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LO2 - 242/

Valsir underfloor
heating system
TECHNICAL MANUAL

Features, project design, dimensioning, laying and testing

INDEX

VALSIR UNDERFLOOR HEATING SYSTEM


Features, project design, dimensioning
laying and testing
1. Characteristics of floor heating systems
1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
1.4.

Thermal well-being
Energy saving
Hygienic conditions
Aesthetic advantages

2. Components catalogue
2.1.
2.2.
2.3.
2.4.
2.5.
2.6.
2.7.
2.8.
2.9.
2.10.
2.11.
2.12.
2.13.
2.14.
2.15.
2.16.
2.17.
2.18.
2.19.
2.20.
2.21.
2.22.
2.23.
2.24.
2.25.
2.26.

pg. 6

pg. 8

PEXAL and MIXAL pipes


V-ESSE insulating panel
V-ELLE insulating panel
V-BAND edging strip
V-JOINT band for expansion joints
V-CLIP anchor clips
V-FOIL anti-humidity film
V-FLUID concrete fluidiser
Distribution manifold for residential systems
Distribution manifold for industrial systems
Distribution manifold for high temperature circuits
End kit for distribution manifold
Interception valve kit for distribution manifold
Nut-ring-insert for distribution manifold
Plug for distribution manifold
Flow meter for distribution manifold
Mixing kit
Thermostatic valve with liquid sensor
Thermo-electric head
Circuit control unit
Expansion module for two zones
Mixing kit pump control module
Anti-shrinkage grid
Encased metal cabinet for distribution manifold
Fixer for clips
Pipe un-winder

3. Technical characteristics of the components

pg. 15

3.1.
PEXAL and MIXAL pipes
3.1.1. General characteristics
3.1.2. Characteristics of crosslinked polyethylene PE-Xb
3.1.3. Characteristics of aluminium
3.1.4. Mechanical behaviour
3.1.5. Heat expansion
3.1.6. Resistance to abrasion, deposits and corrosion
3.1.7. Oxygen and UV rays barrier
3.1.8. Light-weight
3.1.9. Sound absorption
3.1.10. Long life
3.1.11. Heat conductance
3.1.12. Heat output in comparison with other pipes
3.1.13. Pressure loss
3.1.14. Quality control
3.1.15. Approvals

3.2.
3.2.1.
3.2.2.
3.3.
3.3.1.
3.3.2.
3.3.3.
3.3.4.
3.3.5
3.4.
3.4.1.
3.4.2.
3.5.
3.6.
3.6.1.
3.6.2.
3.6.3.
3.6.4.

V-ESSE and V-ELLE insulating panels


V-ESSE panel
V-ELLE panel
Mixing kit
Components of mixing kit
Theory: adjustment of mixing kit
Practice: adjustment of mixing kit
Practical method of adjusting the mixing kit
Assembled mixing kit
Distribution manifold
The manifold components
Practical method of adjusting and balancing the manifold
Fluidiser for concrete
Control systems
Control units of the heating circuits
Expansion module for two zones
Thermo-electric heads
Circulator pump control module

4. Valsir underfloor heating systems


4.1.
4.2.
4.3.
4.4.
4.5.

pg. 60

Introduction
Dimensioning: theory
Floor stratification
Required thermal flow
Characteristic curves
Thermal flow limit and maximum floor temperature
Limit curves
Supply temperature
Average floor temperature
Downward heat dispersion
Length of heating loops
Flow and temperature of heating fluid
Design limits in the choice of pipe spacing
Balancing of heating circuits
Dimensioning: practice
Floor stratification
The required thermal flow
Thermal flow limit and maximum floor temperature
The characteristic and limit curves
Supply temperature
Circuit dimensioning
Balancing of heating circuits

6. Snow melting with radiant


panel systems
6.1.
6.2.

residential system with pocketed panel


residential system with smooth panel
residential system for renovation
industrial system with smooth panel
industrial system with insulating gush cement

5. Dimensioning of floor heating systems in accordance


with the standard UNI EN 1264
5.1.
5.2.
5.2.1.
5.2.2.
5.2.3.
5.2.4.
5.2.5.
5.2.6.
5.2.7.
5.2.8.
5.2.9.
5.2.10.
5.2.11.
5.2.12.
5.3.
5.3.1.
5.3.2.
5.3.3.
5.3.4.
5.3.5.
5.3.6.
5.3.7.

Valsir
Valsir
Valsir
Valsir
Valsir

pg. 55

Introduction
System types

pg. 96

6.3.
6.4.
6.4.1.
6.4.2.
6.4.3.
6.4.4.
6.4.5.
6.4.6.
6.5.
6.5.1.
6.5.2.
6.5.3.
6.5.4.
6.5.5.
6.5.6.

System design
Dimensioning: theory
Required heat output
Stratification of radiant panels
Temperature calculation
Downward specific heat output
Calculation of circuit loops
Calculation of flow rate and temperature of heating fluid
Dimensioning: practice
Required heat output
Stratification of radiant panels
Temperature calculation
Downward specific heat output
Calculation of circuit loops
Calculation of flow rate and temperature of heating fluid

7. Installation

pg. 119

7.1 Preliminary operations and controls


7.2. Installation of the manifold and mixing kit
7.3. Installation of the edging strip
7.4. Installation of the insulating panels
7.5. Installation of pipino
7.6. Expansion joints
7.7. Settlement joints
7.8. Filling
7.9. Leak test
7.10. Laying of the screed
7.11. Heating up

8. Appendix
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.

pg. 126

Heat transfer
Heat conductance and resistance of materials
Wood as a floor covering
Dimensioning of metal grid reinforcement in the floor
Anti-freeze liquid in heating circuits
Calculation of quantity of concrete for laying
Insulating panels for floor heating
Measurement units

Characteristics
of underfloor heating systems

The first evidence of underfloor heating (ufh) can be found even in Roman times. The working principles were fairly simple but ingenious; an underground fire was made and the
hot fumes were conveyed through ducts under the floor of the home.
Only following the war do we start to see the first ufh systems which used hot water inside pipes embedded in the floor; unfortunately the poor insulation in the buildings, the high
temperatures and the lack of adequate control systems caused this type of system to lose
popularity for quite some time. The energy crisis of the seventies, however, and the issuing
of European laws on thermal insulation made it possible to return to this type of heating.
Floor heating is, today, certainly the most technically valid solution offered by the heating
market in the residential, commercial and industrial sector. The various solutions available
allow maximum flexibility and adaptability to all types of building and construction requirements.
Furthermore, the use of a heating fluid at low temperatures and the particular stratification
of the heat in the room means important energy saving.

1.1. Thermal well-being


When the temperature has a particular distribution in relation to height, a certain comfort
is created in the room. Such a temperature distribution is defined the ideal curve of thermal well-being. In order to create a condition of thermal well-being, there must be
slightly warmer areas near the floor and slightly colder areas near the ceiling.
For every heating system it is possible to trace a distribution curve of the temperatures. In
underfloor heating systems, the particular arrangement of the radiant panels and the heat
transfer by radiation generates a stratification of the temperatures, which is closest to the
ideal curve.

1.2. Energy saving


Systems with radiant panels, as compared to traditional heating systems, allow an average energy saving of 10% to 15% at equal environmental temperatures. The reasons for this
marked saving are due to the fact that the large surface of the floor allows the water to circulate at low temperatures. For this reason, it is convenient to use heat sources whose performance increases when run at low temperatures (heat pumps, condensation boilers, solar
panels, heat recovery systems, zone heating systems).
The thermal gradient that is generated with floor heating systems is such that heat loss is less
than in a traditional heating system. Unlike traditional systems, floor heating offers the possibility of recovering heat that is usually wasted due to the stratification effect of the air, which reaches higher temperatures near the ceiling; the higher the ceiling the greater the heat recovery.
6

With a floor heating system the condition of well-being achieved at an average room temperature, which is generally 1C below the temperature achieved with traditional systems
and therefore, at equal comfort, energy saving is possible.
Furthermore, the use of insulating panels to hold the pipe, significantly reduces heat loss
and contributes to the increase of system output; traditional heating systems do not require such panels, from a design point of view, and therefore they are never used.

1.3. Hygienic conditions


Floor heating naturally rules out the formation of humid areas on the floor, conditions
favouring dust mites and bacteria are therefore not generated and there will also be no
formation of mildew. Unlike traditional systems, there is no combustion of motes, which
provoke a dry and irritated throat and there are no convective currents, which favour the
transport of dust in the room.

1.4. Aesthetic advantages


There are no limits of an architectural nature linked to the presence of heating units; therefore, there is total freedom in interior decorating. By eliminating the problem of condensation and mildew, there will be no deterioration of wooden floors or windows and
frames.
Traditional heating systems limit the space available in arranging furniture whereas floor
heating systems allow total use of all available space; it is also of advantage in buildings
of architectural and artistic importance.

More details on heat transfer and temperature distribution for different types of heating
systems can be found in the appendix.

Components catalogue

2.1. PEXAL and MIXAL pipe


De

Name

Di

thickness (mm)

(mm)

(mm)

COD.

(m)

PEXAL 14x2

14

2,0

10

100101

100

MIXAL 16x2

16

2,0

12

113005

120

MIXAL 16x2

16

2,0

12

113007

240

MIXAL 20x2

20

2,0

16

113009

120

MIXAL 20x2

20

2,0

16

113011

240

PEXAL 26x3

26

2,0

20

100117

50

Multi-layer pipe in crosslinked polyethylene with internal layer in aluminium

2.2. V-ESSE insulating panel


Name

(mm)

(mm)

(mm)

1(mm)

Density

(mm)

(kg/m3)

COD.

(pcs)

(m2)

V-ESSE20

750 1350 50

20

75

30

109000

12

12,15

V-ESSE30

750 1350 60

30

75

30

109001

10

10,12

Pocketed panel in expanded polystyrene with blue EPS film.

2.3. V-ELLE insulating panel


Name

(mm)

(m)

(mm)

(mm)

Density
(kg/m3)

COD.

(pcs)

(m2)

V-ELLE20/150 1000

12

20

50

30

109002

12,00

V-ELLE30/250 1000

12

30

50

40

109003

12,00

Smooth panel in rolls in expanded polystyrene with grey EPS film, with aluminium finish and red
squares for facilitating installation.

2.4. V-BAND edging strip


Name
V-BAND

(m)

25

(mm)

200

(mm)

COD.
109200

(pcs)

(m)

125

White insulating strip in expanded polyethylene with self-adhesive side on the whole surface and
protective film divided in two. The strip is coupled with a 40 m polyethylene transparent film to prevent cement infiltrations.

2.5. V-JOINT band for expansion joints


Name
V-JOINT

(m)

(mm)

200

25

(mm)

COD.

(pcs)

125

109201

(m)

White insulating band in expanded polyethylene with adhesive at one end by 20 mm to be used with
V-JOINT/T support or to be glued to the mushrooms of the V-ESSE panel

Name

V-JOINT/T

COD.

(m)

109203

1,20

(pcs)

10

(m)

12

T-profile, self-adhesive for fixing to V-JOINT band for expansion joints

2.6. V-CLIP anchor clips


Name

De pipe

V-CLIP01

COD.

(mm)

109400

14, 16, 20

(pcs)

100

Anchor clips for pipe diameters 14, 16, 20 mm to be used with V-ELLE panel.

Name

De pipe

(mm)

Net thread

(mm)

COD.

(pcs)

V-CLIP02

16, 20

35

109403

25

V-CLIP03

26

35

109405

25

Anchor clips for fixing pipes to metal grid for application on insulating concrete.

2.7. V-FOIL anti-humidity film


Name

V-FOIL

100

(m)

(mm)

1200

COD.
109600

(m)

100

(m2)

120

Polyethylene anti-vapour film thickness 0,2 mm with self-adhesive ends by 25 mm.

2.8. V-FLUID concrete fluidiser


Name

COD.

V-FLUID

109800

(kg)

10

This additive permits improved concrete flow with less water. Optimises the covering of loops during
installation.

2.9. Distribution manifold for residential systems


Number
exits

(inch)

(inch x mm)

(mm)

(mm)

Kg

COD.

(pcs)

G11/4 G3/4x18

214

247

3,90

110004

G11/4 G3/4x18

214

297

4,72

110005

G11/4 G3/4x18

214

347

5,54

110006

G11/4 G3/4x18

214

397

6,35

110007

G11/4 G3/4x18

214

447

7,16

110008

G11/4 G3/4x18

214

497

8,51

110009

10

G11/4 G3/4x18

214

547

9,33

110010

11

G11/4 G3/4x18

214

597

10,15

110011

12

G11/4 G3/4x18

214

647

10,97

110012

Distribution manifold with flow-check valves, valves with thermostatic capacity and brackets for
encased cabinet (cod. 112010 and cod. 112011).

2.10. Distribution manifold for industrial systems


Number
exits

(inch)

(inch x mm)

(mm)

(mm)

Kg

COD.

(pcs)

G11/4 G3/4x18

214

347

5,54

110016

G11/4 G3/4x18

214

397

6,35

110017

G11/4 G3/4x18

214

447

7,16

110018

Distribution manifold with brackets for encased cabinet (cod. 112010).

2.11. Distribution manifold for high temperature circuits


Number
exits

(inch)

(inch x mm)

(mm)

(mm)

Kg

COD.

(pcs)

G3/4 G3/4x18

87

155

1,95

110020

G3/4 G3/4x18

87

205

2,59

110021

Distribution manifold for high temperature circuits. Used for bathroom radiator or extra radiators
in a floor heating system. (To be used with mixing kit cod. 110300).

10

2.12. End kit for distribution manifold


D

(inch)

(mm)

1 (mm)

(mm)

G11/4 14,5 G11/4 35

(mm)

28

(mm)

95

kg

(mm)

99

COD.

(pcs)

0,566 110025

End kit with valve for system drainage and automatic air vent.

2.13. Interception valve kit for distribution manifold


D

(inch)

(mm)

32

G11/4

(mm)

75

(mm)

151

COD.

(pcs)

110032

Two valves (red and blue) with thermometer 60C to be used with distribution manifold.

2.14. Nut-ring-insert for distribution manifold


D

Pipe

(inch x mm)

(mm x mm)

COD.

(pcs)

G3/4x18

14x2

110035

10

G3/4x18

16x2

110036

10

G3/4x18

20x2

110037

10

Fitting for connection of PEXAL and MIXAL pipes to distribution manifolds.

