtheviewerto transfer
readsimultaneously
fromone side of theroom
to theother.It is moreplausible,therefore,
to regardthemnotas a singlephrasebutas two
and happiness:'(May you enjoy)success'
separatemessageswishingthevisitorgood fortune
and 'Have a good time'.29It is worthbearingin mind,however,thatbene colite is not an
inevitablerestoration:
possible alternatives
are bene canite,bene cupite,or even perhapsthe
less salubriousbenecacate.
LABELS
ALDBOROUGH, YORKS.

panelswithintheapse of whatwas probablya

A seriesof standingfiguresset in rectangular
is identified
as thenineMuses by a Greekinscription
nextto thelastone: itreads
dining-room
of
EAHK(ONandclearlylabelsthevagueredandgreyshapebeneathitas a schematicrendering
MountHelicon.30Of theMuses partsofthesixthandtheninthsurvivedat thetimeofdiscovery
century
(FIG.7), butall thatnowremainsarefragments
ofthelast- theone
inthemid-nineteenth
standing
beenidentified
as Clio
nexttothemountain.
She holdsan openscrollandhaspreviously
- though,in fact,an openscrollwouldbe equallyappropriate
to Calliope.31This identification
must,however,be abandonedinthelightofnewevidence:a glass lanternslidetakensometime
around1900,whichre-emerged
now lost,notablya
in 1996-97 (FIG.8).32This showsfeatures
25 Lysons 1797, 7; cf. pl. XX, fig.1. This interpretation
has been widelyaccepted:see Morgan1886, 77; Smith
1977, 114; Frereand Tomlin1992, 83, no. 2448.2; Henigand Soffe1993,2.
26 Wissowa 1912,267-8; Arias 1986.
27 Collingwoodand Wright1965, 109,no. 318 (Caerleon); 215, no. 642 (York).
28 A figureidentified
as Bonus Eventusis knownon gemsfromBritain:see e.g. Johns1997, 85-7 (nos 112-33),
96-7 (nos 228-32); Goodburnand Henig 1998; Henig 2004. But the representation
of a deityon gems does not
necessarilyconfirm
theexistenceof a cult.
29 Toynbee1964,274.
30 For thismosaic see Neal and Cosh 2002, 314-18, no. 123.15.
31 See thesurveyof theattributes
of theMuses in Lancha 1997, 318-23.
32 Neal and Cosh 2002, 316, fig.278c. Cf. now Tomlinand Hassall 2005, 496.

72

FIG.

ROGER LING

7. Aldborough(Yorks.),house:fragment
ofa mosaicshowinga Muse withMountHelicon.H. EcroydSmith,
ReliquiaeIsurianae(1852), pl. XVIII (engraving
byM.N. Hessey).(Photo:PA. Witts)

crudetheatrical
masksuspendedat thefigure'srightside andpartof an inscription
on theopen
thefigureunequivocallyas eitherMelpomene,theMuse ofTragedy,
scroll.The maskidentifies
or Thalia, the Muse of Comedy.The scrollis not a normalattribute
of eitherMelpomeneor
Thalia,butitcannotoutweightheevidenceofthemask;itspresence,ifitis notsimplytheresult
ofa confusion,
It is conceivable,as Neal andCosh
maybe toprovidea space fortheinscription.
heldscrollswithidentifying
suggest,thatall ofthefigures
inscriptions.33
Unfortunately,
and difficult
to interpret.
visibleon theslide is incomplete
theinscription
The

33 Neal and Cosh 2002, 317-18. An exampleof a Muse holdinga scrollwiththenameMelpomeneinscribedon it

occurredin a painteddecorationin theCasa del Ristoranteat Pompeii:Pompei 1999, 628-9, figs45-6. But thiswas
clearlyan erroron thepartof thepainter,since theotherMuses in thesame roomhad theirconventionalattributes
(and includedone withMelpomene'stragicmask).

INSCRIPTIONS ON ROMANO-BRITISH MOSAICS AND WALL-PAINTINGS

FIG.

73

8. Aldborough(Yorks.),Muse mosaicrecordedon a glass slide(KendallslidecollectionVol. IV/1).(Photo:

EnglishHeritageB971021. CrownCopyright
reserved)

remaining
seenupsidedownand at an obliqueangle,look like..]IETA>. Neal and Cosh
letters,
inclineto thereading..]IETAS and suggestthatthewordis Latin(pietas?),but are troubled
by the resultant
mixtureof Latin and Greek(the label of Helicon) in the same panel.34An
34 Neal and Cosh 2002, 317. But bilingualismmaybe less of a problemthantheythink.For anothermosaicwith
labels partlyin Greekand partlyin Latinsee Neira and Mafianes1998, 36-46, no. 17, fig.5, pls 17, 35 (Cabez6n de
Pisuerga).Here theGreekseemsto be a quotationfromHomerwhiletheLatinis designedto explainthesubjectto
non-Greek-speaking
viewers.

74

ROGER LING

ofexplainingthe<>shape
alternative
Greekreading..]IEIA is dismissedbecauseofthedifficulty
It cannotbe theterminal
at theend. The latteris indeedproblematic.
ansa of a tabulaansata,
consideredbyNeal andCosh,becausethiswouldfacetheotherway,andthereis
one possibility
no indicationofa frameroundtheremaining
Nor does it looklikea Latin'S'. However,
letters.
if we ignoreit,therestof theinscription
can be interpreted
as theend of thenameOAAEIA,
The 'I' could
similarto thelabel on thebustofthisMuse in theMenandermosaicat Mytilene.35
ofa lambda,the'T' an iotawithserifs.Thefirst
twoletters
OA, forwhichthereis
be theremnant
space at theleft,mayhavebeenin thelineabove,wherefragments
letters
insufficient
of further
>? I had thought
arevisible.Buthow do we explaintheterminal
thatitmightbe a badlydrafted
sigmaandthatthenamecouldbe readas a genitivedependent
on somesuchnounas rzyvr,but
sceptical,pointingout(pers.comm.)that,inthekindoflettering
used
JoyceReynoldsis rightly
at Aldborough,
the
a sigmais likelyto have been in theform'C'. It is also debatablewhether
scrollwouldhave allowedspace foran additionalwordbeforeAAEIAC.Anotherpossibility
is thatthe<>is a concludingstop,a debasedformof one of theivyleavesor othermotifswhich
This is speculativeand otherpossibilities
marksin inscriptions.36
oftenserveas punctuation
namesa comicdramaor thelike) butit providesone
remain(forinstance,thattheinscription
plausibleway of confronting
theproblem.
RUDSTON, YORKS.

