Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Computers
8th Edition (International)
Chapter 1
Summary
Computer literacy has three components: an awareness of
the importance, versatility, and pevasiveness of computers in
society; knowledge of what computers are and how they
work; and the capability of interacting with a computer to
use simple applications.
Every computer has three fundamental characteristics: speed,
reliability, and a large storage capability. Through these
characteristics computers increase productivity, aid in
decision-making, and reduce costs.
The equipment associated with a computer system is called
hardware. The programs, or step-by-step instructions that
run the machines, are called software. Computer
programmers write programs for users, or end-users
people who purchase and use computer software.
A computer is a machine that can be programmed to process
data (input) into useful information (output). A computer
system comprises four main aspects of data handlinginput,
processing, output, and storage.
Input is data to be accepted into the computer. Common
input devices are the keyboard; a mouse, which translates
movements of a ball on a flat surface to actions on the
screen; a wand reader or bar code reader, which uses
laser beams to read special letters, numbers, or symbols
such as the zebra-striped bar codes on products: and a
flatbed or sheet-fed scanner, used to scan photos or
documents into the computer.
A terminal includes an input device, such as a keyboard or
wand reader; an output device, usually a television-like
screen; and a connection to the main computer.
The processor, or central processing unit (CPU),
processes raw data into meaningful, useful information.
The CPU interprets and executes program instructions and
communicates with the input, output, and storage devices.
Memory, or primary storage, is related to the central
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Chapter2
Software is the planned, step-by-step set of instructions
required to turn data into information. Applications
software can be used to solve a particular problem or to
perform a particular task. Applications software may be
either custom-designed or packaged.
Computer programmers are people who design, write, test,
and implement software. Organizations may pay computer
programmers to write custom software, software that is
specifically tailored to their needs.
Packaged software, also called commercial software, is
packaged in a container of some sort, usually a box or folder,
and is sold in stores or catalogs. Inside the box one or more
disks contain the software. An instruction manual, also
referred to as documentation is sometimes included.
The term user-friendly means that the software is supposed
to be easy for a beginner to use or that the software can be
used with a minimum of training.
Freeware is software for which there is no fee. Public
domain software is not copyrighted and therefore may be
used or altered without restriction.
Open-source software is freely distributed in a format that
enables programmers to make changes to it.
Shareware is freely distributed; the user is expected to
register and pay a nominal fee to use it past a free trial
period.
Commercial software is copyrighted, costs money, and must
not be copied without permission from the manufacturer.
Making illegal copies of commercial software is called
software piracy and is punishable under the law.
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Chapter3
An operating system is a set of programs that lies between
applications software and the computer hardware. Systems
software means all programs related to coordinating
computer operations, including the operating system,
programming language translators, and service programs.
The kernel, most of which remains in memory, is called
resident. The kernel controls the entire operating system and
loads into memory nonresident operating system programs
from disk storage as needed.
Loading the operating system into memory is called booting
the system.
An operating system has three main functions: (1) managing
the computers resources, such as the central processing
unit, memory, disk drives, and printers; (2) establishing a
user interface; and (3) executing and providing services for
applications software.
The user communicates with the operating system through
the user interface.
A platform is a combination of computer hardware and
operating system software that determines which
applications users can run on their systems.
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Chapter4
The central processing unit (CPU) is a complex set of
electronic circuitry that executes program instructions; it
consists of a control unit and an arithmetic/logic unit.
The central processing unit interacts closely with primary
storage, or memory. Memory provides temporary storage of
data while the computer is executing the program.
Secondary storage holds permanent or semipermanent data.
The control unit of the CPU coordinates execution of the
program instructions by communicating with the
arithmetic/logic unit and memorythe parts of the system
that actually execute the program.
The arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) contains circuitry that
executes the arithmetic and logical operations. The unit can
perform four arithmetic operations: addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. Its logical operations usually
involve making comparisons that test for three conditions:
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Chapter5
A source document is the original written data to be input
into the computer.