2.15. Plug for distribution manifold


D

(inch x mm)

G3/4x18

COD.
110040

(pcs)

10

Plug for distribution manifold outlets.

11

2.16. Flow meter for distribution manifold


D

Flow

(inch x mm)

G3/4x18

COD.

(l/min)

0,62,4

(pcs)

110045

Flow meter to be connected to distribution manifold (return side).

2.17. Mixing kit


D

1 (inch)

2 (inch)

G3/4 G11/4

(mm)

381

(mm)

214

(mm)

400

Kg

COD.

7,16

110300

(pcs)

Mixing kit with three-speed pump (predominance 4 m, 5 m, 6 m) with bracket for fixing to encased cabinet (cod. 112010 and cod. 112011), safety thermostat, interception valve with thermometer, valve with thermostatic capacity at inlet and flow-check valve at outlet, adjustable safety bypass, three-way motorised valve.

2.18. Thermostatic valve with liquid sensor


D

(mmxmm)

M28x1,5

(mm)

52

(mm)

81,5

(mm)

160

(mm)

11

Measuring field
(C)

3050C

COD.

(pcs)

110400

Thermostatic valve with immersion sensor.

2.19. Thermo-electric head


Operating voltage (V)

COD.

24

110430

(pcs)

Thermo-electric head on/off with adaptor for distribution manifold. Controls the flow in floor heating circuits. Is applied to distribution manifolds (return side).

12

2.20. Circuit control unit

Number zones

Max. no circuits

Operating voltage (V)

COD.

24

110600

14

24

110605

(pcs)

Control unit of heating circuits. It is the command box of the thermo-electric heads, which operates
depending on the temperature picked up by the thermostats.

2.21. Expansion module for two zones


Number zones

Operating voltage (V)

COD.

24

110610

(pcs)

Module for increasing the number of zones controlled per control unit cod. 110600 and
cod. 110605.

2.22. Mixing kit pump control module


Operating voltage (V)

COD.

24

110620

(pcs)

Module turns off the circulator pump when all the circuits are closed, to avoid activating the safety
by-pass of the mixing kit.

2.23. Anti-shrinkage grid


L

(mm)

2000

(mm)

1000

Mesh

(mmxmm)

50 x 50

Wire
2

(mm)

COD.
109700

(pz)

20

(m2)

40

Galvanised steel anti-shrinkage grid for anti-shrinkage structure.

13

2.24. Encased metal cabinet for distribution manifold


L

(mm)

(mm)

(mm)

COD.

(pcs)

1000

720 810

110 150

112010

1200

720 810

110 150

112011

Encased cabinet for mixing kit and distribution manifold, adjustable in height and depth. Fire-painted steel.

2.25. Fixer for clips


COD.

(pcs)

112000

Fixer for clips cod. 109400 for anchoring PEXAL and MIXAL pipe to V-ELLE panel.

2.26. Pipe un-winder


COD.
112001

Pipe un-winder for PEXAL and MIXAL coils.

14

(pcs)

Technical characteristics of the components

3.1. PEXAL and MIXAL pipes


3.1.1. General characteristics
For underfloor heating systems (UFH) Valsir has chosen to use the PEXAL and MIXAL pipe
for their excellent thermo-mechanical properties.
The PEXAL and MIXAL pipes are characterised by a particular multi-layer structure which
distinguishes itself from other pipes used in UFH systems in that it possesses an internal
layer in aluminium which is wrapped completely around the pipe and makes it completely
oxygen proof. The multi-layer pipe offers all the typical advantages of a metal pipe as well
as those of a plastic pipe and at the same time, the qualities of one material compensate
for the inadequacies of the other. The negative aspects of metal, such as corrosion, toxicity, incrustations, rigidity, weight and elevated pressure loss, are neutralised by the crosslinked polyethylene, which is in contact with the fluid transported inside the pipe. The
negative aspects of plastic, such as elevated heat expansion and dimensional instability,
the fact that it is permeable to gas and sensitive to UV rays, are all overcome thanks to the
layer in aluminium.
The MIXAL pipe is used in diameters 16x2 and 20x2 for UFH systems both in civil and
industrial sectors.
Its structure is composed of:
1) An outer layer in high-density polyethylene PE-HD, white in colour, RAL 9003.
2) An intermediate layer of aluminium alloy, butt-welded in an axial direction.
3) Two binding layers of adhesive, which unite the intermediate metal layers to the outer
and inner layers of plastic.
4) An inner layer of crosslinked polyethylene PE-Xb.

Figure 3.1.1
Multi-layer structure of MIXAL pipe

1
2

3
4

15

PEXAL pipe is used in diameters 14x2 and 26x3 for use in UFH systems in civil renovation jobs and
snowmelt systems for entrance ramps, car parks, helicopter pads, viaducts, etc.
Its structure is composed of:
1) An outer layer of crosslinked polyethylene PE-Xb, white in colour, RAL 9003.
2) An intermediate layer of aluminium alloy, butt-welded in an axial direction.
3) Two binding layers of adhesive unite the intermediate metal layer to the outer and inner layers of
plastic.
4) An inner layer of crosslinked polyethylene PE-Xb.

Figure 3.1.2
Multi-layer structure of PEXAL pipe

1
2

3
3

The dimensional characteristics are indicated in the following table:


Table 3.1.1. Characteristics of PEXAL and MIXAL pipe for underfloor heating
Pipe

MIXAL

MIXAL

PEXAL

External diameter

mm

14

16

20

26

Total thickness

mm

2,0

2,0

2,0

3,0

Thickness of aluminium layer

mm

0,3

0,2

0,25

0,58

g/m

100

105

140

287

l/m

0,077

0,113

0,201

0,314

Operating temperature

080

080

080

080

Maximum operating temperature

95

95

95

95

bar

10

10

10

10

mm/mK

0,026

0,026

0,026

0,026

W/mK

0,44

0,43

0,43

0,47

Inner roughness

mm

0,007

0,007

0,007

0,007

Oxygen diffusion

mg/l

Radius of curvature without pipe bender

mm

70

80

100

140

Radius of curvature with pipe bender

mm

35

50

80

100

Weight
Volume of water

Maximum operating pressure at 95 C


Coefficient of thermal expansion
Internal heat conductance

16

PEXAL

3.1.2. Characteristics of crosslinked polyethylene PE-Xb


Crosslinked polyethylene PE-Xb has excellent mechanical characteristics in comparison with
normal high-density polyethylene. The elevated stability of its mechanical properties, even at
high temperatures, makes it ideal for use in heating applications where the fluid conveyed reaches elevated temperatures. During the crosslinking process the material undergoes a structural modification, which improves its mechanical and abrasion resistance and its resistance of
chemical agents.

Table 3.1.2. Some characterisitcs of crosslinked polyethylene PE-Xb


Density

kg/m3

950

65

135

Tensile strength at 23C

MPa

23

Tensile strength at 100 C

MPa

Thermal conductivity coefficient

W/mK

0,38

Specific heat at 23C

kJ/kgK

1,92

mm/mK

0,2

Minimum degree of crosslinking


Softening temperature

Coefficient of linear expansion

3.1.3. Characteristics of aluminium


The aluminium used is the production of the PEXAL and MIXAL multi-layer pipes is made up
of sheets of aluminium alloy. The sheet is formed around the layer of PE-X and the two ends,
which run along the length of the pipe, are butt welded with a TIG welding process
(Tungsten Inert Gas). This technology enables the production of a multi-layer pipe with an
aluminium thickness of 0,2 mm to 2,5 mm and therefore, large diameter pipes with thick
layers of aluminium.
The most important characteristics of the aluminium alloy utilised in the production of the
multi-layer pipe are good welding, elevated yield point, storage in dry areas to guarantee
the perfect conservation of the aluminium.

Figure 3.1.3
Aluminium layer in PEXAL and MIXAL pipes

Aluminium layer
in PEXAL and MIXAL
pipes

17

3.1.4. Mechanical behaviour


The mechanical characteristics of the pipe make it ideal for use in underfloor heating
systems. The bending radius corresponds to 2,5 times the pipe diameter and the circular
section in proximity of the bend remains constant. There is no spring-back, that is, once
the pipe has been bent it remains in the desired position like a metal pipe; in this way,
the use of fixing clips which are normally used with all-plastic pipes, is considerably
reduced.
3.1.5. Heat expansion
The heat expansion of PEXAL/MIXAL pipes is 0,026 mm/m K; this value is comparable
to the heat expansion of metal pipes. The table below shows how all-plastic pipes have
much higher expansion coefficients and, in particular, PE-X has an expansion coefficient
of 0,20 mm/m K.

Table 3.1.3. Heat expansion comparison


Type of material

Heat expansion mm/mK

PEXAL/MIXAL

0,026

Galvanised steel

0,012

Stainless steel

0,016

Copper

0,016

Plastic materials (PE-X, PE-HD, PB, PPR, PE-RT)

0,1200,200

3.1.6. Resistance to abrasion, deposits and corrosion


PE-X does not corrode and its smooth surface does not favour the formation of incrustation. As it is not subject to corrosion, there is no build-up of rust particles resulting from
galvanic corrosion. Furthermore, PE-X is particularly abrasion resistant; this is an extremely important characteristic in the proximity of bends where the abrasive effect of fluids
and particles contained in the fluid tends to be greater.
3.1.7. Oxygen and UV rays barrier
The inner layer of aluminium makes for a perfect barrier to the passage of gaseous molecules, thus avoiding every danger of corrosion caused by the infiltration of oxygen and
damages caused by exposure to UV rays. In the following table, a comparison is made
between the coefficients of oxygen transmission (Oxygen Transmission Rate) of aluminium, of the material used for the oxygen barrier (EVOH) in PE-X pipes with EVOH, and
of crosslinked polyethylene pipes with no oxygen barrier.
18

Table 3.1.4. Coefficient of oxygen trasmissione OTR


Pipe

OTR at 25C and 0% UR [cm3/20mm2daybar]

Aluminium

EVOH barrier

0,21

PE-X

12000

The oxygen diffusion value in PEXAL/MIXAL pipes is zero, thanks to the presence of
the inner layer of aluminium in all the diameters and independently of temperature
and humidity.

In PE-X pipes with barriers, the oxygen transmission coefficient OTR increases as the temperature
and relative humidity rises (Figure 3.1.4 and Figure 3.1.5). Even at 45C and with a relative humidity of 65%, the EVOH barrier has an oxygen transmission coefficient of almost 3,0
cm3/20mm2daybar.
Many PEX pipes sold today present an oxygen barrier that is generally on the outside on the pipe.
Such a layer is, therefore, significantly exposed not only to the danger of being scraped away but
also to the danger of being cut and the negative effect of humidity which drastically reduces its
impermeability.

OTR at 65% UR

Figure 3.1.4
Coefficient of oxygen transmission
of EVOH in relation to temperature

Temperature [C]

OTR at 20C

Figure 3.1.5
Coefficient of oxygen transmission
of EVOH in relation to relative humidity

Relative humidity UR [%]

19

3.1.8. Lightweight
The specific weights of the materials that make up the pipe are low. A coil of 100 metres of 16x2
weighs approximately 10,5 kg.
3.1.9. Sound absorption
The acoustic properties of the pipe are very good. The inner and outer layers in polyethylene minimise the noises, which are normally not absorbed by metal pipes.
3.1.10. Long life
The PEXAL and MIXAL pipes are designed to resist a pressure of up to 10 bar with working temperatures of 95C. The crosslinked polyethylene possesses, in fact, a very high ageing resistance.
Artificial ageing tests carried out in laboratories guarantee the pipe a life of over 50 years.
At working temperatures below 95C, the pipe can support pressures of over 10 bar without any
damage being caused; at 20C it can be used at a pressure as high as 25 bar.
The technical characteristics of the PEXAL and MIXAL pipes are therefore of an elevated level, especially if they are compared with the real working conditions of UFH systems which, on average, operate at temperatures of 45C and pressures which do not go above 22,5 bar.

The safety margin of PEXAL and MIXAL pipes in UFH systems in very high. Consider that
at 95C and with a safety margin of 1.5, the pipe can be used at 10 bar. At the same temperature, therefore, if used at 2.5 bar, the safety coefficient increases to 6 and, clearly, goes
up even further if the temperature is reduced to 45C.

3.1.11. Heat conductance


The heat conductance of PEXAL/MIXAL pipes depends on the multi-layer structure of the pipe, and
in particular, on the thickness and the position of the aluminium layer. Whereas the value for PE-X
pipe is 0,38 W/mK the PEXAL and MIXAL pipes have a value of 0,43 W/mK for diameter 16x2
and 0,47 W/mK for 26x3 (see Table 3.1.1). This difference clearly favours the use of PEXAL and
MIXAL pipes for UFH in that it is possible to install systems with an optimum heat output.
3.1.12. Heat output in comparison with other pipes
As seen in the previous paragraph, the presence of the aluminium layer, its thickness and its particular position allow the achievement of excellent heat conductance properties.
With PEXAL and MIXAL, it is possible to install UFH systems with higher heat outputs, in fact, the
higher conductance generates higher temperatures on the surface of the pipe than PEX pipes (see
Figure 3.1.6) and this advantage is reflected, for example, in the possibility of obtaining relatively
lower supply temperatures (see Figure 3.1.7).

20

Figure 3.1.6
External surface temperature of the pipe (example)

PEXAL and MIXAL

PEX PIPE

Figure 3.1.7
Supply temperature (example)

The better performance of PEXAL and MIXAL in comparison with PEX pipes is evident in
Figure 3.1.8 where, at equal system conditions, a greater heat output is obtained. In the
case examined, with a spacing of 15 cm or of 22,5 cm, the heat output is increased by over
2,2%.

21

Figure 3.1.8
Comparison of output
of MIXAL 16x2 and PEX 16x2

22

The considerations examined allow us to reach a very important conclusion. With


PEXAL/MIXAL it is possible to use smaller diameter pipes than those used with all-plastic
pipes.
To simplify the concept, let us imagine that we need to install an UFH circuit for a 10 m 2
room that requires a specific heat output of 80 W/m 2. The floor is composed of a Valsir VESSE20 insulating panel, the layer of concrete above the pipes is 40 mm and for simplicity
sake, we will not take any type of floor covering into consideration. In the two tables below,
a comparison is made between the values of two circuits installed with a 17x2 diameter PEX
pipe and a 16x2 MIXAL pipe with two pipe spacing values and a supply temperature of
45C.