In theVenusmosaicfromRudston37
labelsareused,as on someNorthAfricanmosaics,to define
animalsexhibitedin theamphitheatre
accompanying
(FIG.9). The inscription
thefigureofa lion
by a spearhas normallybeen restoredas [LEO] F[R]AMMEFER (=framefer),'the
transfixed
The epithetis supposedlyderivedfrom
spear-bearing
lion' or 'thelion(called) spear-bearer'.38
a typeofspearusedbyGermans,anditis assumedthatthedoublingofthe'M'
thewordframea,
is duetotheilliteracy
ofthemosaicist,whosecalligraphy
leave much
andgeneraldraftsmanship
to be desired.But I have neverbeen convincedby thisreading.Even assumingthata framea
provincesand sufficiently
was partof thevocabularyof theamphitheatre
in theNorth-Western
in thedescription
familiarto be incorporated
or nameof a beastwhichtookpartin a venatio,
or 'spear-bearer'
it is difficult
whenthe
to believethata lionshouldbe labelled'spear-bearing'
thecause of itsdeath.More important,
is
therestoration
presenceof thespearwas presumably
doubtful:
thedrawingand photograph
publishedby Neal and Cosh,bothof whichpre-datethe
ofthemosaicand itstransference
showthattherewas too littlespace
lifting
to Hull Museum,39
forthe 'R'. Smith'sclaim that'partof thetail of theR can stillbe seen' is dismissedby the
editorsofRIB.40
andperhapstheobviousone,is F[L]AMMEFER
Thereadingacceptedbyearliercommentators,
(forflammifer),
andthishasbeenrevivedbyRogerWilsonina recently
meaning'flame-bearing';
I myselfhavepreviously
publishedarticle.41
rejectedthisreadingon thegroundsthatthespace
between'F' and 'A' seems too crampedeven foran 'L'.42 My suggestionwas thattheword

35 Charitonidis,
Kahil and Ginouves1970,pls 3.3, 18.1.
36 See e.g. the mosaic of Menanderand Glyceraat Antiochor thatshowingthebirthof Aphroditeat Zeugma:
from
Earlyet al. 2003, 88, fig.11; 94, fig.27. Crescent-and pelta-shapedinterpuncts
appearin a carvedinscription
Alchester,Oxon.: Sauer 2005, 171.
37 Neal and Cosh 2002, 353-6, no. 143.2.
38 Neal and Cosh 2002, 354; cf. Smith1980, 134 n. 3; Frereand Tomlin1992, 87, no. 2448.7(a).
39 Neal and Cosh 2002, figs325, 326b.
40 See Frereand Tomlin1992,87, commenting
on Smith1980, 134 n. 3.
41 Wilson2003; supportedbyTomlinand Hassall 2003, 382, n. 83.
42 Ling 2003, 15.

INSCRIPTIONS ON ROMANO-BRITISH MOSAICS AND WALL-PAINTINGS

FIG.

75

9. Rudston(Yorks.),villa: Venusmosaicbeforelifting.
(Photo:RoyalCommission
on HistoricalMonuments
reserved)
(England)BB 76/2869:CrownCopyright

eitheras famafer,meaning'fameshouldbe read simplyas FAMMEFER, to be interpreted

However,neither
meaning'hunger-bearer',
bearer',i.e. famous,or asfamifer,
word
i.e. hungry.
anditwouldbe moresatisfactory
ifwe couldreinstateflammifer,
whichhas thevirtue
is attested,
bothofbeinga recognisedtermandofbeingspeltwithtwo'M's. Wilsonhas showninhisarticle
how a small 'L' can (withdifficulty)
be squeezed intothespace between'F' and 'A' (FIG. 10);
Thisis based on the
andhe has nowproducedan additionalargument
in supportofhisreading.43
expertopinionof a modemanimal-handler
whohas advisedhimthatlions,whether
or notthey
ofa cage forthenoiseofthearenawithout
werehungry,
wouldnotreadilyhaveleftthesecurity
beingdrivenoutof itby a firebrand.
A.D.,reportshow lionsare
Oppian,in thesecondcentury
terrified
offire,andtheHippoRegiushuntmosaicshowstheuse oftorchesinbig-catcapture.44
andtherewas a dangerthata sparkfroma torchmightset
Buta lion'sfuris highlycombustible,
italightjust as theanimalwas aboutto be releasedintothearena;so in somecases theaudience
mayhave beentreatedto thesightof a beastalreadyenragedand on firewhenit came intothe

43 Wilson2004, 19-21.
44 Oppian,Cynegetica4.133-4. Hippo Regius: Dunbabin1978, 55, pl. 29.

76

ROGER LING

10

20

30 CM.

byR.J.A.Wilson.
as restored
FIG.10. Rudston(Yorks.),villa: partof mosaicinscription

wererelatively
arena.If suchoccurrences
common,or wereevendeliberately
provokedto give
thespectacleadded drama,Flammifer
('Flame-carrier')would have been a highlysuggestive
- as well as suitable- stage-name
fora lion.45
The Rudstonlion could thushave had a colourfulsobriquetappropriate
to thespectaclesof
theamphitheatre,
just as thebulldepictedin an adjacentpanelin thesamepavementcarriesthe
The ownerof
fearsometitleOMICIDA (attestedalso fora bearon a mosaicfromCarthage46).
bullthat
reminder
themosaicwouldhavekepta perpetual
lionandtheman-killing
oftheflaming
he had once seenperform
in a venatio.47
LITERARY OR PSEUDO-LITERARY QUOTATIONS
OTFORD, KENT

The clearestexample of a quotationfromliterature

inscriptionin a wallis a fragmentary
paintingfroma villa at Otfordin Kent.48Remainsof plastershowingpartsof small-scale
humanfiguresand lettersincludeone piece withtherightarmand side of a warriorwielding
carryingthe legend BINA MANV (FIG. 12).
a spear (FIG. 11) and threejoining fragments
These wordsopen threelines in theAeneid;buttheverticalstrokewhichremainsof thefirst
reducestheoptionsto two(1.313; 12.165), sinceit suggests
letterofthenextwordeffectively
'L' forLATO ratherthan'F' forFVLVOS (7.688). The fullline would thusbe bina manu
lato crispanshastiliaferro,whichrefersin one contextto Aeneas exploringthe land round
Carthagein companywithAchates,in theotherto Turnuscomingforwardin his chariotfor