A keyboard is a common input device that may be part of a
personal computer or a terminal connected to a remote
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Chapter6
Secondary storage, sometimes called auxiliary storage, is
storage that is separate from the computer itself and is
where software and data can be stored on a semipermanent
basis. Secondary storage is necessary because memory, or
primary storage, can be used only temporarily.
The benefits of secondary storage are space, reliability,
convenience, and economy.
Floppy disks and hard disks are magnetic media, based on a
technology of representing data as magnetized spots on the
disk.
Floppy disks are made of flexible Mylar. Advantages of floppy
disks, compared with hard disks, are portability and backup.
The 3.5-inch floppy disk standard may be challenged by
Sonys HiFD or Imations SuperDisk, new higher-capacity
disks whose drives can handle both the new disks and the
traditional 3.5-inch disk or perhaps by Iomegas Zip drive,
with a disk that is high capacity but not compatible with 3.5inch floppy disks.
A hard disk is a rigid platter coated with magnetic oxide that
can be magnetized to represent data. Several platters can be
assembled into a disk pack.
A disk drive is a device that allows data to be read from a
disk or written to a disk. A disk pack is mounted on a disk
drive that is a separate unit connected to the computer. The
disk access arm moves a read/write head into position
over a particular track, where the read/write head hovers
above the track. A head crash occurs when a read/write
head touches the disk surface and causes data to be
destroyed.
A redundant array of independent disks, or simply RAID,
uses a group of small hard disks that work together as a
unit. RAID level 0, data striping, spreads the data across
several disks in the array, increasing performance. RAID
level 1duplicates data on separate disk drives, a concept
called disk mirroring, which provides fault tolerance.
Higher levels of RAID use both techniques to achieve both
increased performance and fault tolerance.
A track is the circular portion of the disk surface that passes
under the read/write head as the disk rotates.
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Chapter 7
Data communications systems are computer systems that
transmit data over communications lines, such as telephone
lines or cables.
Centralized data processing places all processing,
hardware, and software in one central location.
Businesses with many locations or offices often use
distributed data processing, which allows both remote
access and remote processing. Processing can be done by
the central computer and the other computers that are
hooked up to it.
A network is a computer system that uses communications
equipment to connect two or more computers and their
resources.
The basic components of a data communications system are a
sending device, a communications link, and a receiving
device.
Digital transmission sends data as distinct on or off pulses.
Analog transmission uses a continuous electric signal in a
carrier wave with a particular amplitude and frequency.
Digital signals are converted to analog signals by modulation
(change) of a characteristic, such as the amplitude (height)
or frequency of the carrier wave. Demodulation is the
reverse process; both processes are performed by a device
called a modem.
An external modem is not built into the computer and can
therefore be used with a variety of computers. An internal
modem is on a board that fits inside a personal computer.
Notebook and laptop computers often use a PC card
modem that slides into a slot in the computer.
Modem speeds are usually measured in bits per second
(bps).
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Chapter8
In 1969 the Defense Department set up a connected group of
geographically dispersed computers called ARPANET, for
Advanced Research Projects Agency Network.
In 1986, the National Science Foundation connected its large
network, NSFnet, to ARPANET, and the resulting network
became known as the Internet.
The Internet backbone (the high-speed circuits that carry the
bulk of Internet traffic), was originally provided by NSFnet,
but in 1995, NFSnet withdrew, leaving commercial carriers to
bear the load.
In 1990 Tim Berners-Lee made getting around the Internet
easier by designing a set of links for one computer to
connect to another. He saw the set of links as a spiders web;
hence the name Web. Berners-Lees laboratory at the CERN
site is considered the birthplace of the World Wide Web.
A link on a Web site is easy to see: It is either colored text
called hypertext or image that causes the pointer to change
to a pointing hand as it passes over the link. A mouse click
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Chapter 9
With the high level of integration of computing into society, it
is no longer desirable to leave the social and ethical issues of
computing to the experts; everyone must become
knowledgeable and involved.