It is evident that the flow and speed of the circuits are more or less the same and therefore, that the 16x2 diameter MIXAL pipe can be used instead of the 17x2 diameter
PEX pipe.

Table 3.1. Comparison between PEX and MIXAL with pipe spacing of 15 cm.
Characteristics

PEX 17x2

MIXAL 16x2

Pipe spacing [cm]

15

15

Supply temperature [C]

45

45

Loop length [m]

66,7

66,7

Temperature difference T [C]

18,6

18,8

Flow [l/h]

46,6

46,1

Speed [m/s]

0,10

0,11

Table 3.2. Comparison between PEX and MIXAL with pipe spacing of 22,5 cm.
Characteristics

PEX 17x2

MIXAL 16x2

22,5

22,5

45

45

Loop length [m]

44,4

44,4

Temperature difference T [C]

14,5

14,1

Flow [l/h]

61,4

60,0

Speed [m/s]

0,13

0,15

Pipe spacing [cm]


Supply temperature [C]

23

Figure 3.1.9
Heat output PEX 17x2 and MIXAL 16x2

Equal thermal output 12 W/m


Pipe spacing 15 cm

Equal thermal output 18 W/m


Pipe spacing 22.5 cm

24

3.1.13. Pressure loss


The inner layer of the pipe has an extremely smooth surface with a roughness of 0,007 mm. This
surface does not favour the formation of incrustations or rust, which means that pressure loss is very
low and does not alter with time.
By using the diagrams of Figure 3.1.13, Figure 3.1.14 and Figure 3.1.15 it is possible to determine the pressure loss and flow speed in the PEXAL and MIXAL pipes in relation to the flow rate and
temperature of the water at 10C, 30C and 50C respectively.

In sizing a UFH circuit it is necessary to keep in mind localised pressure losses due to the
continuous changes in direction of the radiant loops.

The linear pressure losses (calculated in the diagrams) must be increased by a percentage point, indicated in Table 3.1.5, which depends on the type of pipe layout adopted in the system.

Table 3.1.5. Percentage increase of pressure loss in relation to the type of pipe layout.
Type of layout pattern

Percentage
increase

Typical
use

Single serpentine

17%

Industrial systems, snowmelt


(Figure 3.1.10)

Double serpentine

17%

Industrial systems, heating systems of rooms with


large surface, fitness centres, warehouses, etc.
(Figure 3.1.11)

Counter flow spiral

13%

Residential systems (Figure 3.1.12)

25

Figure 3.1.10
Single serpentine

Figure 3.1.11
Double serpentine

Figure 3.1.12
Counter flow spiral

26

Figure 3.1.13
Pressure loos with water at 10C

27

Figure 3.1.14
Pressure loss with water at 30C

28

Figure 3.1.15
Pressure loss with water at 50C

29

3.1.14. Quality control


In Valsir operating centres, the whole manufacturing process of the multi-layer pipe undergoes strict
quality tests. Besides the tests foreseen by the protocols of the major international standard institutes,
Valsir carries out important and high-level quality tests. The following is a list of the main tests performed on Pexal pipe.

1. The principle test performed on the multi-layer pipe by the


Valsir Quality Control Function is to measure the diameters
and the thickness of the individual layers. This test is performed in the laboratory with the help of the last generation optical measurement system, complete with software capable of
automatically carrying out the dimensional tests (the dimensions of the pipe are tested in the process using laser detectors). The sophisticated optical projector also enables the weld
cross-section to be checked and therefore to verify that the
weld has been correctly executed.

2. A very important test which Valsir performs on the multi-layer


pipe manufactured by the Company is the separation test; this
test is performed using a computerised dynamometer capable
of assessing the force required to separate the Aluminium
layer from the internal pipe (glued together). As a result, the
test provides a graph describing the value of the force (at
every point on the pipe's circumference) to be applied to separate the layers. The adhesion between the PEX and the
Aluminium is fundamental for the seal of a multi-layer pipe
under pressure: the higher the glueing strength the higher the
pressures the product can undergo.

3. The 90 bending test is one of the mechanical tests performed


on the Pexal pipe. This test is performed using a dynamometer that records the force required for bending. The test is passed if no squeezing or wrinkling of the external layer occurs
on the test specimen.

4. The finished Pexal pipe (which has already completed the


cross-linking process) is subjected to a test that measures the
degree of cross-linking achieved by the polymeric materials.
The testing procedures are defined by international standards
and are strictly followed by the operators assigned to perform
the test; the degree of cross-linking of the polymers is used to
assess the greater strength of material's molecules aggregation and is therefore important to appreciate the increase in
the mechanical and chemical resistance of the polyethylene.
30

5. Samples of the pipe are taken (at pre-established intervals)


during the daily production of the Pexal product. The samples
are used to perform hydraulic tests at different pressures and
at different temperatures. The tests are designed to determine
whether the product is suitable for sale and to assess the product's hydraulic and mechanical-structural characteristics; the
tests are performed by using suitable tanks or ovens at an electronically controlled temperature; the pressure values set at the
entry of each individual test specimen and the test conditions
are controlled and recorded at every moment by a computerised system.

6. The pressure tests at 80C and at 20C provide important


information about the mechanical characteristics of the system.
These tests are performed in suitable tanks containing water,
and are followed by an in-air-test performed at 110C by
using specific equipment.

7. Samples of Pexal pipe taken during the production phase at


regular intervals are subjected to the cone test; the test is performed in compliance with the international standards, and is
carried out on-line by the production operators and in the
laboratory by the Quality operators (in this case the test is performed using a computerised dynamometer); the test is designed to assess the seal of the weld and the sealing strength of
the glue applied between the various layers, after having
expanded the pipe by more than 13% of the nominal
diameter.

8. The diameters of the pipe are constantly monitored by laser


instruments during the production of Pexal, supported by a
computerised system in the successive phases of the manufacturing process; in this way the production operators are able
to observe the trend graphs of the individual diameters on the
line monitors at every moment; appropriate alarms are activated when the values lie outside the pre-established range.

31

9. Aluminium is the fundamental raw material in the production


of the Pexal pipe; Valsir monitors every incoming delivery by
measuring the dimensions and mechanical characteristics to
avoid defects in the supply of this material (although primary
suppliers have been selected); the mechanical properties are
verified by performing tensile tests (established by international
standards) on samples of the material taken at random from
the delivered batch; the tests are performed using sophisticated
computerised dynamometric instruments.

10. All the polymeric raw materials used in the production of the
multi-layer pipe are tested upon arrival to verify their main
characteristics; this procedure enables Valsir to manufacture
the products while being certain of using suitable materials for
the production; cutting edge instruments are utilised to perform the tests: for example, the melt index is measured using
the latest generation automatic equipment.

11. The tests performed by Valsir's quality laboratory on the polymeric materials utilised in the production of the Pexal pipe are
not limited to the acceptance tests, but continue after the production phase; the shrinkage and separation test of the
various polyethylene layers is performed on the finished product by subjecting the pieces of pipe to ageing and thermal
stress tests inside a thermostatic chamber.

12. Each coil of multi-layer Pexal produced is tested at the side of


the line by inserting a steel sphere in the pipe which is then
forced inside the pipe by compressed air and by passing
through ensures that no yielding has occurred or that no
obstructions are inside the pipe.

32

3.1.15. Approvals
IIP-UNI: Certificate of conformity of the Pexal multi-layer pipe systems to be utilised for hot and cold water and heating systems.

UNI 10954-1
I N A

RINA: Type approval, which guarantees the use of the PEXAL multi-layer system on
ships for water distribution, heating and air-conditioning systems.

6 1

TYPE
APPROVAL

IIS: Qualification certificate of the aluminium welding procedure adopted in the production of the Pexal multi-layer pipe, in accordance with specifications EN 288-8:
1997 Annexes No. 12.

-LT 606-LT 813-

AS 4176 SPEC. 438 LN IP083: Certificate of conformity of the Pexal system to


be utilised to distribute hot and cold drinking water under pressure.

Spec. 438
LN IP083

POTABILIT

AS/NZS 4020

AS/NZS 4020: Type approval guaranteeing the suitability of the PEXAL multilayer pipe for coming into contact with drinking water with special reference
to the following tests: taste - appearance microbiological growth - cytotoxic
activity - mutagenic activity caused by metals extraction.
MC - GOST: Certificate of conformity of the PEXAL system to be used to transport hot and cold drinking water in water distribution and heating systems.

224811

MX03

Polish certificate of approval for installation of the Pexal pipes for heating and distribution of hot and cold water for domestic use.
AT/2000-02-0873

Polish certificate of approval for the Pexal system to distribute drinking water.

DVGW W270
TGM-KU 18946/1

norm B5157
GEPRFT

W270: Type approval that guarantees the suitability of the Pexal multi-layer pipe
for coming into contact with drinking water with special reference to the propagation of micro-organisms on the material surface. (Certificate n KU18946/1)
Type approval that guarantees the suitability of the Pexal multi-layer pipe for
use in delivering hot water to heating systems.

Type approval that guarantees the suitability of the Pexal multi-layer pipe
for use in delivering hot water to heating systems.

K 22518/01
K 22504/01

Product certification referring to the suitability of the Pexal multi-layer


system for use in heating systems.
Product certification referring to the suitability of the Pexal multi-layer
system for use in sanitary systems.

BS 6920

Suitability certificate for the Pexal multi-layer pipe to transport hot and cold
drinking water in sanitary systems.

Type approval that guarantees the use of the PEXAL multi-layer system on board
ships for sanitary, heating systems.

Type approval that guarantees the use of the Pexal system to distribute hot
and cold water in sanitary and heating systems.

Type approval that guarantees the use of the Pexal system to distribute hot
water in heating systems.
A-794/2002-I

33

3.2. V-ESSE and V-ELLE insulating panels


3.2.1. V-ESSE panels
The V-ESSE panel is a pocketed, expanded polystyrene panel with a blue EPS film, which
gives it a good surface resistance to stamping. It has been studied and designed for residential systems, commercial areas or warehouses where floor load is not very high. In fact
the panel has a density of 30 kg/m 3 with a compressive strength of 150 kPa.
Spacing is 75 mm and the panel is available in two thicknesses. V-ESSE20 has a base
thickness of 20 mm with a total of 50 mm, V-ESSE30 has a base thickness of 30 mm and
a total of 60 mm.
The V-ESSE panel is characterised by an L-profile joint, which allows a stable connection.
The laying of the pipe is facilitated by alternated incisions on the bosses; this allows long
lengths of pipe to be laid by following the bosses with the same incision (see Figure 3.2.1
and Figure 3.2.2).

Figure 3.2.1
V-ESSE panel

Euroclasse E

Figure 3.2.2
Dimensions of V-ESSE panel

34

Table 3.2.1. Characteristics of V-ESSE panels


Panel characteristics

Measurement Unit

V-ESSE20

V-ESSE30

Reference standard

Residential systems or commercial areas such


as offices and shops or warehouses with floor
loads of medium intensity.

Use
Panel material

Expanded polystyrene

Expanded polystyrene

with blue EPS film

with blue EPS film

Pregrooved

Pregrooved

Dimensions used panel H x L

mm x mm

1350 x 750

1350 x 750

Dimensions total panel H1 x L1

mm x mm

1370 x 770

1370 x 770

Panel surface

m2

1,012

1,012

Minimum spacing p

mm

75

75

Insulation thickness s1

mm

20

30

Total height s

mm

50

60

kg/m3

30

30

UNI 6349

Compressive strength

kPa

150

150

UNI EN ISO 13163

Flexural strength

kPa

250

250

UNI EN ISO 13163

Fire resistance

Euroclasse E

Euroclasse E

EN 13501-1

Dimensional stability at 70 for 48 h

0,5

0,5

UNI EN ISO 13163

Heat conductance

W/mK

0,034

0,034

UNI EN ISO 13163

Heat resistance

m2K/W

0,55

0,85

Packaging

Cardboard box

Cardboard box

Number panels per package

12

10

Surface per package

m2

12,14

10,12

Surface type

Density

3.2.2. V-ELLE panel


V-ELLE is a smooth panel in coils of expanded polystyrene with grey EPS film and red squares with a spacing of 50 mm to facilitate installation. It is supplied in coils, which are laid
with extreme facility by simply unrolling the panel onto the floor. It is supplied in two versions differing in thickness and compressive strength; these structural differences make
them suitable for different uses.
The V-ELLE20/150 panel has a thickness of 20 mm, a density of 30 kg/m 3 and a compressive strength of 150 kPa. These characteristics make it suitable for residential heating
systems but especially for areas where the available height for the installation is limited
(less than 100 mm).
The V-ELLE30/250 panel has a thickness of 30 mm and a density of 40 kg/m 3. Given its
elevated compressive strength of 250 kPa, it can be utilised both in residential and industrial jobs, wherever the surface load is very high. It is also ideal for snowmelt and deicing systems (entrance ramps, car parks, squares, etc.).
35

Figure 3.2.3
V-ELLE panel

Euroclasse E

Figure 3.2.4
Dimensions of V-ELLE panel

Panel characteristics

V-ELLE20/150

V-ELLE30/250

Use

Residential systems or commercial areas such as offices and


shops or warehouses with floor
loads of medium intensity.
Studied especially for systems
where height is limited or for
renovation jobs.

Residential systems or commercial areas but above all it is suitable for industrial systems due
to its elevated compressive
strength.
It is suitable for snowmelt and
de-icing systems.

Panel material

Expanded polystyrene with grey


EPS film with red squares, spacing 50 mm

Expanded polystyrene with grey


EPS film with red squares, spacing 50

smooth

smooth

mm x m

1000 x 12

1000 x 12

Panel surface

m2

12

12

Total height

mm

20

30

kg/m3

30

40

UNI 6349

Compressive strength

kPa

150

250

UNI EN ISO 13163

Flexural strength

kPa

200

350

UNI EN ISO 13163

Fire resistance

Euroclasse E*

Euroclasse E*

EN 13501-1

Dimensional stability at 70 for 48 h

<1

<1

UNI EN ISO 13163

Heat conductance

W/mK

0,034

0,033

UNI EN ISO 13163

Heat resistance

m2K/W

0,55

0,90

Packaging

Polyethylene bag

Polyethylene bag

Number panels per package

Surface type
Panel dimensions L x H

Density

Measurement unit

Reference standard

* This characteristic refers to the panel base in expanded polystyrene.