45 PatriciaWittshas pointedout to me thatAelian (De Natura Animalium12.7) refersto a popularbelief,

derivingfromEgypt,thatthelionpartookofthenatureoffire;she suggeststhatthisin itselfwouldjustify
apparently
thename Flammifer:cf. Witts2005, 150. This is possible,butflammifer
seems moreappropriateto an animalthat
and Iwop5Ggused byAelian.A moretellingargument
against
was physicallyablaze thando theGreekterms<&6tnupov
of venationes.
Wilson'sidea is thelack of anyevidenceforblazinglions in artisticrepresentations
46 Merlinand Poinssot1934, 129,fig.1; Poinssotand Quoniam,1951-2, 144,fig.8.
47 In regardto labels anotherpossible exampleis thenameof a charioteerSERVIVS or SEVERVS supposedly
seen in 1838 on a mosaic (now lost) at Colerne,Wilts.:Frereand Tomlin1992,91, no. 2448.10.
48 Davey and Ling 1982, 146-8; Frereand Tomlin1992,67, no. 2447.9.

INSCRIPTIONS ON ROMANO-BRITISH MOSAICS AND WALL-PAINTINGS

77

FIG.11. Otford(Kent),villa: fragment

ofpaintingwithwarriorholdinga spear.Now in BritishMuseum.
(Photo:BritishMuseum)

one can postulatea

thefinalreckoningwithAeneas. Takingaccountof theotherfragments,
seriesof scenesfromtheAeneid,perhapsa continuousfrieze,witha commentary
in theform
ofquotationsfromthepoem;thequotationswouldprobablyhavebeenplaced above theheads
of thefigures.

78

ROGER LING

FIG.

12. Otford(Kent),villa: fragment

ofpaintedinscription.
Now in BritishMuseum.(PhotoBritishMuseum)

LULLINGSTONE, KENT

glosstothesceneoftherapeofEuropainthe
Also inKent,an elegiaccoupletprovidesa literary
mosaicofthedining-room
villa (FIG.13):49
in theLullingstone
INVIDA SI TA[VRI]VIDISSET IVNO NATATVS
IVSTIVS AEOLIAS ISSET ADVSQVE DOMOS
('If jealous Junohad seen theswimmingof thebull,morejustlywould she have gone to the
palace ofAeolus').
Thepurposeofthemessage,whichwas oriented
towardsanapse witha broadborderfora dining
couch,was presumably
to appeal to thetasteof educatedguests,who would have recognised
theallusionto eventsdescribedin Aeneid 1. At thesame time,as A.A. Barrettpointsout,the
metreand styleofthecoupletareOvidian,so wouldhaveevokedliterary
resonancesofanother
Whethertheversesrepresented
associated
kindforthediners.50
a well-knowntag frequently
withdepictionsof therape of Europa,or whethertheyweremade up by or forthepatronat
Lullingstone,
are of coursequestionsthatwe cannothope to answer.But we shouldcertainly
thatthecoupletcontainscrypto-Christian
references
rejecta recentsuggestion
whichcanbe read

49 Frereand Tomlin1992, 86, no. 2448.6. Generallyon themosaic Toynbee1962, 200, no. 192, pl. 229; 1964,
263-4, pl. LX a; Meates 1979,75-8, frontispiece
and pl. XV b.
50 Barrett1978,311-13.

INSCRIPTIONS ON ROMANO-BRITISH MOSAICS AND WALL-PAINTINGS

FIG.

79

(Kent),villa: mosaicwithEuropaandthebull.(Photo:M.B. Cookson;courtesyofNational

13. Lullingstone
Monuments
Record)

Codedmessagesmaypossiblyhavehada place intheancient

byexcerpting
everyeighthletter.51
world,butthereis no reasonto suspectone here.
FRAMPTON,DORSET

The largestand mostelaborateof a seriesof mosaicpavementsfoundin a villa at Frampton

in
Dorsetat thebeginningofthenineteenth
carriedversescommenting
century
on depictionsof a
pairof classicaldeities.Since themosaicno longersurvives,ourknowledgeoftheinscriptions
is based on theengraving
of SamuelLysonspublishedin 1813 (FIG.14).52The morecomplete
accompanieda head ofNeptune,twolinesto theleftof it,twoto theright:
NEPTVNI VERTEX REGMEN
SORTITI MOBILE VENTIS
SCVLTVM CVI CERVLEA ES[T]
DELFINIS CINCTA DVOB[VS]
51 Henig 1997 and 2000. Cf. Thomas 1998,47-54.
52 Lysons1813,partIII, pl. V. Cf. Cosh andNeal 2005, 134-7, no. 168.2.

80

ROGER LING

(Dorset),villa: mosaicpavementwithmythological
FIG.14. Frampton
by Samuel
subjects.Colouredengraving
Lysons(ReliquiaeBritannico-Romanae
1, 1813,partIII, pl. V).

The inscription
was clearlymeantto be metrical,
butthereis somedoubtas to whatmetrewas
intended.Since 1875 mostwriters,
includingtheeditorsof RIB, have followedStudemundin
(paroemiacs);53
regarding
itas fourlinesofcatalecticanapaesticdimeters
Toynbeein
butJocelyn
thatitwas a coupletofheptameters,
1962wentbacktotheolderviewofHtibner
one on eachside
sortitimobileventis/scultum
cui ceruleaes[t] delfinis
ofthehead:Neptunivertexregmen
cincta
duob[us].54This is moreplausible,sinceparoemiacsare veryrare,beingassociatedmorewith
a heptameter:
the
GreekchorallyricsthanwithLatinepigrams;butonlythefirstlineis strictly
secondis one syllableshort.The truth
is probablythatthemetrehas goneawry.Colleaguesthat

53 Studemund1875; Biicheler1897, 720-1, no. 1524; Frereand Tomlin1992, 89, no. 2448.8(b).
54 Toynbee1962,203 n. 1; 1964,250 n. 4. Cf. Htibner1872, 14, no. 2.