One of the major issues confronting society today is the
growing digital divide that separates the computing haves
from the have-nots. To narrow the divide within the United
States, the FCC administers the Universal Service Fund
that helps service providers with the higher costs of
providing communication services to rural areas. The Federal
E-Rate program adds a little to everyones telephone bill to
provide rate subsidies for Internet access for schools and
libraries. Worldwide, thousands of initiatives exist within
disadvantaged regions and countries to improve access to
the digital world.
Ergonomics is the use of research in designing systems,
programs, or devices that are appropriate to use for their
intended purposes. In the context of computers, ergonomics
refers to human factors related to the use of computers.
Many software tools exist that allow employers to monitor the
computer activities of employees. Although there is no
requirement to notify employees of such monitoring, more
enlightened organizations have policies in place to inform
employees of monitoring practices.
Green computing refers to addressing the environmental
impact of computers use in an environmentally responsible
manner. Many organizations require all newly purchased
computer equipment to meet the EPAs Energy Star
standards for limiting power requirements.
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Chapter 10
The word hacker originally referred to a person with a very
high level of computer expertise, but now the term usually
describes a person who gains access to computer systems
illegally. Experts prefer the term cracker for persons
engaging in illegal activities. Using social engineering, a
tongue-in-cheek term for con artist actions, hackers
persuade unsuspecting people to give away their passwords
over the phone.
Tricks employed by unscrupulous computer users can involve
various devices, including a bomb, which causes a program
to trigger damage under certain conditions; data diddling,
or changing data before or as it enters the system; a denial
of service (DoS) attack, in which a site is bombarded with
so many requests that legitimate users cannot access it;
piggybacking, which is accessing a system via a legitimate
user; salami, or embezzling small slices of money;
scavenging, or searching company trash cans and
dumpsters; a trapdoor, which allows subsequent
unauthorized entry to a legitimate program; a Trojan
horse, which places illegal instructions in the middle of a
legitimate program; and zapping, or using software to
bypass security systems.
White-hat hackers, also known as tiger teams or sometimes
intrusion testers or hackers for hire, are highly trained
technical people who are paid to try to break into a computer
system before anyone else does.
Prosecution of computer crime is often difficult because law
enforcement officers, attorneys, and judges are unfamiliar
with the issues involved. However, in 1986 Congress passed
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Chapter 11
Word processing is the creating, editing, formatting, storing,
retrieving, and printing of a text document.
A text document is any text that can be keyed in, such as a
memo. Creation is the original composing and keying in of
the document, editing is making changes to the document,
formatting is adjusting the appearance of the document,
storing is saving the document to disk, retrieving is bringing
the stored document from disk back into computer memory,
and printing is producing the document on paper.
The insertion point, or cursor, usually a blinking underscore
or rectangle, shows where the next character you type will
appear on the screen.
Scrolling, done by moving the cursor, lets you display any
part of the document on the screen.
Word wrap automatically starts a word on the next line if it
does not fit on the previous line.
Use the Backspace key to delete characters to the left or the
Delete key to delete the character under the cursor or to
the right of the cursor. Accidental or incorrect deletions can
usually be repaired with the undo command, which
reverses the effect of the previous action.
Mouse users issue commands through a series of menus,
called pull-down menus, which offer initial choices and
submenus, or by using buttons at the top of the screen. The
toolbar is a collection of such buttons.
The format is the physical appearance of the document.
Vertical centering adjusts the top and bottom margins so
that the text is centered vertically on the printed page.
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Chapter 12
Forms that are used to organize business data into rows and
columns are called spreadsheets. An electronic
spreadsheet, or worksheet, is a computerized version of a
manual spreadsheet.
The greatest labor-saving aspect of the electronic spreadsheet
is automatic recalculation: When one value or calculation
in a spreadsheet is changed, all dependent values on the
spreadsheet are automatically recalculated to reflect the
change.