36

3.3. Valsir mixing kit


Figure 3.3.1
Valsir mixing kit

The mixing kit is used to mix hot supply water from the boiler and return loop water in order to have
a constant supply temperature. The kit is supplied with a three-speed circulation pump for the secondary circuit, thus making the Valsir mixing kit very versatile and applicable to all types of systems,
be they small or big. The kit is fixed point but it can be converted to a variable point by motorizing
the three-way valve.

Figure 3.3.2
Scheme of the components of the Valsir mixing kit

37

3.3.1. Components of mixing kit


System inlet flow-check valve. It is a valve with a thermostatic option, which regulates the inlet
flow to the mixing kit.
Liquid sensor thermostatic head. The temperature measurement probe is inserted in chamber 5
and commands the head that controls the incoming fluid to the system according to the temperature set at the graded knob.
Three-way valve. In this valve the in-coming water is mixed with the system return water. It is
regulated by means of the graded knob; this adjustment is made manually (from which fixed
point is derived), it is, however, possible to motorize the three-way valve by installing a motor
connected to a climatic control station (variable point).
Circulation pump. It is a three-speed pump corresponding to three different pressure heads, 4
m, 5 m, 6 m. Due to this characteristic the mixing kit is suitable for all system sizes.
Chamber for the probe of the thermostatic head.
Safety thermostat. The safety thermostat controls the motor of the pump, stopping it when the temperature picked up in the supply circuit is higher than the set limit value.
Interception valve of the supply circuit with thermometer.
Interception valve of the return circuit with thermometer.
Safety by-pass on the pump. The by-pass permits circulation of the fluid even when all the heating circuits are closed (e.g. when the rooms have reached the set temperature). Without a bypass there would be the risk of damaging the motor of the pump; by keeping the flow-check valve
of the by-pass open by a few turns (not more than three) the pump is not damaged in any way
as a minimum circulation flow is always guaranteed. It is possible to keep the by-pass closed by
installing an electronic control station, which stops the pump when it picks up that all the thermoelectric heads are closed.
Mixing kit outlet valve.

38

Figure 3.3.3
Characteristic curve of the three-way valve

Figure 3.3.4
Characteristic curve of the thermostatic head

39

Figure 3.3.5
Characteristic curve of the complete kit

Figure 3.3.6
Drawing of flow of the Valsir mixing kit

40

3.3.2. Theory: adjustment of the mixing kit


In the drawing of Figure 3.3.6 the following are indicated:
.
m s the flow in the secondary circuit,
.
m p the flow in the primary circuit,
.
m x the re-circulation flow in the secondary,
Tp,m the temperature of the supply fluid in the primary circuit,
Ts,m the temperature of the supply fluid in the secondary circuit,
Tr the return temperature, which is the same in the primary and secondary and is given by:

[3.3.1]

considered the average based on the flow of the return temperatures of the n heating circuits.
Applying the mass balance to the three-way valve, we have:

[3.3.2]

Whereas the energy balance applied to the three-way valve is:


[3.3.3]

Simplifying the two relations, we obtain:


[3.3.4]

[3.3.5]
and thus

[3.3.6]

41

With this last formula it is possible to calculate the flow that the boiler must supply to the heating
system and based on the diagram shown in Figure 3.3.3 we can determine in what position the
three-way valve must be set.
3.3.3. Practice: adjustment of mixing kit
In order to further clarify the use of the formulas shown previously, reference is made to the example in the chapter Dimensioning of floor heating systems in accordance with the standard UNI EN
1264, the results of which are shown in the following table.
Table 3.3.1. Details of an example of a floor heating system
N.

Room

Spacing p [cm]

Tm

Tr

.
m

[C]

[C]

[l/s]

Bedroom

15

46

29,5

0,0154

Living room

22,5

46

33,5

0,0277

Kitchen

15

46

28,0

0,0121

Bathroom

15

46

35,0

0,0137
0,0689

In the example, the calculation of the average return temperature gives:

Consider a supply temperature from the boiler of Tp,m = 70C.


In the secondary circuit T s,m = 46 C and m s = 0,0689 l/s, the flow in the primary circuit
is thus calculated:

The in-coming flow percentage to the mixing valve is given by the following ratio:

From the diagram in Figure 3.3.3 it can be seen that the three-way valve must be set to
value 4. From Figure 3.3.4 it can be seen that the thermostatic head must also be set to
value 4.

42

3.3.4. Practical method of adjusting the mixing kit


What we have seen previously can be put into practice by observing the following instructions, which
refer to the same calculation example.
a) Adjust the thermostatic head to the supply temperature required in the secondary circuit, in the
case of the example Ts,m = 46C which corresponds to the value on the head equal to 4 (see
Figure 3.3.4).
b) Initially set the three-way valve to position 2.
c) Check the in-coming temperature to the manifold by means of the supply thermometer.
d) If the temperature is below the value set on the head (Ts,m<46C): adjust the three-way
valve by moving slowly from position 2 toward position 3. Wait until the supply temperature has stabilised.
e) If the supply temperature on the secondary is still below the requirement, repeat the previous step
by progressively increasing the adjustment position of the valve until the required temperature has
been reached.

3.3.5. The assembled mixing kit


The Valsir mixing kit is made by assembling the basic components in relation to the type of
system that has to be realised as indicated in figure 3.3.5.
To aid in the choice of the components, in the following tables the codes of the products which
make up the complete mixing kit are indicated both for the version with high temperature
manifolds (for supplying radiators, towel rails) and for the version without such a manifold.
Furthermore, the sizes of the assembled kit are indicated and the code of the metal case is suggested for installing the kit.
Table 3.3.2. Composition of the mixing kit complete with high temperature manifold
Product codes (ref. Chapter 2)

Size (mm)
No. outlets

A1(a)

B1

Manifold

796 480

110004

846 480

110005

896 480

110006

946 480

110007

996 480

110008

1046 480

110009

10

1096 480

110010

11

1146 480

110011

12

1196 480

110012

Metal case
(b)

Mixer

High temperature kit

End group

Thermostatic
valve

Fittings

(c)

Thermo-electric
head (d)

112010
110035
110020
110300
112011

or

or
110025

110021

110400

110036

110430

or
110037

(a) The sizes take into consideration the high temperature kit with 3 outlets.
(b) Code suggested based on the total size of the system.
(c) The code depends on the dimensions of the pipe used.
(d) The use of thermoelectric heads depends on the type of circuit control system to be carried out.

43

Table 3.3.3. Composition of mixing kit complete with high temperature manifold
Product codes (ref. chapter 2)

Size (mm)
No. outlets

A2

B2

Manifold

Metal case

(b)

Mixer

End group

Thermostatic valve

Fittings

(c)

716 400

110004

766 400

110005

816 400

110006

110035

866 400

110007

or

916 400

110008

966 400

110009

10

1016 400

110010

11

1066 400

110011

12

1116 400

110012

Thermoelectric
head (d)

112010

110300

110025

112011

110400

110036

110430

or
110037

(b) Code suggested based on the total size of the system.


(c) The code depends on the dimensions of the pipe used.
(d) The use of thermoelectric heads depends on the type of circuit control system to be carried out.

Keep in mind that the fittings are chosen based on the type of pipe that is used and the
thermoelectric head is chosen based on the type of circuit control system.

Figure 3.3.7
Assembled mixing kit

44

3.4. Distribution manifold


Figure 3.4.1
Valsir distribution manifold

The pre-assembled Valsir manifold is obtained from a drawn brass bar with flow-check valves on the
supply manifold and thermostatic valves on the return manifold and it is supplied with mounting
brackets for anchoring it to the cabinet. It is equipped with flow-check valves with a memory, that
is, once the system has been balanced, the maximum opening of the valves can be blocked (by
means of a special tool) so that they can be used as stop flow valves in the circuit. This is a special
system, in that the flow-check valve can be re-opened and it automatically brings itself to the number of turns corresponding to the balancing value. Another important aspect, is that the Valsir manifolds are equipped with an automatic air vent on both the supply and return manifolds with a system
drainage valve. Finally, irrespective of the number of outlets, it was chosen to make manifolds with
a 11/4 diameter, compared with other manifolds currently available on the market, in order to
improve flow.
3.4.1. The manifold components
Figure 3.4.2
Scheme of the components of the Valsir manifold

45

The total width of the manifold and its weight are indicated in the following table:
Table 3.4.1. Dimensions and weight of Valsir manifolds
Outlets

L (mm)

Weight (kg)

296

5,05

346

5,87

396

6,69

446

7,50

496

8,31

546

9,66

10

596

10,48

11

646

11,30

12

696

12,12

Supply manifold.
Return manifold.
Flow-check valves. All of the flow-check valves on the supply manifold have the

46

memory function to block the maximum opening. This function is particularly useful
when the manifold has been tampered with, as it avoids having to balance the system
once more.
Valves with thermostatic capacity. On the valves with thermostatic capacity, it is possible to apply a thermoelectric head connected to the thermostat in the room to be heated. Once the temperature set has been reached, the thermoelectric head actuates the
valve, progressively closing the circuit and thereby reducing the flow of the heating
fluid.
Automatic air vent and system drainage group. All of the Valsir manifolds are equipped
with this group both on the supply and return. The group is made up of an automatic air
vent, which eliminates air from the system; the air vent valve is equipped with a nonreturn valve which permits the total evacuation of air from the system. The group is also
equipped with a discharge valve with an insert for system drainage.
Mounting brackets for anchoring the manifold to the cabinet.
Hexagonal 6 mm key for regulating the flow-check valves.

Figure 3.4.3 Characteristic curve of flow-check valves on the supply manifold

Figure 3.4.4 Characteristic curve of the thermostatic valves on the return manifold

47

3.4.2. Practical method of adjusting and balancing the manifold


The theoretical method of determining the flow rate and balancing the circuits is dealt with in
the chapter pertinent to Dimensioning of floor heating systems in accordance with the standard UNI EN 1264. The adjustment and balancing, as well as blockage of the valve opening
(memory) are carried out by following the instructions shown below and outlined in Figure
3.4.5.

Figure 3.4.5
Valve adjustment for circuit balancing

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

a) Insert the key in the valve and close the actuator by acting exclusively on the 6 mm hexagonal key .
b) Turn the fitted key in an anti-clockwise direction thus making the sleeve fully descend without
moving the 6 mm hexagonal key.
c) Adjust the sleeve with the fitted key to the number of turns obtained from the characteristic
curve of the flow-check valve.
d) Fully re-open the actuator using only the 6 mm hexagonal key .

48

3.5. Fluidizer for concrete


V-Fluid fluidizing additive has been studied to improve the plasticity and fluidity of concrete and mortar. At the same time it allows a reduction of the water used for mixing by 10% to 15%, without lowering the resistance of the concrete, and obtains high fluidity and workability.
Dosage ranges from 0,2% to 0,3% of the cement weight.

Table 3.5.1. Characteristics of V-Fluid fluidizer for concrete


Description

Additive designed to give concretes more workability at reduced


water ratio and increased concrete strength.

Field of application

Placing of poured concrete floors.

Use

Added to the paste water in making concrete.

Dosage

0,2%0,3%

Fundamental
performance
Appearance

Reduction of paste water in the range of 10 to 15%


Improved workability in the realization
of screed for floor systems.
Liquid

Colour

Brown

Odour

Characteristic

pH

Solubility in water

Soluble

Density

1,1 kg/l

Packaging

10 kg container

Storage

12 months in unopened package and out of direct sunlight

N.B.

Not applicable below 5C.


Too much product can compromise the mechanical resistance
of the cement.

49

3.6. Control systems


3.6.1. Control units of the heating circuits
The Valsir control unit allows management of all the circuits in the floor heating system at the distribution manifold by means of simple installation and wiring operations. It can be easily installed in
the manifold cabinet by using a standardised mounting guide supplied with the package or else it
can be mounted directly on the wall.
The Valsir control unit is provided with a transformer which brings the network voltage (220 Volt) to
24 Volt; in this way, the installation can be made directly by the heating system installer.

Figure 3.6.1
Positioning of control unit

Figure 3.6.2
Mounting of central unit on the guide

The connections are rapidly and easily carried out thanks to the colouring of the terminals which is
the same as the wires and also the use of a screwdriver is not required. Any extra modules are easily
assembled to the principal unit.
Figure 3.6.3
Wiring

50

Figure 3.6.4
Colouring of terminals

The presence of LEDs allows monitoring of the circuit (open/closed) at any time and a fuse
protects the unit in case of wiring errors. The card of the control unit is protected in the case
of a short circuit of one of the thermoelectric heads of the mixing kit circulator.

Figure 3.6.5
LED

It is possible to use any type of thermostat or thermostat with timer, even if they differ from each other.
Furthermore, the control unit allows the signals to be easily divided amongst one or more zones. The
modularity of the control unit means that the configuration can be changed at any time and extra
modules allow the number of controllable zones, or the number of thermo-electric heads connected
to the same zone, to be increased.
There are two types of Valsir control units: the smallest one controls up to four thermo-electric heads
and it is commanded by a single thermostat (1 zone); the biggest one allows to control up to 14 thermo-electric heads and can be interfaced with 6 thermostats (6 zones).
Figure 3.6.6
Modularity of Valsir control unit

51

Table 3.2.1. Control unit for 1 zone


Cod. 110600
Control unit via wire for the regulation of 1 zone, can be expanded with another module
(cod. 110610).

Supply voltage

230V

Operating voltage

24V 50/60 Hz

Base colour

grey RAL 7031

Protection colour

transparent
L
H
B

Dimensions

Predisposed for connector

93 mm
70 mm
75 mm

1 thermostat
Max. 4 thermo-electric heads (cod. 110430)

LED signals for

state of actuators
state of supply
state of fuse

Table 3.2.2. Control unit for 6 zones


Cod. 110605
Control unit via wire for the regulation of 6 zones, can be expanded with other modules
(cod. 110610).

Supply voltage

230V

Operating voltage

24V 50/60 Hz

Base colour

grey RAL 7031

Protection colour

transparent

Dimensions

Predisposed for connector

L
H
B

305 mm
70 mm
75 mm

6 thermostats
Max. 14 thermo-electric heads (cod. 110430)

LED signals for

state of actuators
state of supply
state of fuse

The control units are equipped with spring terminals which allow wiring without using screw terminals and wires with sections of 1,0 to 1,5 mm2 which have to be peeled back by 10 mm.

52

Each wire to be connected to the terminal unit


must be correctly stripped.

Divide the control unit into three main parts:


base, unit and cover.