INSCRIPTIONS ON ROMANO-BRITISH MOSAICS AND WALL-PAINTINGS

81

I have consultedin theUniversity

ofManchester
inclineto theviewthattheversesare 'botched
hexameters'.In the laterRomanperiodmanywritersof hexameters,
especiallyinscriptional
had littleunderstanding
ofthefirst
partofthelineandretainedonly
hexameters,
ofthepatterns
thedistinctive
ofthelasttwofeet.55
The authorofourcoupletsetouttowritehexameters
rhythm
butfailedforone reasonor anotherto cope withthetechnicalities
ofthemetre.
Leavingaside thequestionof metre,thereare problemswiththesyntaxof thesecondline,
nounforc(a)erulea orcinctato agreewith,whileboththefunction
becausethereis no feminine
and genderof scul(p)tum('carved') are difficult
to explain.Htibner,
who believedthattheline
assumeda mistakeon thepartofthemosaicistandreplacedscul(p)tum
shouldbe a heptameter,
withscul(p)tura,apparently
anothernoun
in theablativecase,56butstillneededto understand
is referring
suchas barba ('beard') to act as thesubjectof est.In anycase, iftheinscription
to
theactualimagein themosaic,sculpturahardlyseemsthemostappropriate
term.The solution
who believedthattheverseswereparoemiacswas to supplyfrons
of thosecommentators
after
est,andto linkscul(p)tumwithvertexin thefirstline('the head ... is carved'),arguingthatthe
writerhas used theneuterformin error(whetherbecause he was confusedby thepresenceof
of caput).57But thisproducesan awkwardstructure
and
reg(i)menor because he was thinking
stilldoes notexplaintheodd use oftheverbsculperetoreferto mosaic.The senseideallyseems
torequirea wordfor'face' (frons,facies)
or 'beard'(barba) insteadofscul(p)tum,
the
producing
meaning'The head ofNeptuneallottedthekingdomtossedbywinds,whoseface/beard
is dark
blueandgirtbytwindolphins'.Usingfrons
hexameter:
wouldactuallyproducea perfect
FRONS
CVI CAERVLEA EST DELFINIS CINCTA DVOBVS. Alternatively,
we could get the same
meaningby replacingscultumwithvultusand restoretheline as VVLTVS CVI CAERVLEA
EST DELFINIS CINCTA DVOBVS. The metrewould remainfaultyand vultusis masculine
rather
howthenouncouldhavebeencorrupted
thanfeminine,
butitis moreeasyto understand
to scultum.
The secondset of verses,of whichall thatsurvivedweretheends of thelines at theright,
accompanieda figureof Cupid:
...]NVS PERFICIS VLLVM
...]GNARE CVPIDO
The editorsofRIB, believingthatthelineswereparoemiacs,restore[nec mu]nusperficisullum
[si di]gnareCupido('... andyoudo notperform
anyserviceifyoudeignto,Cupid'), butpoint
outthatmetreand senserequirethenegativesensesi nondignare('if you do notdeignto').58
AssumingthatLysonsrecordedthespacingaccurately(which,givenhisnormalhighstandards,
is a reasonableassumption),
thereis no space forthenegative,and one mustconcludethatthe
mosaicistoverlookedit. But thereis a similarproblemwith[nec mu]nus,forwhichthespace
Since Lysons'ownproposal[faci]nusmakespoorsenseand conflicts
againseemsinsufficient.
But it is notablethatthetwo linesbothend in the
withthemetre,we are no further
forward.
ofthelastfeetof a hexameter.
Ratherthanbeingsplitintotwohalves,the
characteristic
rhythm
firstto theleftand thesecondto theright,couldtheinscription
havebeena pairof hexameters
fromleftto rightacross the image of Cupid? It is a possibilityworth
runningcontinuously
possibility,
a divisionbetween
Another
considering.
however,ifwe acceptthattheCupidformed
twolines,is thatthesentiment
was notnegativebutpositive:[mu]nusperficisullum[si di]gnare

55 See Allen 1973,346-7. I am grateful

to Roy Gibson,David Langslow,andAlison Sharrockforgivingme their
advice on thismatter.
56 Hiibner1872, 14, no. 2.
57 Studemund1875; Biticheler
1897, 720-1, no. 1524.
58 Frereand Tomlin1992, 89, no. 2448.8(c).

82

ROGER LING

Cupido ('you performany serviceif you deignto, Cupid'). Thoughnot elegant,thiswould

scan and make reasonablesense ('love can achieve anything'),besides fitting
the available
space. For whatwas said in thelineto theleftof thefigurethereis no clue,and speculationis
unprofitable.
COLCHESTER, ESSEX

mosaic fromLion Walk in Colchesterfeaturesa large roundeloccupiedby

A fragmentary
above theirheads.All
wedge-shapedfields,each of whichcontainedfigureswithinscriptions
thatsurvivesare partsof twofields,buton thebasis of theirpositionand of thewidthof one
of itsframes,
eight
fieldrevealedby fragments
David Neal concludedthattherewereoriginally
fieldsin all, alternating
withnarrower
panelsdecoratedwithplantmotifs.59
are
The inscriptions
andbadlydiscolouredbyburning,
butNeal's drawings,
executedwhilethe
woefullyincomplete
remainsof themosaicwerestillin situ,salvagedsuchinformation
as was available(FIG.15).60
Fromthisthe editorsof RIB have producedthe followingreadings:(a) AD[.]NPVIA[..., (b)
...]DR(orIC)I.[.../...]LLIC[...61
Given theirplacingand probablelength,togetherwiththe factthattheyseem to relateto
(or possiblythree-figure)
scenes,thereseemto me threepossiblewaysofreadingthe
two-figure
inscriptions:
(1) theylabel thefiguresdepictedbelow;
(2) theyare quotationsfromliterature,
or pseudo-literary
as in the Otfordwall-paintings,
likethoseon themosaicsat Lullingstone
comments,
andFrampton;
(3) theylabel worksof literature
on whichthe scenes are based (as in the scenes on the
Menandermosaicat Mytilene).
Thelastpossibility
involveidentifying
thesubjectsas scenesfromplays,
wouldalmostcertainly
depicteddirectly
whichare theonlyworksof literature
regularly
in thevisualarts(presumably
partof
becausetheywereenactedas visualspectacles,notjust reador recited).Unfortunately,
onlyone figure-scene
survives- a pair of figuresfacingright,one a femalewithbillowing
drapery,
beneaththefirstinscription
- andthisis insufficient
to shedlighton thesubject.
oftheAD...VIA inscription,
Itis hardtobeginto suggestanyinterpretation
giventhedifficulty
The lettersin thefirstline
Buttheotheris morepromising.
ofreadingthethreedamagedletters.
are, in myview,definitely
DRI and notDICI.62 The lettergroupDRI is notverycommonin
is inthegenitiveof
Latin.Aftertheemperor'snameHADRIANVS, themostobviousoccurrence
Lysander,
andMenander.
LatinisedformsofGreeknamesending...ANDER, suchas Alexander,
to believethatwhatwe have is theend of MENANDRI
In thepresentcontextit is attractive
followedby thetitleof one of his plays.Alternatively,
thelettersmaybelongto thetitleof an
actualplayof Menander,
betterknownfromitstranslation
intoLatinbyTerence,theAndria.
For the lettersLLIC below thereare variouspossibilities,includingderivativesof allicio,
illicitus,pollex, polliceor, or sollicito. Another,perhapsmore obvious, candidateis the
demonstrative
pronounor adverbILLIC ('he or thatthere'or 'there').The formillic is most
commonin Latinof theRepublicanperiod,and especiallyin theplaysof Plautusand Terence.
theword,e.g. 'ubi illicest
One couldeasilyfindquotationsfromTerence'sAndriaincorporating
scelus?' ('where is thatrogue?':Andria3.5.1). In otherwords,perhapstheColchestermosaic
showsa scenefromtheAndria,dulylabelled,witha pertinent
quotationbelow.
figs
1984,
46-7.
59 SeeNeal1981,73-4,no.41;cf.Smith