What-if analysis is the process of changing one or more
spreadsheet values and observing the resulting calculated
effect.
The intersection of a row and column forms a cell. The letter
and number of the intersecting column and row is the cell
address, or cell reference.
The active cell, or current cell, is the cell in which you can
type data.
Each cell can contain one of three types of information: A
label provides descriptive information about entries in the
spreadsheet; a value is an actual number entered into a
cell; and a formula is an instruction to the program to
perform a calculation. A function is like a preprogrammed
formula. Sometimes you must specify a range of cells, a
group of adjacent cells in a rectangular area, to build a
formula or perform a function.
To create a spreadsheet you enter labels, values, formulas,
and functions into the cells. Formulas and functions do not
appear in the cells; instead, the cell shows the result of the
formula or function. The result is called the displayed value
of the cell. The formula or function is the content of the cell,
or the cell content.
Business graphics represent business data in a visual, easily
understood format.
Analytical graphics programs help users to analyze and
understand specific data by presenting data in visual form.
Presentation graphics programs, also known as
business-quality graphics programs, produce
sophisticated graphics. Presentation graphics programs
contain a library of symbols and drawings called clip art and
also offer animation and sounds.
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Chapter13
The field is the smallest meaningful unit of data and consists
of a group of one or more characters. The group of fields
containing data about a single entity makes up a record,
and the collection of related records is a file.
The traditional file processing approach to information
systems results in a great deal of data redundancy
duplication of data. Records in a file are identified by their
primary key field (or just primary key), which contains a
unique value for each record.
A database is a collection of related files (tables in database
terminology) in which each table contains data concerning
only a single entity. Tables are linked, or related, when a
field, called a foreign key, in one table contains the value of
a primary key in another table.
There are four main database models (methods of organizing
data within a database): hierarchical, network, relational,
and object-oriented. Most databases today use the
relational database model, which organizes data in a table
format using rows and columns.
Data integrity refers to the degree in which data is accurate
and reliable. Integrity constraints are rules that data must
follow to maintain integrity.
A Database Management System (DBMS) is a software
package that allows the user to create a database, enter
data into the database, modify the data as required, and
retrieve information from the database.
Databases contain a data dictionary that stores data about
the tables and fields within the database.
Data maintenance consists of three basic operations: adding
new data, modifying existing data, and deleting data; it is
performed either directly through DBMS routines or by
programs containing special commands.
Data retrieval involves extracting the desired data from the
database. Queries retrieve data from a database by
presenting criteria that the DBMS uses to select the desired
data. Queries are written using a query language.
Structured Query Language (SQL) is a standard query
language supported by most DBMSs.
Queries can also be prepared by using a graphical interface to
set criteria. This method is called query-by-example
(QBE).
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Chapter 14
A system is an organized set of related components
established to accomplish a certain task. A computer system
has a computer as one of its components. A client requests a
systems analysis, a study of an existing system, to
determine both how it works and how well it meets the
needs of its users, who are usually employees and
customers. Systems analysis can lead to systems design, the
development of a plan for an improved system. A systems
analyst normally does both the analysis and design. Some
people do both programming and analysis and have the title
programmer/analyst. The success of the project requires
both impetus and authority within the client organization to
change the current system.
The systems analyst must be a change agent who encourages
user involvement in the development of a new system.
The systems analyst has three main functions: (1)
coordinating schedules and task assignments, (2)
communicating analysis and design information to those
involved with the system, and (3) planning and designing
the system with the help of the client organization. A
systems analyst should have an analytical mind, good
communication skills, self-discipline and self-direction, good
organizational skills, creativity, and the ability to work
without tangible results.
The systems development life cycle (SDLC) can be described
in five phases: (1) preliminary investigation, (2) analysis, (3)
design, (4) development, and (5) implementation.