Press the wires leading from the thermostats


inside the guides present on the base of the
control unit.

Press the supply wires inside the guide present on the base of the control unit.

Replace the unit on to the base.

Insert the stripped part of the thermostat


wires inside the control unit connectors
making sure that the colours correspond.

Insert the stripped part of the supply wire


inside the control unit connector with the help
of a screwdriver.

Press the wires from the thermoelectric heads


inside the guides on the control unit.

Insert the stripped part of the wire of the thermoelectric heads inside the control unit connector with the help of a screwdriver.

Verify that all the connections have been


made. For each zone it is possible to connect
up to 4 thermoelectric heads.

If necessary use a screwdriver to open the


terminals and remove the wires from the control unit to correct any wrong connections.

Replace the lid on the control unit.

53

3.6.2. Expansion module for two zones


Cod. 110610
Module which allows the number of thermo-electric heads connected to existing zones to be
increased (cod. 110600 and cod. 110605).

Supply voltage

24V 50/60 Hz

Operating voltage

24V 50/60 Hz

Base colour

grey RAL 7031

Protection colour

transparent

(through the same control unit).

L
H
B

Dimensions

Predisposed for connector

93 mm
70 mm
75 mm

2 thermostats
Max. 8 thermo-electric heads (cod. 110430)

LED signals for

state of the actuators


state of the supply
state of the fuse

3.6.3. Thermo-electric heads


Cod. 110430
Thermo-electric heads NC type for manifolds.

Supply voltage

24V 50/60 Hz

Operating voltage

24V 50/60 Hz

Supply wire

2 x 0,5 mm2

Length of supply wire

1000 mm

Characteristics

(through the same control unit).

The pin is self-set.


Test function when first turned on.
Visual indication of open/closed state.
Click-on mounting.
System of protection for loss from valves.

3.6.4. Circulator pump control module


Cod. 110620
Module which allows the circulators to be controlled.
With the module it is possible to interrupt the supply of a circuit in relation to the signal of a
thermostat or when the whole system is closed. Allows regulation of a start-up delay of 5, 10
or 15 min of the pump.

Supply voltage

24V 50/60 Hz

Operating voltage

24V 50/60 Hz

Base colour

grey RAL 7031

Protection colour

transparent

Dimensions

54

L
H
B

(through the same control unit)

93 mm
70 mm
75 mm

Valsir underfloor
heating systems

Figure 4.1 Valsir residential system with pocketed panel

wall
skirting board
V-BAND edging strip
floor
MIXAL pipe 16x2
concrete
V-ESSE pocketed insulating panel
concrete
anti-shrinkage grid if used
V-FOIL anti-humidity film if used

4.1 Valsir residential system with pocketed panel


16x2 MIXAL pipe with internal layer in crosslinked polyethylene PEX and intermediate layer in
butt-welded aluminium. Total barrier to oxygen and gases in general. Produced in compliance with
the strictest international standards. 120 m and 240 m rolls.
V-ESSE pocketed insulating panel made of expanded polystyrene with blue EPS film. Pipe spacing
minimum 75 mm, thickness of 20 and 30 mm and total heights of 50 to 60 mm respectively. Panel
density of 30 kg/m3 with compressive strength of 150 kPa. The panel is produced in compliance
with standard UNI EN ISO 13163.
Mixing kit and 11/4 brass manifold with flow-check valves, valves with thermostat capacity and
flow meters (0,62,4 l/min). Three-velocity pump and three-way mixing valve with motor capacity. Interception valves with thermometer (060C) and automatic air vent valves both on the
supply and return. Number of outlets: 412.
V-BAND edging strip, 7 mm thick and 200 mm high. The strip is self-adhesive on the entire surface and has a polyethylene film to avoid cement penetrating below the panels.
V-FLUID fluidizing additive. When used in correct proportions reduces the quantity of paste water
and improves workability of the gush.
Anti-shrinking grid in fusion welded steel. It is used to limit the formation and increase of cracking
due to the natural dimensional variation of the cement.
V-FOIL anti-humidity film made of polyethylene with 0,2 mm thickness. Prevents any humidity present in the ground from spreading to the inside of the room. It has an adhesive strip to aid the
attachment of one film to another.
55

4.2 Valsir residential system with smooth panel


Figure 4.2 Valsir residential system with smooth panel

wall
skirting board
V-BAND edging strip
floor
MIXAL pipe 16x2
concrete
V-ELLE smooth insulating panel
concrete
V-CLIP01 anchor clip
anti-shrinkage grid if used
V-FOIL anti-humidity film if used

16x2 MIXAL pipe made with internal layer in crosslinked polyethylene PEX with an intermediate layer in butt-welded aluminium. Total barrier to oxygen and gas in general. Produced
in compliance with the strictest international standards. 120 m and 240 m rolls.
V-ELLE smooth insulating panel made of expanded polystyrene with grey film and red squaring to facilitate installation. The 20 mm thick panel has a density of 30 kg/m3 with a compressive strength of 150 kPa, the 30 mm panel has a density of 40 kg/m 3 and a compressive strength of 250 kPa. The panel is produced in compliance with the standard UNI EN
ISO 13163.
Mixing kit and 11/4 brass manifold with flow-check valves, valves with thermostat capacity and flow meters (0,62,4 l/min). Three-speed pump and three-way mixing valve with
motor capacity. Interception valves with thermometer (060C) and automatic air vent valves both on the supply and return. Number of outlets: 412.
V-BAND edging strip 7 mm thick and 200 mm high. The strip is self-adhesive on the entire
surface and has a polyethylene film to avoid cement penetrating below the panels.
Clips V-CLIP01 for anchoring the pipe to the panel.
V-FLUID fluidizing additive. When used in correct proportions, reduces the quantity of paste
water and improves workability of the gush.
Anti-shrinking grid in fusion welded steel. It is used to limit the formation and increase of
cracking due to the natural dimensional variation of the cement.
V-FOIL anti-humidity film made of polyethylene with 0,2 mm thickness. Prevents any humidity present in the ground from spreading to the inside of the room. It has an adhesive strip
to aid the attachment of one film to another.

56

4.3 Valsir residential system for renovation


Figure 4.3. Valsir residential system for renovation

wall
skirting board
V-BAND edging strip
floor
PEXAL pipe 14x2
concrete
V-ELLE 20/150 smooth insulating panel
concrete
V-CLIP01 anchor clip
anti-shrinkage grid if used
V-FOIL anti-humidity film if used

14x2 PEXAL pipe with internal and external layer in crosslinked polyethylene PEX with
an intermediate layer in butt-welded aluminium. Total barrier to oxygen and gas in general. Produced in compliance with the strictest international standards. 100 m rolls.
V-ELLE20/150 smooth insulating panel made of expanded polystyrene with grey film
and squaring to facilitate installation. The panel has a density of 30 kg/m 3 and a compressive strength of 150 kPa. It is produced in compliance with the standard UNI EN ISO
13163.
Mixing kit and 11/4 brass manifold with flow-check valves, valves with thermostat
capacity and flow meters (0,62,4 l/min). Three-speed pump and three-way mixing
valve with motor capacity. Interception valves with thermometer (060C) and automatic
air vent valves both on the supply and return. Number of outlets: 412.
V-BAND edging strip 7 mm thick and 200 mm high. The strip is self-adhesive on the entire surface and has a polyethylene film to avoid cement penetrating below the panels.
Clips V-CLIP01 for anchoring the pipe to the panel.
V-FLUID fluidizing additive. When used in correct proportions, reduces the quantity of
paste water and improves workability of the gush.
Anti-shrinking grid in fusion welded steel. It is used to limit the formation and increase
of cracking due to the natural dimensional variation of the cement.
V-FOIL anti-humidity film made of polyethylene with 0,2 mm thickness. Prevents any
humidity present in the ground from spreading to the inside of the room. It has an adhesive strip to aid the attachment of one film to another.

57

4.4 Valsir industrial system with smooth panel


Figure 4.4. Valsir industrial system with smooth panel

wall
V-BAND edging strip
concrete
anti-shrinkage grid

flloor

MIXAL pipe 16x2


V-ELLE 30/250 smooth insulating panel
concrete
V-CLIP01 anchor clip
V-FOIL anti-humidity film if used

20x2 MIXAL pipe with internal layer in crosslinked polyethylene PEX and intermediate layer in
butt-welded aluminium. Total barrier to oxygen and gas in general. Produced in compliance with
the strictest international standards. 120 m and 240 m rolls.
V-ELLE30/250 smooth insulating panel made of expanded polystyrene with grey film and squaring to facilitate installation. The panel has a density of 40 kg/m3 and a compressive strength of
250 kPa. It is produced in compliance with the standard UNI EN ISO 13163.
11/4 brass manifold with 6 to 8 outlets.
V-BAND edging strip 7 mm thick and 200 mm high. The strip is self-adhesive on the entire surface and has a polyethylene film to avoid cement penetrating below the panels.
Clips V-CLIP02 for anchoring the pipe to the support fusion welded grid with threading 35 mm
or else clips V-CLIP01 for anchoring the pipe directly to the panel.
V-FLUID fluidizing additive. When used in correct proportions, reduces the quantity of paste water
and improves workability of the gush.
Anti-shrinking grid in fusion welded steel. It is used to limit the formation and increase of cracking
due to the natural dimensional variation of the cement.
V-FOIL anti-humidity film made of polyethylene with 0,2 mm thickness. Prevents any humidity present in the ground from spreading to the inside of the room. It has an adhesive strip to aid the
attachment of one film to another.

58

4.5 Valsir industrial system with insulating gush cement


Figure 4.5. Valsir industrial system with insulating gush cement

wall
V-BAND edging strip
concrete
anti-shrinkage grid
MIXAL pipe 20x2
insulating concrete
V-CLIP 02 anchor clip
support grid
V-FOIL anti-humidity film if used

20x2 MIXAL pipe with internal layer in crosslinked polyethylene PEX and intermediate layer in
butt-welded aluminium. Total barrier to oxygen and gas in general. Produced in compliance with
the strictest international standards. 120 m and 240 m rolls.
Support made of cement with special insulating additives.
11/4 brass manifold with 6 to 8 outlets.
V-BAND edging strip 7 mm thick and 200 mm high. The strip is self-adhesive on the entire surface and has a polyethylene film to avoid cement penetrating below the panels.
Clips V-CLIP02 for anchoring the pipe to the support fusion welded grid with threading 35 mm.
V-FLUID fluidizing additive. When used in correct proportions, reduces the quantity of paste water
and improves workability of the gush.
Anti-shrinking grid in fusion welded steel. It is used to limit the formation and increase of cracking
due to the natural dimensional variation of the cement.
V-FOIL anti-humidity film made of polyethylene with 0,2 mm thickness. Prevents any humidity present in the ground from spreading to the inside of the room. It has an adhesive strip to aid the
attachment of one film to another.

For snowmelt systems the 26x3 PEXAL pipe is available, which guarantees an elevated flow
necessary in tough climatic conditions. In this case, the pipe can be installed either on insulating gush cement or on a V-ELLE30/250 panel and anchored with V-CLIP02 clips on a
fusion-welded support grid with threading 35 mm.

59

Dimensioning of floor heating systems


in accordance with the
standard UNI EN 1264

5.1. Introduction
For the calculation of the thermal output and for the dimensioning of underfloor heating
systems in residential, office and other buildings, reference is made to the European Standard
UNI EN 1264, parts 1, 2, 3 and 4.
In this chapter, we will look at the mathematical instruments for calculating the thermal output,
the surface temperature and hot water flow, necessary for heating a room by means of a floor
radiant panel with PEXAL/MIXAL pipe.
In as far as possible, the symbols referred to in the reference standard will be used.

5.2. Dimensioning: theory


5.2.1. Floor stratification
The heat output of an underfloor heating system (ufh) is strongly connected to the structure and composition of the floor; the type of covering (marble, cotto, ceramic, carpet, etc)
to be used must be known, as well as the thickness of the various layers and their thermal
characteristics, and the type of insulating panel. The heating loops are placed on the insulating panel and buried in the concrete screed upon which the covering is laid. The room
may be positioned directly over the ground or it may be part of a multi-floor building; this
must be considered when calculating the heat resistance of the floor.

60

Figure 5.1 Stratification of a heated floor over another room

61

Figure 5.2 Stratification of a heated floor on the ground

62

S a,i is the thickness of each layer i which makes up the floor covering [m], the layer of screed over
the pipes is identified by S u,
S b,i is the thickness of each layer i which makes up the floor below the pipe [m],
a,i and b,i are the coefficients of heat conductivity of each layer i which makes up the floor both
above and below the pipe [W/mK],
a a is the coefficient of convection heat exchange of the air [W/m2K] in the upper part of the
radiant panel and takes on a value equal to 10,8 W/m2K,
b is the coefficient of convection heat exchange of the air [W/m2K] in the room below, in the
case in which the room is not in direct contact with the ground, equal to 5,9 W/m2K,
R ,B is the heat resistance of the floor covering [m2K/W],
R ,isol is the heat resistance of the insulating panel [m2K/W],
R o is the total heat resistance of the floor above the pipe [m2K/W],
R u is the total heat resistance of the floor below the pipe [m2K/W].
The heat resistance of the floor covering is given by the following equation:

[5.1]

In the appendix, the heat resistance values are given for the most widely used coverings, as
well as the most common construction materials. Some comments are also made on the
use of wood (parquet) as a floor covering.

The total heat resistance above the pipe is:

[5.2]

where S u indicates the thickness of the screed above the pipes and E indicates its heat conductance.
When the room is directly on the ground, the total heat resistance of the floor below the pipe is:

[5.3]

63

if there is a room lying underneath, the coefficient of convection heat exchange of the air is also
used:

[5.4]

The standard EN 1264-4 establishes the minimum thermal resistance that the insulating
layers shall have depending on the thermal conditions under the floor heating structure.

In the following table, these limits are indicated as well as the minimum insulation thickness required
(polystyrene with typical heat conductance of 0.034 W/mK).

Table 5.1. Minimum thermal resistance of insulating layers


Thermal resistance

Minimum

Condition

of insulation

thickness of

R ,isol [m2K/W]

insulation [mm]

0,75

22

Constantly heated room below

1,25

37

Unheated or intermittent heated room below.

1,25

37

Room directly on the ground.

1,25

37

External air temperature below Tu0C.

1,50

44

External air temperature below -5CTu<0C.