60 I amgrateful
toDavidNealforletting
mehavea copyofhisfielddrawing.

61 Frere
andTomlin
1992,83,no.2448.1.

62 This alternativewas not mentionedin the initialpublication,whichalso adds a further

letter:...]DRIA[...:
Wrightand Hassall 1973,331, no. 20.

INSCRIPTIONS ON ROMANO-BRITISH MOSAICS AND WALL-PAINTINGS

20 CM.

10

FIG.

83

15. Colchester(Essex), mosaicfromLion Walk:mosaicinscriptions.

(DrawnbyDavid S. Neal)

and it wouldbe rashto claimmore.If thescene is really

This is onlya workinghypothesis,
froma play,it is possiblethatLLIC mightbe partof thename of a character;but,if so, the
in
Andriaseemsto be excluded- in Terence'sversionat least63- sincethereis no character
thecastlistwhosenamewouldfit.The amountof space availableformissingwordsis another
problematic
letters
factor:thesurviving
appearto cometowardstherightendofthepanel,which
ANDRIA whilemaking
wouldlead one to expectanotherwordorwordsbeforethehypothetical
to fitanything
ILLIC. The distribution
itdifficult
afterthehypothetical
ofwordscould,however,
have been affected
At Mytilene,thelabels arefitted
by thepositionof theheads of thefigures.
intowhateverspace is availableand as a resultareveryirregular.
DISCUSSION

The foregoingsurveyhas yieldeda totalof eleven inscriptions,

belongingto the classes of
63 TheRomanauthorswhoadaptedplaysofMenanderfortheRomanstageseem,wheretheinformation
is available,
names.Unfortunately,
to havechangedthecharacters'
we do nothave a dramatispersonaeforMenander'sAndria.

84

ROGER LING

anddedications,
goodluckmessages,labels,andliterary
orpseudo-literary
signatures
quotations.
We can nowgo on to examinetheirsignificance
undervariousheads.
MEDIUM

bartheone at Otfordoccuron mosaics.Thisis notespeciallysignificant,

All theinscriptions
for
therewouldcertainly
havebeenmanymoreinscribedwall-paintings
had thematerialsurvived.
exposure,
through
Becauseofthefragility
ofplasterandthefactthatwallscollapseordisintegrate
paintings
fromweathering,
whilepavementsaresealedandthusprotected
aredisproportionately
under-represented
in therecord.
DATING

ApartfromtheOtfordwall-paintings,
whichareprobablyto be ascribedto thesecondcentury,
Partoftheexplanation
herelies inthenatureof
all theinscriptions
century.64
belongtothefourth
theevidence.Most inscriptions
are associatedwithfiguresand figurescenes,and thereare few
figuredmosaicsin Britainbeforethefourth
century.
thatthe
At thesametime,it is interesting
Otfordexample,iftheinterpretation
takestheformof a literary
offered
above is correct,
gloss,
quotingfromthepoemwhichinspiredtheaccompanying
pictures.It thusfitsintoa categoryof
whichcan be paralleledin wall-paintings
in RomanItalyduringtheperiod
learnedreferences
of thelateRepublicand earlyEmpire.Good examplesare theseriesof Greekepigramswhich
accompanypaintingsin theHouse of theEpigramsand a Latinpoem written
on a pictureof
Micon and Pero in theHouse of M. LucretiusFronto,bothat Pompeii.65Such 'commentaries'
couldbe derivedfroma tradition
oflabelledpicturesincopy-booksorevenofillustrated
textsof
worksin question.The evidenceis naturally
inadequateas a basis forwide-ranging
theliterary
thattheseinscriptions
conclusions,butit is significant
do notappearto havebeen analogousto
theuninitiated.
Theyseemrather
to havebeenaimedat those
thelaterlabelsdesignedto inform
who alreadyknewtheclassicsof Greekor Latinliterature.
LITERACY

thedate,thepresenceofan inscription
orinscriptions
Whatever
is,ofcourse,no proofofliteracy,
eitheron thepartof themosaicistor on thatof thepatron.The textscould have been copied
at Frampton
mechanically
frommodels.Indeed,thespellingandsyntaxofsomeinscriptions,
for
example,arguesfora less thanperfect
commandofLatin(and ofLatinmetre).Buttheveryfact
thatinscriptions
was expectedorwas socially
wereusedatall betokensa climateinwhichliteracy
andtime-consuming
Constructing
business,so
important.
letters
inmosaictesseraewas a finicky
lightly.
Moreover,whereinscriptions
designed
wereevidently
wouldnothave beenundertaken
to explaina sceneoridentify
(see further
below),theremusthavebeenan assumption
characters
fromtheassistance,i.e. theycouldread
thatsome at leastof theviewerswouldhave benefited
thetags.And in somecases,notablythecoupletat Lullingstone,
thelanguageand theVirgilian

64 Second-century
datingforOtford:Davey and Ling 1982, 146 and 148 n. 1. For thetemplecomplexat Lydney
recentresearchhas pushedback theearlyphasesto thesecondhalfof thethirdcentury(Casey and Hoffmann1999),
so maystillbe fourth-century.
buttheinscribedmosaic belongsto a phase of reconstruction,
65 House of the Epigrams:Dilthey1876; Neutsch1955; Strocka1995. House of Fronto:Peters1993, 335, fig.
246. The Odysseyfriezein RomeandtheIliadic friezein theHouse oftheCryptoportico
at Pompeii,in bothofwhich
mayhave
taste,thoughheretheprimary
of theinscriptions
thefiguresare labelled,reflecta similarliterary
function
the Greekpedigreeof thepaintings(see e.g. Beyen 1960, 260-350, figs 102-6; Aurigemma1953,
been to confirm
903-70, figs901-88, pls LXXXVI-LXXXIX).