Phase 1, the preliminary investigation, also known as the
feasibility study or system survey, is the initial consideration
of the problem to determine howand whetheran analysis
and design project should proceed. Aware of the importance
of establishing a smooth working relationship, the analyst
refers to an organization chart showing the lines of authority
within the client organization. After determining the nature
of the problem and its scope, the analyst expresses the
users needs as objectives.
In phase 2, systems analysis, the analyst gathers and
analyzes data from common sources such as written
documents, interviews, questionnaires, observation, and
sampling.
The analyst must evaluate the relevance of written documents
such as procedure manuals and reports. Interview options
include the structured interview, in which all questions are
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Chapter 15
A programming language is a set of rules for telling the
computer what operations to perform.
A programmer converts solutions to the users problems into
instructions for the computer. These instructions are called a
program. Writing a program involves defining the problem,
planning the solution, coding the program, testing the
program, and documenting the program.
Defining the problem means discussing it with the users or a
systems analyst to determine the necessary input,
processing, and output.
Planning involves designing an algorithm, a detailed, stepby-step solution to the problem. This can be done by using a
flowchart, which is a pictorial representation of the step-bystep solution, or by using pseudocode, which is an Englishlike outline of the solution. Pseudocode is not executable on
the computer. Before coding, the programmer should
perform a process called desk-checking, carrying out each
step of the algorithm in the indicated sequence to verify that
it produces the desired results. A structured walkthrough,
in which a programmers peers review the algorithm design
to verify its correctness, is often performed.
Coding the program means expressing the solution in a
programming language. The programmer must follow the
languages syntax, or grammatical rules, precisely.
Programmers usually use a text editor, which is somewhat
like a word processing program, to create a file that contains
the program. In most current computer languages the text
editor is part of a comprehensive package called a
integrated development environment (IDE) that also
includes translation and debugging software.
Testing the program consists of translating and debugging. In
translating, a translator program converts the program into a
form the computer can understand and, in the process,
detects programming language errors, which are called
syntax errors. A common translator is a compiler, which
translates the entire program at one time and gives error
messages called diagnostics. The original program, called a
source module, is translated to an object module, to
which the linkage editor (or linker) adds prewritten
modules from a system library to create an executable load
module. Debugging involves running the program to
detect, locate, and correct mistakes known as logic errors.
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Chapter 16
All managers have five main functions: planning,
organizing, staffing, directing, and controlling. A
management pyramid shows that top-level managers focus
primarily on strategic functions, especially long-range
planning; middle-level managers focus on the tactical,
especially the organizing and staffing required to implement
plans; and low-level managers are concerned mainly with
operational functionscontrolling schedules, costs, and
qualityas well as with directing personnel.
A management information system (MIS) is a set of
business systems designed to provide information for
decision making. A computerized MIS is most effective if it is
integrated throughout the entire organization.
The MIS manager, a person who is familiar with both
computer technology and the organizations business, runs
the MIS department.
The traditional management pyramid has been flattened by
the dissemination and sharing of information over computer
networks. The impact of groupware has removed exclusive
manager access to information and has forced managers to
share decision-making. Some companies are organizing
workers into teams around tasks.
A decision support system (DSS) is a computer system
that supports managers in nonroutine decision-making tasks.
A DSS involves a model, a mathematical representation of a
real-life situation. A computerized model allows a manager
to try various "what-if" options by varying the inputs, or
independent variables, to see how they affect the outputs,
or dependent variables. The use of a computer model to
reach a decision about a real-life situation is called
simulation. Since the decision-making process must be
fast, the DSS is interactive, allowing the user to
communicate directly with the computer system and affect
its activities.
An executive information system (EIS) is a decision
support system for senior-level executives, who make
decisions that affect an entire company.
When personal computers first became popular in the
business world, most businesses did not have general
policies regarding them, which led to several problems. Many
businesses created the position of personal computer
manager (later called the network manager or LAN
manager) to ensure coordination of personal computers,
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