MECHANISMS OF FRACTURE IN METALS

transgranular

transgranular
(in general)

Basic
Mechanisms of
Fracture in Metals

intergranular

DUCTILE FRACTURE: VOID NUCLEATION, GROWTH, and COALESCENCE

Spherical void in a solid, subject to triaxial

stress state

The limit load model for void instability. Failure is

assummed to occur when the net section stress
between voids reaches a critical value

Mechanism for ductile crack growth

Ductile growth of an edge crack. The shear lips are produced by

the same mechanism as the cup and cone in uniaxial tension

Ductile crack growth in a 45 zig-zag pattern

Optical micrograph of ductile crack growth in a

high strength-low alloy steel

CLEAVAGE FRACTURE

One model of
cleavage fracture in
steels: initiation of
cleavage at a
microcrack that forms
in a second phase
particle ahead of the
macroscopic crack

Formation of river
patterns, as a result of
a cleavage crack
crossing a twist
boundary between
grains

River patterns in
an A 508 steel.
Note the tearing
lines (light
areas) between
parallel
cleavage planes

SEM fractograph of cleavage in an A 508 steel

MECHANISMS OF FRACTURE IN FATIGUE

2 mm

Beach marking on a fatigue fracture surface in a thin walled pipe

5 mm

Fatigue striations

Laird (1967) model of plastic bluntingre-sharpening wich leads to fatigue

crack growth in fully reversed fatigue.
a: zero load
b: small tensile load
c: peak tensile load
d: onset of load reversal
e: peak compressive load
Fatigue Striations of Failure Surface in 2024-T3
Aluminium alloy. Arrow indicates growth direction

f: smal tensile load in the subsequent

tensile cycle.

Region II of the da/dN vs. DK !!!

Arrows indicate slip direction

EXAMPLE: Striation width vs. da/dN

Fracture surface of high-strength Al 2024 T3 that failed by cycling fatigue.

Test specimen was a Centre Notch-panel
610 mm x 229 mm, 10 mm thickness with
initial crack lenght 13 mm.
Arrow indicates direction of crack growth.
Image corresponds to a position 20 mm
from de center of the plate.

Block A

13 MPa m1/2

Block loading sequence

Block A: 0.5 mm / cycle

eff

(Da / DN)mean Block B: 0.34 mm / cycle

Block A, R = 0.5: DKeff = 0.75 DK

Block C: 0.05 mm / cycle

DK = 17 MPa m1/2, Ds?, smax?, smin?

INTERGRANULAR FRACTURE
Ductile metals usually fail by coalescence of voids formed at inclusions and
second phase particles
Brittle metals typically fail by transgranular cleavage

Under special circumstances, HOWEVER, cracks can form and propagate along
grain boundaries resulting in intergranular fracture

There is no single mechanism for intergranular fracture. Rather, there are a

variety of situations that can lead to cracking on grain boundaries, including:

1. Precipitation of a brittle phase on the grain boundary

2. Hydrogen embrittlement and liquid metal embrittlement
3. Enviromental assisted cracking
4. Intergranular corrosion
5. Grain boundary cavitation and cracking at high temperatures

Examples:
(1): Brittle phases can be deposited on grain boundaries of steel as a result
of improper tempering: tempered martensite embrittlement (tempering at
350 C). Involves segregation of impurities (P, S) to prior austenite grain
boundaries (blue brittleness!!!).
(2): Atomic hydrogen apparently bonds with the metal atoms reducing the
cohesive energy strength at grain boundaries. Sources: H2S, hydrogen gas.
Important problem in welding of steels: cracking in the Heat Affected Zone
(HAZ). Hydrogen is a problem when welding high strength steels: special
care!!!

(3): Intergranular fracture

in a steel ammonia tank