INSCRIPTIONS ON ROMANO-BRITISH MOSAICS AND WALL-PAINTINGS

85

allusionimplythepresenceof viewerswitha sophisticated

knowledgeof Latinpoetry.That
by certainmosaicswhichare uninscribed
but
sucha knowledgeexistedin Britainis supported
have subjectsofa distinctly
cast,notablyanotherpavementat Frampton
literary
whichincludes
theepisode of Aeneas pluckingthegoldenboughrelatedin Aeneid6, and,moreimportantly,
of Dido's love affairwith
thepavementfromLow Ham, Somerset,whichpresentsa narrative
Aeneas,based on theaccountin AeneidI and 4. Whileit is possibleto arguethatthepictures
and do notindicatea directacquaintance
on thesemosaicswerederivedfromvisualprototypes
mosaicsandpaintings
unattested
in surviving
withVirgil'stext,mostofthescenesareotherwise
in earlycodices,suchas theVaticanVirgil,datedabout
(thenearestparallelsaretheillustrations
A.D. 400), anditis surelypreferable
to see thepatrons'choicesas groundedin a familiarity
with
classics.66
theliterary
REASONS FOR ADDING INSCRIPTIONS

individually.
We maynow discussthedifferent
typesof inscriptions
theywereintendedto record
1. Signaturesand dedicationswereobviouslycommemorative;
thenameof a craftsman
andto documentthebeneficence
of a donororpatron.In
or craftsmen,
thelattercase, especiallygiventhesize ofthelettering
on suchpavementsas thoseat Thruxton
- something
we can sense a desireto pass down one's name to posterity
and Hawkesbury,
in a temple,as at Lydney.There
thatwouldhavebeenwell achievedby a pavementinscription
are manyanalogiesin theearlyChristian
mosaicsof theLevantwhichrecordthenamesof the
bishopsand othersponsorswho had thepavementslaid. In thecase of theartistor artists,
the
same desireto perpetuatetheirnamesmay have promptedcraftsmen
in variouspartsof the
onmosaicsarerelatively
fewandinconspicuous,
Romanworldto signtheirwork.Butsignatures
and
and it is moreplausibleto thinkof mostof themas 'trademarks',
establishing
authorship
skillstopotential
themanufacturer's
future
customers.67
TheTER atBignor,
possiblyadvertising
forinstance,assumingthatit is a signatureand notsomething
else, wouldhave attracted
little
and,in latergenerations,
attention
wouldhave meantlittleto visitors,especiallyas thenameis
Itwouldhavemadesenseonlywhenthecraftsman
incomplete.
was stillalive andactive,andhis
markwas recognisedas a guaranteeof authenticity.
of theseis again self-evident:
2. Good luck messages.The function
theyare designedto greet
thevisitorand wishhimor herwell. The Woodchester
mosaicfitsintoa widespreadpractice,
illustrated
forexampleby an inscription
in thevilla at Carranque,wherea firmof mosaicists
sign theirworkand wish Maternushappinessin the use of the cubiculumwhichtheyhave
One mayperhapscomparetheempire-wide
decorated.68
practiceofplacinggood luckmessages
andapotropaicsymbolsinthepavements
mayalso haveplayed
ofbaths,thoughheresuperstition
a part:thenakedbatherwas vulnerableandneededprotection.69

66 Generallyon theevidencefora knowledgeoftheliterary

classics in RomanBritain:Barrett1978.Aeneas and
thegoldenbough:Barrett1977. Low Ham mosaic: Toynbee1962, 203-5, no. 200, pl. 235; 1964, 241-6, pl. LVIII.
VaticanVirgil:Wright1993. For probablereferences
to linesofVirgilon thecoinageof Carausius,who ruledBritain
as a militaryusurperfromA.D. 286/7to 293, see De la Bedoyere1998 and 2005: he arguesthatCarausius'made
unequivocaluse ofclassical literature
in his propagandacampaign,andwas able to relyon detailedfamiliarity
ofthat
literature
amongsthis public'. Cf. Birley2005, 375-7.
67 See e.g. Donderer1989,45-7; Dunbabin1999a, 272-3.
68 Donderer1989,96, A 68, fig.40.
69 Dunbabin1989.Another
place whereprotection
was needed,albeitforslightlydifferent
reasons,was thetoilet.
PaintingsofFortunaare foundin at leastfourlatrinesat Pompeii:Frdhlich1991,40, 59, 296-7 (L 106), 301 (L 114),
pls 10 (1), 50 (3); cf.Jansen1993, 33 n. 5.