2,00

59

External air temperature below -15CTu<-5C

5.2.2 Required thermal flow


Before dimensioning a heating system the heat flow (or specific heat output) required in heating the
single rooms must be determined. The calculation must be carried out in compliance with the national standards and laws (references in the appendix) and it must take into account the structure and
building elements as well as the climatic area in which the building is situated.
The heat flow delivered by the floor surface [W/m2] is given by the following ratio:
[5.5]
where Q is the required output to heat the room and A F is the surface of the floor covered by
loops.
64

In the following pages, the logarithmically determined average differential temperature TH


will be used, given by:

[5.6]

where Tm is the temperature of the supply water in the circuit [C], Tr is the temperature of the return
water [C] and Tiis the temperature of the room [C].
As specified in UNI EN 1264-2, the thermal flow is proportional to the logarithmically determined
average differential temperature:

[5.7]

by means of the following coefficient of proportionality:

[5.8]

where the coefficients aB , aT, m T, aU , m U , aD , m D and aC depend on the structure of the heating
floor. In particular:
aB is a coefficient depending on the thermal conductivity of the screed E [W/mK] and the heat
resistance of the floor covering R ,B [m2K/W].
aT is a coefficient depending on the floor covering R ,B,
m T is dependent on pipe spacing p [cm] of the heating loop,
aU is dependent on pipe spacing p and floor covering R ,B,
m U is dependent on concrete thickness S u [cm] above the pipes,
aD is dependent on pipe spacing p and floor covering R ,B,
m D is dependent on the outside diameter De [mm] of the pipe,
aC is dependent on pipe spacing p, the outside diameter De and wall thickness s of the pipe as
well as the conductance coefficient T [W/mK]. Its value is indicated in the following table.

65

Table 5.2. Coefficient aC for the calculation of the specific heat output
Spacing
P

Pipe
MIXAL 16x2

PEXAL 14x2

[cm]

MIXAL 20x2

Coefficient aC

-87,044

-127,829

-145,262

7,5

-58,030

-85,219

-96,841

10

-43,522

-63,914

-72,631

15

-29,015

-42,610

-48,421

20

-21,761

-31,957

-36,315

22,5

-19,343

-28,406

-32,280

25

-17,409

-25,566

-29,052

30

-14,507

-21,305

-24,210

35

-12,435

-18,261

-20,752

37,5

-11,606

-17,044

-19,368

mT

mU

mD

The values of the coefficients aB , aT , aU , aD , are expressed in the attached diagrams at the end of
this chapter.
5.2.3. Characteristic curves
A diagram, showing the heat flow on the vertical axis, and the temperature difference on the horizontal axis, can represent the relationship between the average differential surface temperature and
the heat flow. The resulting curve is defined the characteristic curve of the floor installation; it is a
straight line and the gradient is given by the coefficient 1/Rq. Once the floor structure has been established, it is possible to draw several characteristic curves depending on the pipe spacing. When the
pipe spacing is increased, the curve gradient diminishes as can be seen in the graph below.
Figure 5.3. Characteristic curves

66

5.2.4. Thermal flow limit and maximum floor temperature


The standard UNI EN 1264-2 establishes a physiological limit to the maximum floor temperature
depending on the type of room:
Table 5.3. Maximum floor temperature
Tf,max [C]

Type of room/area

29

Occupied area

33

Bathroom and similar

35

Peripheral area

The heat flow limit can be obtained with the radiant floor once all of its characteristics have been
established (spacing, screed thickness, type of covering, stratification). The heat flow limit is calculated from the following equation:

[5.9]

where B G and nG are two coefficients depending on screed thickness S u [cm] above the pipes and
conductivity E [W/mK] but above all, pipe spacing p [cm].
Whereas the coefficient iis dependent on the room temperature and the maximum floor temperature:

[5.10]

Only pipe spacing which respect the following ratio can be accepted:
[5.11]

If no spacing corresponds to this ratio, then the floor heating system alone is not sufficient
to heat the room and it must be supplemented with another source of heat, for example,
one or more radiators.

67

5.2.5. Limit curves


The union of the limit values qG forms the so-called limit curve of heat flow. This curve, drawn on the
characteristic curves, indicates the pipe spacings, which are not acceptable, or, in other words, the
spacings, which would result in a floor surface temperature above the physiological limits imposed
by the standard.

Figure 5.4. Characteristic and limit curves.

5.2.6. Supply temperature


The supply temperature can be determined by following the indications in the reference standard EN
1264-3. For the calculation of the supply temperature it is possible to proceed in the following way
and as represented in the figure.
a) Consider the room with the highest heat flow requirement qa,max (bathrooms excluded).
b) The characteristic curves depending on the pipe spacing p available, are determined, assuming
a floor covering thermal resistance equal to R ,B = 0,1 m2K/W. In the case of higher values, these
shall be used.
c) The limit curve is determined.
d) The pipe spacing corresponding to the characteristic curves with a heat flow limit qG less than
required qa,max must be abandoned in the calculation of the supply temperature.
e) Consider the characteristic curve corresponding to the minimum spacing. Calculate the minimum
average differential temperature TH ,min corresponding to the value qa,max of this characteristic
curve.
f) Consider the characteristic curve corresponding to the maximum spacing allowed. Calculate the
maximum average differential temperature TH ,max corresponding to the value qa,max of the characteristic curve.
68

g) The minimum supply temperature Tm,min is given by TH ,min considering a zero temperature drop
between supply and return Tm Tr = 0C. The equation [ 5.6] becomes:

[5.12]

h) The maximum supply temperature Tm,max is given by TH ,max considering a maximum temperature drop between supply and return Tm Tr = 5C. In this case the equation [ 5.6] becomes:

[5.13]

i) The supply temperature must be chosen between the minimum value Tm,min and the maximum
value Tm,max.

Ulterior criteria based on the economical aspects of system management or investment can be
applied in order to further reduce the field of acceptable values of the supply temperature.

Figure 5.5. Calculation of the supply temperature.

69

5.2.7. Average floor temperature


The average floor temperature is calculated in accordance with the equation indicated in the standard UNI EN 1264-2:

[5.14]

where Ti is the environment temperature and qa is the specific thermal output.

5.2.8. Downward heat dispersion


The heating loops deliver heat to the cement screed, which, in turn, delivers upward thermal
flow thus heating the room, but also downward heat which contributes to heating the room
below or else loses heat to the outside (in the case of a room directly over the ground or off
a terrace).
The downward heat flow is calculated according to the following equation:

[5.15]

where R o is the thermal resistance of the floor above the pipe, R u is the thermal resistance of the floor below the pipe, T u is the temperature of the room below or the ground under
the floor, T i is the temperature of the room to be heated and qa is the required thermal
flow.

5.2.9. Length of heating loops


The length of each loop, the chosen pipe spacing, and the total area to be heated determine the number of heating loops.
The length of the loops is limited by the length of the available rolls and above all by the maximum
permissible pressure loss. In the following table, it is possible to determine the maximum covered surface for a given length of loop and a pre-set pipe spacing.

70

Table 5.4. Maximum area covered by a single circuit


Loop
length
L

Pipe spacing p [cm]


5

7,5

10

15

20

22,5

25

30

35

37,5

Heating area Aj [m2]

[m]
25

1,25

1,875 2,5

3,75

5,65

6,25

7,5

8,75

9,4

50

2,5

3,75

7,5

10

11,3

12,5

15

17,5

18,8

100

7,5

10

15

20

22,5

25

30

35

37,5

150

7,5

11,3

15

22,5

30

33,8

37,5

45

52,5

56,3

200

10

15

20

30

40

45

50

60

70

75

The heating area A F [m2] is given by the following equation:

[5.16]

and as a consequence the loop length [m] can be calculated as follows:

[5.17]

where p is the pipe spacing [cm].

71

5.2.10. Flow and temperature of heating fluid


The required flow for heating the room [kg/s] is given by:

[5.18]

where
A F is the surface occupied by the loops [m2],
qa and qb are the upward and downward specific heat outputs [W/m2],
T = Tm - Tr is the temperature drop of the heating fluid and therefore Tm and Tr are respectively
the supply and return temperature of the heating fluid [C].
When the average fluid temperature is known Tmed the temperature drop has been established T
the supply temperature is calculated:

[5.19]

and the supply temperature of the fluid:

[5.20]

The velocity of the flow [m/s] is calculated in accordance with following formula:

[5.21]

72

where is the density of the water [kg/m3] at the average temperature Tmed and D i is the internal
diameter of the pipe [mm]. The speed can be obtained directly from the diagrams of the pressure
loss, from which the pressure drop is also obtained.
5.2.11. Design limits in the choice of pipe spacing

In choosing the pipe spacing, the limits to be imposed on the speed, pressure loss and temperature drop of each circuit, must be taken into consideration.

The speed limits are linked to noise in the case of excessively fast fluids and to air bubbles in the case
of excessively slow fluids.
The values of minimum and maximum speed for each pipe diameter are indicated in the following
table.
Table 5.5. Velocity, flow and pressure loss limits
vmin [m/s]

vm a x [m/s]

.
m min [l/s]

.
m m a x [l/s]

PEXAL 14x2

0,05

0,45

0,0040

0,0354

MIXAL 16x2

0,05

0,45

0,0057

0,0509

MIXAL 20x2

0,05

0,45

0,0101

0,0905

Pipe

The pressure loss limit is obviously linked to the capacity of the pump to circulate the flow inside the
loops. The limit imposed is:

and it must include the loss in the flow-check valve on the supply manifold and in the valve with thermostatic capacity on the return manifold.

The maximum temperature for each circuit is

to avoid flows with excessive thermal ranges which would negatively influence the performance of
the installation.

73

5.2.12. Balancing of heating circuits


Balancing of the circuits consists of determining the regulation point of the flow-check valves of each
heating loop. The procedure is as follows:
a) Locate the circuit with the greatest pressure loss, here it is indicated as the k circuit.
b) Calculate the total pressure loss of the k circuit:

k,total

k,flow-check valve

k,valve

k,circuit

[5.22]

where pk, flow-check valve is the loss of pressure in the flow-check valve in the k circuit, considered completely open, given by the characteristic curve of the flow-check valve (Figure 3.4.3)
.
depending on the flow m k in the circuit, pk,valve is the pressure loss in the valve, given by the
.
valve characteristic curve (Figure 3.4.4) depending on the flow m k in the circuit, pk,circuit, is
the pressure loss in the pipe loop of circuit k.
c) Calculate the pressure loss for the other circuits at the flow-check valve pi, flow-check valve, keeping
in mind that the total pressure loss for each circuit is the same as the total pressure loss of the circuit
with the greatest pressure loss:
,iflow-check valve

k,total

,ivalve

,icircuit

[5.23]

d) By using the flow-check valve characteristic curve, determine the number of regulations corresponding to the pressure loss calculated.

74

5.3. Dimensioning: practice


The underfloor heating system of the building indicated in Figure 5.6 and having the following characteristics, must be sized:
Table 5.6. Design details
N.

Room

Room
temperature Ti

Total
area

Heating
area A F

Required thermal
output Q

Bedroom

20C

11,4 m2

11,4 m2

696 W

Living room

20C

16,1 m2

16,1 m2

1320 W

Kitchen

20C

10,4 m2

10,4 m2

832 W

Bathroom*

22C

7,2 m2

5,4 m2

576 W

Storeroom

18C

2,4 m2

2,4 m2

120 W

* The heating area of the bathroom must be reduced due to the presence of the bath.
The project is on the first floor, over constantly heated rooms, at a temperature of T u=20C. In
compliance with the standard requirements, the V-ESSE 30 pocketed insulating panel is chosen, with a 30 mm base and a total height of 60 mm; this panel allows a spacing of 7,5 cm,
15 cm, 22,5 cm, 30 cm and 37,5 cm. The screed thickness above the pipes is 45 mm. The
MIXAL 16x2 pipe is chosen for the heating loops. The other characteristics of the floor can be
seen in Figure 5.7 for the bathroom and in Figure 5.8 for the other rooms.
The floor covering is 15 mm cotto tiles, in all of the rooms, except for the bathroom, where
there 10 mm ceramic tiles have been chosen.

75

Figure 5.6. Example

Room no.1
Bedroom
Area 11,4 m2

Room no.5
Store room
Area 2,4 m2

Room no.3

Room no.2

Kitchen
Area 10,4 m2

Living room
Area 16,1 m2
Room no.4
Bathroom
Area 7,2 m2 (5,4 m2)

76

Figure 5.7. Floor layers of the bathroom

Ceramic covering 10 mm
Screed
MIXAL 16 x 2
V-ESSE 30 insulation
concrete subfloor

predalles deck 250 mm

plaster

Figure 5.8. Floor layers of the other rooms

cotto tile covering 15 mm


Screed
MIXAL 16 x 2
V-ESSE 30 insulation
concrete subfloor

predalles deck 250 mm

plaster

77

5.3.1. Floor stratification


The figures illustrating the floor stratification enable us to calculate the thermal resistance characteristics of all the rooms in the building.
The upward thermal resistance of the rooms, excluding the bathroom, is:

whereas, for the bathroom, it is:

The downward thermal resistance is for all the rooms (including the bathroom):

In the following table, the thermal resistance values of the rooms are summarised:
Table 5.7. Floor thermal resistance of the rooms in the project

78

Thermal resistance
of covering
R ,B [m2K/W]

Upward thermal
resistance
R O [m2K/W]

Thermal resistance
of covering
R U [m2K/W]

N.