86

ROGER LING

figures
didactic:
3. Labels. Itis clearthatthelabelsaccompanying
inmosaicsareoftengenuinely
theyare appliedto helptheviewerto interpret
a subjector scene.The situationis thusslightly
fromthatofthelabelledfiguresin thepaintingsof late-Republican
different
and early-Imperial
Italy,wherethereis evidenceforthecopyingof models,especiallyGreekmodels,as partof
classics.These earlierlabels oftenseemto
a fashionof displayinga knowledgeof theliterary
have been transcribed
by artistswho maynothave been familiarwiththeGreek
mechanically
language.In thefamousOdysseylandscapesfromtheEsquilinein Rome,forexample,someof
thelabels are misspelt,and one of theUnderworld
scenestransposesthenamesSisyphosand
Tityos.70
In theHomericfriezeoftheHouse ofD. OctaviusQuartioatPompeiitheGreeknames
intoLatin,sometimeswrongly(Achilles' horseBalius has become
have been transliterated
partly
Badius71).Such labels were designedpartlyto flauntthepatrons'culturalcredentials,
In some
to establishthestatusof thepaintingsthemselvesas derivedfromGreekprototypes.
cases itis notevenclearthattheyweremeantto be seen:theOdysseylandscapes,forexample,
occupiedtheupperpartof a wall so highthattheirlabels musthave been barelylegiblefrom
ground-level.72
The primary
In anycase at this
purposecan hardlythushave been informative.
paintings.The knownexamplesare
date labels were nevera regularfeatureof mythological
few,and theirincidencebecomesveryrareduringthefirstcentury
A.D.:theOctavius
relatively
Quartiofriezerepresents
theonlyuse of labelledfiguresin Pompeianpaintingafterthetimeof
Augustus.
In laterperiods,however,thereseemsto have developeda real desire,bothin paintingsand
in mosaics,to informthe viewer.This is especiallyevidentin the Easternprovinces,where
fromthe end of the second centuryA.D. onwardslabels became increasingly
common.In
manycases theywerealmostessential.Numerousmosaicsin Antiochand othercentresdepict
bustspersonifying
subjectsso obscure- scenesfromlittleknownworksofliterature,
otherwise
andAnaneosis
Apolausis(Enjoyment),
indistinguishable
conceptssuchas Soteria(Well-being),
(Renewal), and elaborateallegoricalcompositionsconveyingideological or philosophical
in
messages- thatno spectatorcould readilyhave understoodthemwithoutidentifications
form.73
areclearlyexpressionsofa climateoflearningand learned
written
Suchrepresentations
allusionsharedbythewell-educated
inwellclasses.Butlabelsevencametobe used forfigures
knownmythological
withclearlyidentifiable
attributes.
In latethird-and
scenesand forfigures
fourth-century
mosaicsat Paphosin Cyprus,forexample,labels accompaniedTheseusand the
Minotaur,
Apollo and Marsyas,Zeus and Leda - all subjectswherethesituationand attributes
ofthefigurescouldhave leftno doubtas to thesubjectsrepresented.74
Admittedly,
manyminor
figuresin therelevantcompositions
to namewithoutlabels;but
wouldhavebeenmoredifficult
one senses a new concernto elucidatethesubjects,whethertheiconography
was familiaror
not.Thatthisgrewout of a beliefthatviewersneededhelp in interpreting
pictures,is implied
by an earlierpavementat Paphos,thatof the west porticoof the peristyleof the House of
A.D.75 Herethereis a sequenceof four
Dionysus,datedto thelatesecondor earlythirdcentury
mythological
scenes,of whichthefirsttwo (Pyramusand Thisbe,Dionysusand Icarius)have

70 Gallina 1964,23, 27, 28.

71 Aurigemma1953,993, 995, figs1023, 1027,pl. XCI.
72 The heightofthewall fromwhichtheyweretakenis recordedas about5.50 m. Fora generalreconstruction
of
thefriezeand its settingsee Andreae1962.
73 Scenes fromliterature:
see e.g. Levi 1947, 117-19, pl. XX, c (Metiochosand Parthenopein theHouse of the
Man of Letters).SoteriaandApolausis: Levi 1947, 304-6, pls LXVII (d), LXVIII. Ananeosis:Levi 1947, 320-1, pl.
LXXIII. Allegoricalcompositions:e.g. Balty 1977,28-9, no. 9; 42-3, no. 16 (bothfromPhilippopolis).
Villa ofTheseus); 29-30, no. 28, col.
74 See e.g. Michaelides1987,25, no. 23, pl. XI (Theseus and theMinotaur,
pl. XXII (Leda and theSwan,House ofAion); 31, no. 30, col. pl. XXIV (Apollo and Marsyas,House ofAion).
75 Michaelides1987, 19-21, nos 16-19, pls VII-IX; cf.Daszewski and Michaelides1988,37-45, figs27-34.

INSCRIPTIONS ON ROMANO-BRITISH MOSAICS AND WALL-PAINTINGS

87

Apollo and Daphne)do not.The mostlikely

labelsand theothertwo(PoseidonandAmymone,
explanation
is thatelucidationwas providedonlyforthetwoobscurersubjects.
forthisdisparity
NeitherDionysus'giftof wine to Icariusnorthe tragicfateof Pyramusand Thisbeenjoyed
widespreadcurrencyin Romanart,76whereasApollo's pursuitof Daphne and Poseidon's of
Amymonewereso muchpartofthecommonstockthatitwas deemedunnecessary
to assistthe
viewerto identify
them.
The two Britishexamplesof labelledfiguresare moredifficult
to assess. The labellingof
theMuses and Heliconat Aldboroughcould certainly
be regardedas didacticif it had been in
Latin,buttheuse ofGreekgivespause. Did thedinerswho saw thefigures
whilerecliningon a
stibadiumin theroom'sapse all reallyknowGreek,orwerethelabelsdesignedto showoffthe
Thereareveryfewinscriptions
patron'sbilingualism?
inGreekon mosaicsintheNorth-Western
provinces.The exceptionsknownto me are a third-century
pavementat Colognewithlabelled
and thinkers,77
of Greekdramatists
one inAutuncontaining
portraits
and a latesecond-century
quotationsinGreek.78
portraits
ofEpicurus,Metrodorus,
andAnacreonaccompaniedbylengthy
In each case thereis a consciousdisplayof literary
culture,and theAldborough
Muses mustbe
seenin a similarlight.Even ifthelabelswereconventional,
comprehension
beingtakenwithout
fromcopy-books,
theveryuse of Greekmadea statement
aboutculturalaffiliation.
couldhaverepresented
theconventional
At Rudston,thenamingofbeastsoftheamphitheatre
apingof a decorativeformulafoundin Africa,whereseveralpavementsdepict'catalogues'of
If so, the idea may have been imported,
animals,sometimeswithnamesattached.79
perhaps
to believethatthelabelswere
in copy-books.But it is difficult
via variousstagesof mediation,
totallydevoid of meaning.Whateverthe sourcesof inspiration
forusingthemotifof named
in a specific
animals,it is likelythattheactualcreaturesin questionhad been realperformers
whetherhe had financedit himselfor had simply
showwhichtheownerwishedto remember,
enjoyeditas a spectator.80
4. Quotations.These are the clearestsignsof a desireto displayand sharea knowledgeof
classical culture.Theywouldhave made littlesenseunlesssome,at least,of theviewerswere
able to recognisethe learnedallusions.Froma comparatively
earlyperiod,the paintingsat
Otfordmayhave includeda friezeillustrating,
withquotations,episodesfromtheAeneid- a
subjectthatpresupposesa patronwho knewVirgil(or at leastwishedpeople to thinkhe did).
In thefourth
century,
a desireto showone's classical educationmayhave becomeeven more
important.
At Colchester,if my theoryis correct,the Lion Walk mosaic may have showna
seriesof labelledscenes fromNew Comedy,like thoseon theMenandermosaicat Mytilene.
theinscription
At Lullingstone,
above thescene of Europaand thebull is fromno poem that
in a faultlesselegiaccouplet
we know,butpresupposesa knowledgeofAeneid1, and is written
in the styleof Ovid. Its orientation
towardsdinersrecliningroundtheperimeter
of the apse
shows thatit was specificallyaddressingguestsat banquetsand was designedto stimulate
theversesare questionablein syntaxand metre,and could
literarydiscussion.At Frampton,
literary,
have been made up by thepatronor one of his peers- but,even if notstrictly
they
represent
of a literary
culture.The references
a determination
to maintainthetrappings
to the

76 Symptomatic
oftherarityofthesubjectis thefactthatthemosaicistmayhave confusedPyramuswitha rivergod of thesame name:Michaelides1987, 19; Daszewski and Michaelides1988,40.
77 Parlasca 1959, 80-2, fig.10, pls 80-2.
78 Blanchardand Blanchard1973; Sternand Blanchard-Lem6e1975, 59-62, no. 213, pls XXV-XXVI.
79 Dunbabin1978,71-5, pls 57-62. Some of thesemerelygive thenumbersof each speciesexhibitedin a show,
is analogousto thatof theRudstonpavement.
or showthespecies withoutlabels; buttheidea of commemoration
venationessponsoredby house-ownersthereare severalpossible candidatesin
80 For mosaics commemorating
NorthAfrica,theclearestof whichis theMageriusmosaic fromSmirat:Dunbabin1978,67-9, pls 52-3.

88

ROGERLING

verse,areunambiguous
powersofNeptuneandCupid,written
inwhatpurports
tobe hexameter
declarations
ofallegianceto thisclassicalideal.
An interesting
placed
aspectoftheFrampton
pavementis thepresenceofa chi-rhomonogram,
(thoughoriented
totheheadofNeptune.
incloseproximity
tobe seenfromtheoppositedirection)
thatthepatronwas in some sense an adherentof theChristian
The monogramdemonstrates
faith.It is possiblethatthepartof thepavementcontaining
thissymbol,whichbelongedto an
apsidalrecess,was laid orrelaidlaterthantherest;81
but,evenifthiswerethecase, theclassical
motifselsewherein themosaic,includingnotonlyNeptuneand Cupid butalso depictionsof
Bellerophonkillingthe Chimaera,Bacchus seated on a leopard,and a quartetof two-figure
scenes fromGreekmythology,
evidentlycontinuedto be respected.Howeverwe understand
thepaganmythswerereinterpreted
in Christian
theapparentcontradiction
- whether
terms,or
baggageof Roman
whethertheywereretainedmerelyas partof theaestheticand intellectual
villa-life- whatis beyonddoubtis theevidenceof a clingingto traditional
formsof classical
cultureat a timewhennewsetsofvaluesweretakingover.82
Thepseudo-literary
textsthatgloss
clear.
theimagesofNeptuneand Cupidmakethisabundantly
SUMMARY

butitis noteworthy
Eleveninscriptions
that
is a smalltotalonwhichtobuildgeneralconclusions,
almostthewholerangeoftypesis present;perhapstheonlymajorabsenteeis anyexampleofthe
funerary
inscriptions
executedin mosaicwhichare foundin thecemeteries
of lateImperialand
earlyChristiantimesin theMediterranean
provinces.This apart,we have signatures
of artists
labels,and literary
and donors,messagesof good luck,explicatory
quotationsor allusions.As
elsewherein theEmpire,thereseemsto have beena psychologicalneedto putwritten
textson
wallsandfloors.Notall viewersmayhaveunderstood
them,andnoteverywriter
mayhavebeen
ofthemetre);butitis clear
fullyin commandoftheLatinlanguage(or,in metricalinscriptions,
ifnotwell educated,to makethepracticeof
thattherewereenoughpeople who wereliterate,
worthwhile.Thereis evenone instanceofa mosaiclabelledinGreek.Whether
inthis
inscribing
orhis guestswerereallyGreek-speaking,
ortheuse of Greekwas inspired
case thehouseholder
uncomprehendingly
by a formof intellectual
- or thelabelsweresimplytranscribed
snobbery
froma copy-book- we cannotknow.Buttheveryexistenceoftheinscriptions,
Greekornot,is
of appearingto be educated.Futurediscoveriesof
once moreeloquentofthesocial importance
inscribedpaintingsandmosaicswillno doubtreinforce
ofthismessage.
thetruth
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

toStephen
thispaperandoffering
comments
andcriticisms
Cosh,David
invaluable
I amindebted
Forreading
Neal,andPatricia
helpedmeto obtainillustrations.
Witts.
Theyhaveall,together
withCharlesBrowne,
anonymous
useful
Britannia's
andguidance
Further
suggestions
referee;
intheinterpretation
havecomefrom
81 Thisidea,whichgoesbacktoLysons(1813,partIII,p. 3), wassuggested
tomebyMartin
Millett
ata seminar

see Ovadiahand Mucznik1981 (a

whichI gave in CambridgeinNovember2004. For a possibleparallelin Jerusalem

roomcontaining
intoa placeforChristian
mosaicsupposedly
worship
an Orpheus
turned
ofan apse
bytheaddition
a cross).However,
whosepavement
oftheHinton
StMarymosaic,whichwasalmostcertainly
contained
theanalogy
theworkof thesame craftsmen
as theone at Frampton(Smith1965, 100-2, figs5-6), whichincludedsimilarpagan

Bellerophon
theChimaera),
symbol
integrally
placedatthecentre
(notably
andwhichhasa chi-rho
killing
imagery
ofthefloor,
theforceofMillett's
weakens
proposal.
82 For thepersistenceof pagan motifsand mythological
figuresin Byzantinemosaics in theNear East see e.g.
Figueras2003. Some examplesoccureven in thepavementsof churchesand synagogues.

MOSAICSANDWALL-PAINTINGS
INSCRIPTIONS
ON ROMANO-BRITISH

89

has been givenby Roy Gibson,David Langslow,JoyceReynolds,AlisonSharrock,

of specificinscriptions
at seminarsin Cambridgeand Manchester,
and RogerWilson.Earlierversionsofthepaperwerepresented
andI owe a further
to thediscussionsthatfollowed.Butno one otherthan
debtto all thosewhocontributed
myselfshouldbe heldaccountableforanywildideasthatremain.
DepartmentofArchaeologyandArt History,Universityof Manchester
Roger.ling@manchester.ac.uk

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