Rooms

Bedroom

0,017

0,1447

1,4939

Living room

0,017

0,1447

1,4939

Kitchen

0,017

0,1447

1,4939

Bathroom

0,010

0,1377

1,4939

Storeroom

0,017

0,1447

1,4939

5.3.2. The required thermal flow


In order to proceed with the choice of spacing for each room, it is first necessary to calculate not
only the required thermal flow qa, but also the coefficient R q given by the equation [ 5.8] and the
mT mU mD
average temperature differential TH for each available spacing. The coefficients aB , aT , aU , aD ,
used in the calculation of R q are determined respectively by the diagrams in Figure 5.12, Figure
5.13, Figure 5.14 and Figure 5.15. The resulting values as shown in the table will be used in the
following paragraphs in the calculation of the supply temperatures and the choice of spacing.
Table 5.8. Characteristic coefficients and average differential temperature for each room
and for each available spacing
N.
1

Room
Bedroom

Living

Kitchen

Bathroom

aTm T

mU

aU

mD

aD

aC

Rq

Spacing p

[W/m2]

[cm]

85

7,5

0,97

1,00

1,00

0,980

-85,21

0,155

13,20

15

0,97

0,82

1,00

0,964

-42,61

0,191

16,25

22,5

0,97

0,68

1,00

0,955

-28,40

0,232

19,69

30

0,97

0,56

1,00

0,950

-21,30

0,281

23,89

37,5

0,97

0,46

1,00

0,948

-17,04

0,346

29,41

7,5

0,97

1,00

1,00

0,980

-85,21

0,155

12,73

15

0,97

0,82

1,00

0,964

-42,61

0,191

15,67

22,5

0,97

0,68

1,00

0,955

-28,40

0,232

19,00

30

0,97

0,56

1,00

0,950

-21,30

0,281

23,04

37,5

0,97

0,46

1,00

0,948

-17,04

0,346

28,37

7,5

0,97

1,00

1,00

0,980

-85,21

0,155

12,42

15

0,97

0,82

1,00

0,964

-42,61

0,191

15,29

22,5

0,97

0,68

1,00

0,955

-28,40

0,232

18,53

30

0,97

0,56

1,00

0,950

-21,30

0,281

22,48

37,5

0,97

0,46

1,00

0,948

-17,04

0,346

27,68

7,5

1,01

1,00

1,00

0,980

-85,21

0,149

15,95

15

1,01

0,82

1,00

0,963

-42,61

0,184

19,65

22,5

1,01

0,67

1,00

0,955

-28,40

0,226

24,15

30

1,01

0,55

1,00

0,950

-21,30

0,276

29,51

37,5

1,01

0,45

1,00

0,948

-17,04

0,338

36,13

82

room

aB

qa

80

107

[m2K/W]

TH
[C]

The storeroom is not included in the calculation as it already contains the supply/return manifold of
the heating loops and the same pipes will supply the required thermal flow, which is, in this case,
very low (qa=50 W/m2). It is possible to verify this statement by calculating the heat flow delivered
by the pipes, which pass through the storeroom.

79

5.3.3. Thermal flow limit and maximum floor temperature


Only pipe spacing that generates a flow limit qG above the flow required qa will be accepted. In
the following table the flow limits and available spacing are indicated for each room. Also, the
coefficients , B G and nG required for calculating the flow limits are indicated and which are determined by using the equation [ 5.10] and the diagrams of Figure 5.16 and Figure 5.17. For simplicity sake, the coefficients R q, are indicated once more, as they are used in calculating qG , as well
as the comparison with the required thermal flow which permits evaluation of the applicability of
each pipe spacing.
Table 5.9. Thermal flow limit for every room in the project
N. Room
1 Bedroom

Living

4 Bathroom

BG

nG

qG

qaqG

0,155

1,0

94,5

0,013

97,90

Yes

15

0,191

1,0

74,5

0,077

92,97

Yes

22,5

0,232

1,0

54,5

0,148

84,68

No

30

0,282

1,0

35,1

0,247

74,45

No

37,5

0,344

1,0

17,4

0,411

60,65

No

7,5

0,155

1,0

94,5

0,013

97,90

Yes

15

0,191

1,0

74,5

0,077

92,97

Yes

22,5

0,232

1,0

54,5

0,148

84,68

Yes

30

0,282

1,0

35,1

0,247

74,45

No

37,5

0,344

1,0

17,4

0,411

60,65

No

7,5

0,155

1,0

94,5

0,013

97,90

Yes

15

0,191

1,0

74,5

0,077

92,97

Yes

22,5

0,232

1,0

54,5

0,148

84,68

Yes

30

0,282

1,0

35,1

0,247

74,45

No

37,5

0,344

1,0

17,4

0,411

60,65

No

7,5

0,149

1,247

94,5

0,013

122,02

Yes

15

0,184

1,247

74,5

0,077

115,58

Yes

22,5

0,226

1,247

54,5

0,148

105,12

No

30

0,276

1,247

35,1

0,247

92,19

No

37,5

0,338

1,247

17,4

0,411

74,70

No

Spacing p

Rq

[W/m2]

[cm]

[m2K/W]

85

7,5

82

room

3 Kitchen

qa

80

107

The selected pipe spacing must be excluded in that they generate surface temperatures above the
physiological limits imposed by the standard EN 1264.

80

5.3.4. The characteristic and limit curves


When the coefficient R q is known for each available pipe spacing, the characteristic curves for the
floor heating system can be traced. If, on the same graph, the points corresponding to the flow limit
qG are intersected, the limit curve is obtained. All the rooms with the same floor stratification have
the same curves; therefore, the characteristic curves of the bedroom, living room and kitchen are traced in Figure 5.9, whereas the bathroom is shown in Figure 5.10.
Figure 5.9. Characteristic curves of the bedroom, living room and kitchen

Figure 5.10. Characteristic curve of the bathroom

81

5.3.5. Supply temperature


To calculate the supply temperature, the room with the highest thermal flow, excluding the bathroom,
must be considered. In this case, the bedroom has the highest thermal flow which is equal to
qa,max=85 W/m2.
As required by the standard, all the coefficients are calculated for tracing the characteristic curves
and the corresponding limit curve of the room, considering a floor covering with a thermal resistance equal to R ,B=0,1 m2K/W (from the project information, there is no other floor covering with a
higher thermal resistance).

Table 5.10. Characteristic coefficients and average differential temperature for the calculation of the supply temperature
Room

Fictitious with
structure as in
project with
R ,B=0,1 m2K/W

qa,max

Spacing p

[W/m2]

[cm]

85

aB

mT

aT

aU U

aD D

aC

Rq

TH

[m2 K/W]

[C]

7,5

0,61

1,0

1,0

0,984

-85,21

0,247

20,99

15

0,61

0,86

1,0

0,972

-42,61

0,289

24,58

22,5

0,61

0,75

1,0

0,963

-28,40

0,334

28,35

30

0,61

0,65

1,0

0,958

-21,30

0,386

32,80

37,5

0,61

0,56

1,0

0,956

-17,04

0,448

38,10

Table 5.11. Thermal flow limit for calculation of the supply temperature
Room

Fictitious with
structure as in
project with
R ,B=0,1 m2K/W

82

BG

nG

qG

qaqG

0,247

1,0

94,5

0,013

98,50

Yes

22,5

0,334

1,0

54,5

0,148

90,22

Yes

30

0,386

1,0

35,1

0,247

82,53

No

37,5

0,448

1,0

17,4

0,411

72,92

No

qa,max

Spacing p

Rq

[W/m2]

[cm]

[m2 K/W]

7,5
85

In Figure 5.11 the minimum and maximum values of the average differential temperatures TH,min
and TH,max are shown. These values are used in equations [ 5.12] and [ 5.13], to calculate the
minimum and maximum values of the supply temperature:

The supply temperature Tm will have to be chosen from the acceptable range of 41C to 50C. In the
example dealt with, consider a supply temperature of Tm =46C, an average value in the acceptable
range.

Figure 5.11. Calculation of the supply temperature

83

5.3.6. Circuit dimensioning


It is now possible to proceed with the calculation of all the other parameters: temperature drop,
return temperature, downward thermal flow, loop length, flow, velocity and pressure loss, some of
which are fundamental for the definitive dimensioning of the circuits and, therefore, for the choice of
the pipe spacing for each room.
The temperature drop T is calculated by using the diagram in Figure 5.18 when the room temperature Ti, is known, the supply temperature Tm and the logarithmically determined average differential temperature TH . By using the equation the calculation of the return temperature is immediate
[5.20]. The floor temperature Tf is calculated with the diagram in Figure 5.19 once the room temperature Ti and the required flow qa is known.
The downward thermal flow qb is determined by equation [ 5.15].
The length L of the heating loops is calculated by the equation [ 5.17].
.
The flow m is calculated with the diagram in Figure 5.20 depending on the total heat output and
the temperature drop T.
The velocity v and the pressure loss p can be evaluated by using the diagrams of pressure losses.
In the example, the layout pattern is counter flow spiral and the pressure losses are increased by 13%
(see chp. 3.1.13).
The results calculated for each room are shown in the following table.
Table 5.12. Results
N.
1
2

Room
Bedroom
Living room

Kitchen

Bathroom

qa

Spacing p T

Tr

Tf

qb

.
m

[m]

[l/s]

[W/m2]

[cm]

[C]

[C]

[C]

[W/m2]

85

7,5

21

25

27,7

8,23

152 0,0121

0,11

52

15

16,5

29,5

27,7

8,23

76

0,0154

0,14

38

7,5

21

24

27,5

7,94

215 0,0165

0,15

122

15

17,5

28,5

27,5

7,94

107 0,0198

0,18

82

22,5

12,5

33,5

27,5

7,94

72

0,24

97

7,5

20,5

25,5

27,3

7,70

139 0,0106 0,093

38

15

18

28

27,3

7,70

70

0,0121

0,11

25

22,5

13,5

32,5

27,3

7,70

47

0,0162

0,14

26

7,5

17

29

29,6

9,86

72

0,0089

0,08

15

15

11

35

29,6

9,86

36

0,0137

0,12

15

82

80

107

0,0277

[m/s] [mbar]

The final choice of spacing must be made excluding the spacing values that do not respect the limits
indicated in paragraph 5.2.11. In the above example, all the values are within the limits. If the
MIXAL pipe 16 x 2 is to be used in 100 m rolls, reduced pipe spacing values must be chosen which
allow circuits under 100 m. For the bathroom, a spacing of 15 cm is chosen, so that the flow velocity is not too near the minimum permissible value.

84

Table 5.13. Choice of final spacing


N.

Room

Spacing p

Tr

Q a+ Qb

.
m

[cm]

[C]

[W]

[cm]

[l/s]

[m/s]

[mbar]

Bedroom

15

27,7

1063

76

0,0154

0,14

38

Living room

22,5

27,5

1448

72

0,0277

0,24

97

Kitchen

15

27,3

912

70

0,0121

0,11

25

Bathroom

15

29,6

631

36

0,0137

0,12

15

4054

254

0,0689

5.3.7. Balancing of heating circuits


To determine the regulation points of the flow-check valves of each loop, it is necessary, first of all,
to consider the least favourable circuit, therefore, the one with the highest pressure loss, in this case,
the living room.
.
For the flow value indicated in the table m 2 = 0,0277 l/s = 99,72 l/h is determined:
p2,flow-check valve=4,3 mbar from the characteristic curves of the flow-check valve in correspondence with
the maximum opening (t.a.),
p2,valve=4,3 mbar from the characteristic curve of the valve with thermostatic capacity,
p2,circuit is the pressure loss indicated in Table 5.13.
The total pressure loss in the heating circuit of room 2 is, therefore:

2,total

2,flow-check valve

2,valve

2,circuit

From the characteristic curve of the valve with thermostatic capacity for circuit 1, we have p1,valve=1,3 mbar and

1,flow-check valve

2,total

1,valve

1,circuit

From the characteristic curve of the valve with thermostatic capacity for circuit 3, we have p3,valve=1,3 mbar and

3,flow-check valve

2,total

3,valve

3,circuit

From the characteristic curve of the valve with thermostatic capacity for circuit 4, we have p4,valve=1,3 mbar and

4,flow-check valve

2,total

4,valve

4,circuit

85

In correspondence with these losses, the regulations of the flow-check valves are obtained, as shown
in the table:
Table 5.14. Regulation points of the circuit flow-check valves
N.

Room

.
m
[l/s]

pi,flow-check valve
[mbar]

Number
of turns

Bedroom

0,0154

70,3

0,21

0,250,5

Living room

0,0277

4,3

1,52

t.o.

Kitchen

0,0121

82,8

0,15

0,250,5

Bathroom

0,0137

92,6

0,16

0,250,5

For the calculation of kv the typical equation can be used:

.
with p expressed in mbar and m in l/h.

86

Kv

Figure 5.12.

87

Figure 5.13.

88

Figure 5.14.

89

Figure 5.15.

90

Figure 5.16.

91

Figure 5.17.

92

Figure 5.18.

93

Figure 5.19.

94

Figure 5.20.

95

Snow melting with radiant


panel systems

6.1 Introduction
Radiant panel heating systems can be used for eliminating snow and ice in outdoor
areas such as roads, bridges, viaducts, runways and helipads, sidewalks, car parks, athletic fields, garage entrance ramps, hospitals, hotels, warehouse loading docks, etc.
The problem of snow and ice is usually dealt with by scattering salt or other anti freeze
substances. As well as being unreliable, these methods cause pollution to ground water
and, in fact, some regional laws forbid their use.
Heating systems with radiant panels have proven to be the most efficient and reliable for
this type of application.
Furthermore, the Valsir Pexal multi layer pipe is the best choice for this type of installation in that the internal aluminium layer renders the pipe more resistant than other traditional pipes in plastic and at the same time, its elasticity makes it easier to install than
metal pipes.
Accurate sizing of radiant panel heating systems in closed areas is fundamental in order
to optimise heat output and avoid energy waste.
Certain factors relating to climatic conditions and the type of installation must be considered.

Climatic factors
Rate of snowfall: this factor is extremely important in designing a system; it is the
speed with which snow falls on the surface to be heated and it is measured in cm/h.
Air temperature: important in determining the thermal energy necessary for the removal of both snow and ice.
Wind velocity: wind removes heat from the heating surface, thus obstructing snow melt
and facilitating the formation of ice.
Relative humidity: the higher the humidity the more thermal energy will be required for
melting the snow.

System factors
Surface temperature: in order to avoid ice formation, the temperature of the heating
surface must not be lower than 1C. Higher temperatures would lead to energy waste.
The system must be capable of delivering sufficient thermal output even in varying
external climatic conditions.
Heating fluid: generally an antifreeze solution is utilized in these systems which is
made up of a mixture of water and ethylene or propylene glycol, in adequate proportions, depending on the minimum external temperature (see Table in the appendix).
96

Water drainage: a suitable drainage system for the melted snow must be studied; any
stagnant water left on the surface will cause a reduction in heat output.
Thermal insulation: under the heating coils it is advisable to lay a layer of insulation, which reduces direct heat dispersion (heat loss). The type of insulation is closely related to the expected surface load. Extruded polystyrene insulating panels may be used for light loads (max. load 250 kPa)
or insulating screed (generally concrete with insulating spheres) for high surface loads caused by
heavy vehicles.
Heated screed: the pipe may be buried in the concrete or directly in the ground. Asphalt pavements, however, are not advisable for two reasons. Asphalt is usually placed at 150C and this
temperature may damage the pipes. Also, the compaction process (by means of rollers) may
deform or break the pipes.

6.2. System types


The heating circuits are embedded in the concrete in different ways, depending on the type of area
to be heated. There are essentially three types.

Figure 6.1

rubber
concrete or

The pipes are embedded directly in the layer of concrete, which also makes up the pavement.
This is generally the case with entrance/exit ramps. The pipe must be embedded in the concrete at a depth of 12 to 15 cm. On the surface a layer of cement or rubber is laid. The following figure shows an example.
97

Figure 6.2

The pipes are embedded in the concrete and the pavement is laid on top. In this case the thickness
of the concrete, which contains the pipes can be reduced. The thickness can vary from 8 to 12 cm.
The surface layer can be made of different materials, such as asphalt, earth, etc. This type of application is often used for roads and parking lots.

Figure 6.3

The pipes are immersed in a layer of sand or gravel, over which the pavement is laid. The bed of
sand or gravel in which the pipes are laid must have a thickness of 12 to 20 cm. The surface layer
can be made of concrete or earth, as with athletic fields.

98

6.3. System design


This type of system utilises a mix of water and antifreeze solution, which cannot be heated
directly by the boiler. A heat exchanger with stainless steel plates must be used between the
system and the boiler. The design supply temperature is reached by using a three-way valve
that mixes the flow and return water.
The three-way valve can have an on/off or modular servomotor. In the first case, a humidstat
and a thermostat command the servomotor, which actuates the three-way valve in the presence of atmospheric conditions that would create ice on the surface (humidity and temperature).
In the second case, a command box connected to a sensor which measures the temperature of
the ground under which the circuits are installed, commands the servomotor which acts on the
three-way valve in such a way that the heating circuits maintain the surface temperature above
0C.
Figure 6.4 Humidstat and thermostat command the servomotor

Figure 6.5 The surface temperature sensor commands the servomotor

99

6.4. Dimensioning: theory


6.4.1 Required heat output
The sizing of a snow/ice melting heating system calls for the preliminary calculation of the specific
heat output required. The following method used has been suggested by ASHRAE (American Society
of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.).
The specific heat output required by the heating floor is:
[6.1]

where:

qs is the sensible heat transferred to the snow [W/m2],


qm is the heat of fusion [W/m2],
qe is the heat of evaporation [W/m2],
qh is the heat transfer by convection and radiation [W/m2],
ar is the ratio of snow-free area to total area A to be heated.

The coefficient ar takes on different values depending on the type of area to be heated.
Table 6.1

ar

Area to be heated.

Roads and private walkways, private ramps.

0,5
1

Commercial areas, office and shop walkways, high traffic roads.


Squares, parking lots, entrance ramps to parking lots, runways and helipads, athletic fields.

The equations for calculating the various contributing factors to required heat output are:

[6.4]

100

where

sn is the rate of snowfall (cm/h),


Tea is the air temperature (C),
vw is the wind velocity (m/s),
pav is the vapour pressure of moist air (Pa) which can be calculated with the relative humidity U.R.
(%), by means of the following equation:

[6.6]

6.4.2. Stratification of radiant panels


The heating loops are embedded in the screed, which can be made up of different layers.
The following shows the generic structure of a radiant floor for snow/ice melting.
Figure 6.6. Generic structure of radiant panel

sa,i is the thickness of each layer i which makes up the screed above the centre line of the pipe [m],
sb,i is the thickness of each layer i which makes up the screed below the centre line of the pipe [m],
a,i and b,i are the coefficients of heat conduction of each layer number i which makes up the
screed, both below and above the centre line of the pipe [W/mK],
a is the coefficient of convective heat exchange of the air [W/m2K] in the upper part of the radiant
panel valued at the temperature of the external air Tea which is generally equal to 20 W/m2K,
b is the coefficient of convective heat exchange of the air [W/m2K] in the lower part of the radiant
101

panel valued at the temperature of the external air Teb if the panel is elevated (viaducts, bridges,
etc.) it is equal to 16 W/m2K,
Ka and Kb are the total transmittance coefficients of the screed above and below the centre line of
the pipe [W/m2K],
p is the spacing of the loops [cm].

The coefficient of total transmittance in the upper part of the radiant panel is given by:

[6.7]

The coefficient of total transmittance in the lower part of the radiant panel, if laid directly on the
ground, is:

[6.8]

if elevated (viaducts, bridges, etc.), is:

[6.9]

102

6.4.3. Temperature calculation


With the specific heat output qa necessary to melt the snow or de-ice the surface, the mean temperature of the heating fluid can be determined:

[6.10]

and the temperature of the heated surface:

[6.11]

6.4.4. Downward specific heat output


The downward specific heat output [W/m2] which does not contribute to heating the surface, is calculated by means of the following equation:

[6.12]

where Teb is the temperature of the air under the panel in the case of elevated systems (bridges, viaducts, etc.), whereas in heating systems laid on the ground, it is the temperature of the ground.

103

6.4.5. Calculation of circuit loops


The number of heating loops is determined by their length, by the spacing and the total area to be
heated.
The length of the loops is limited by the length of the rolls available and above all by the maximum
pressure loss allowable. In the following table, it is possible to determine the maximum surface covered for a given loop length and a pre-established installation spacing.

Table 6.2. Maximum area covered by a single circuit


Loop
length
L [m]

Installation spacing p (cm)


5

7,5

10

15

20

22,5

25

30

35

37,5

40

7,5

8,75

9,4

10

25

1,25

1,875 2,5

3,75

Heating area AJ. [m2]


5
5,65 6,25

50

2,5

3,75

7,5

10

11,3

12,5

15

17,5

18,8

20

100

7,5

10

15

20

22,5

25

30

35

37,5

40

150

7,5

11,3

15

22,5

30

33,8

37,5

45

52,5

56,3

60

200

10

15

20

30

40

45

50

60

70

75

80

The heating area A J. is given by the following equation:

[6.13]

whereas the total area to be heated is given by the sum of the single heating areas:

[6.14]

and, therefore, supposing that the loops are all of the same length, the number of circuits is:

[6.15]

104

6.4.6. Calculation of flow rate and temperature of the heating fluid


The flow rate necessary for melting the snow/ice on the surface is given by the following equation:

[6.16]

where
A J. is the surface to be heated by the loop number j[m2],
qa and qb are the downward and upward specific heat outputs [W/m2],
T = Tm - Tr is the temperature drop and therefore Tm and Tr are, respectively, the supply and return
temperatures of the heating fluid [C].
In the coldest part of the radiant panel, where the temperature of the fluid is Tr, the surface temperature must not be below 1C to avoid the formation of ice.
It is necessary to make sure that the return temperature Tr is not below a minimum value determined
by the following equation:

[6.17]

With the average fluid temperature Tmed and having established the return temperature Tr above the
minimum value allowed, it is possible to determine the temperature drop between the supply and
return temperature:

[6.18]

and the fluid supply temperature:

[6.19]

It is also necessary to verify the maximum speed and pressure loss. By using the pressure loss
diagrams, depending on the pipe diameter and the recently calculated flow, it is possible to
determine speed and pressure loss. In the table the speed limits are indicated for each pipe
diameter.

105

Table 6.3. Speed and pressure limits


Vmin [m/s]

Vmax [m/s]

.
m min [l/s]

.
m m a x [l/s]

MIXAL 20x2

0,05

1,00

0,0101

0,201

PEXAL 26x3

0,05

1,00

0,0157

0,314

Pipe

6.5. Dimensioning: practice


The use of the calculation diagrams is explained by means of a simple example of radiant panel
sizing for snow melting.
An entrance ramp, situated in the Brescia area, must be made with a length of 25 m and a width of
4.2 m. The pipes are embedded in a layer of concrete having a 12 cm thickness from the centre line
of the pipes. There is a 4 cm thick layer of concrete under the pipes and a 2 cm thick layer of expanded polystyrol.
Relative humidity is U.R.=70% and snowfall intensity is 0.2 cm/h. A minimum temperature of -7C
and a wind speed of 1,5 m/s is indicated for the area in question.
6.5.1. Required heat output
The required specific heat output qa is given by the equation [ 6.1].
The diagrams in Figure 6.8 and Figure 6.9 allow us to calculate the sum qs + qm in relation to the
snowfall intensity sn and the outdoor temperature Tea for a snowfall intensity between 0 and 1 cm/h
and between 1 and 2.5 cm/h.
The diagram in Figure 6.10 allows us to calculate the sum qe + qh in relation to the relative humidity U.R., the outdoor temperature Tea and wind speed vw .
For the type of area to be heated, ar = 1 the required specific heat output for melting the snow/ice
on the entrance ramp is easily calculated:

6.5.2. Stratification of radiant panels


The radiant panel in the example is completely made of concrete and lies on a layer of insulation. From the tables in the appendix, the coefficients of heat conductivity of the two materials are calculated:
By calculating the total thickness from the pipe centre
,
the total heat resistance

106

and supposing there is a spacing p = 30 cm, from the diagram in Figure 6.11 the coefficient of total
upward transmittance is calculated:
K a = 5,5 W/m2K
Then, by calculating the total downward thickness from the pipe centre

the total heat resistance

and supposing a spacing p = 30 cm, from the diagram in Figure 6.12 the coefficient of total downward transmittance for a radiant panel laid on the ground is determined:
K b = 0,9 W/m2K.

6.5.3. Temperature calculation


Knowing K a and the required upward heat output qa the diagram in Figure 6.13 is used to calculate the difference between the average temperature of the fluid and the atmospheric temperature and
the difference between the surface temperature of the panel and the atmospheric temperature:
Tmed Tea = 54C from which the fluid supply temperature is calculated Tmed = 54 7 = 47C,
Tsa Tea = 14,5C from which the panel surface temperature is calculated Tsa = 14,5 7 = 7,5C.
6.5.4. Downward specific heat output
In order to determine the heat loss underneath the panel, it is necessary to use a hypothetical temperature for the ground; it is legitimate to consider a ground temperature under the panel equal to
the atmospheric temperature. From the diagram in Figure 6.14, in relation to the value K b and
the difference between the supply temperature and that of the ground Tmed Teb = 54C, the
result is qb = 48 W/m2.
6.5.5. Calculation of circuit loops
Considering circuits of 25 m, a spacing of p = 30 cm, Table 6.2 shows us that the area covered by
each loop is A j = 7,5 m2 and therefore the number of loops is n = 105/7,5 = 14.
6.5.6. Calculation of flow rate and temperature of heating fluid
Before calculating the flow rate of the fluid, the minimum return temperature necessary to prevent the
formation of ice on the surface must be determined.
From the diagram in Figure 6.15 the return temperature limit Tr,min = 22C is calculated.
The diagrams in Figure 6.16 and Figure 6.17 indicate the flow rate of the fluid for values of total
heat output requested both below 5 kW and above 5 kW once the temperature difference of the fluid
has been calculated.
The maximum temperature drop for preventing ice formation is:

107

therefore, a difference of T=15C must be considered to avoid any risk and to obtain a relatively
low supply temperature.
The actual return temperature is therefore given by:

and the supply temperature is therefore:

The total heat output of each loop is:

which, in Figure 6.16 corresponds to a flow rate of:

With this flow rate and a 20 mm diameter PEXAL pipe with a 2 mm wall thickness, there is a fluid
speed of about 0,21 m/s and a pressure loss in each circuit of 0,016 bar.
Figure 6.7 indicates a general outline of the heated ramp in which the spacing and the distribution
of the 14 circuits are indicated.

Figure 6.7 General outline of heated entrance ramp.

108

Figure 6.8.

109

Figure 6.9.

110

Figure 6.10.

111

Figure 6.11.

112

Figure 6.12.

113

Figure 6.13.

114

Figure 6.14.

115

Figure 6.15.

116

Figure 6.16.

117

Figure 6.17.

118

Installation

7.1 Preliminary operations and controls


Before installing the heating system, it is necessary to proceed with some preliminary controls:
Verify that the floor size allows the installation of the scheduled floor heating system.
Verify whether it is necessary to install the anti-humidity barrier; to be used in rooms placed in direct contact with the ground.
Control that the surface of the supporting base is flat, does not sink and is free of masonry
debris.
At this stage, the cabinet for the distribution manifold and the mixing kit should already
have been installed and encased.

7.2. Installation of the manifold and mixing kit


The cabinet must be installed in such a way that the distribution manifold is higher than the
pipe level in order to guarantee the venting of the system.
The position of the manifold and mixing kit will respect the design indications and will therefore be in a central position relative to the rooms to be heated, to avoid that the supply
pipes to the circuits are too long.

7.3. Installation of the edging strip


The edging strip must be placed vertically in correspondence with the subfloor and must run
along all of the walls, pillars or stairs.
For the laying of the V-BAND edging strip all of the adhesive surface or just the bottom part
can be used by removing both strips or half of the protective strip. If the screed has a relatively small thickness, it would be better not to use the entire adhesive surface in order to
avoid leaving traces of glue on the plaster. On the contrary, if the screed is to be quite high
(industrial system) the entire surface shall be used.

7.4. Installation of the insulating panels


The V-ESSE insulating panels must be installed in such a way that the successive panel surmounts the joint of the previous panel (Figure 7.1).
Laying starts at the longest wall or at any rate, along the wall at the far side of the entrance to the room.
During laying of the panels along the walls, the polyethylene film of the edging strip must
be raised and placed on top of the panels themselves. This will stop cement from infiltrating
between the panels and the walls (Figure 7.2).
The panels can be cut with a rigid blade and the remaining panel, if of suitable dimensions,
can be re-used.
To install the V-ELLE insulating panels, it is sufficient to unroll the panels and place them next
to each other. An adhesive strip is used to attach them together so that cement does not get
in between them.
119

Figure 7.1. Laying order of the V-ESSE panel

Figure 7.2. Placement of the polyethylene film of the V-BAND strip over the insulating panels

120

7.5. Installation of piping


Before installing the pipe, it is necessary to verify on the project which room to start with. The circuits shall be installed consecutively to avoid that the supply routes from the manifold to the heating loops of the rooms, do not cross over each other.
Always use the pipe unwinder; without this tool the roll may be unwinded incorrectly, causing the
pipe to become tangled and twisted and thus preventing a linear installation.
Unwind the roll starting at the outside coil.
The laying of the pipe must start at the supply manifold and, it the pipe pattern is counter flow,
work should start at the perimeter of the room working inward. In this case, the distance between
the pipes must be double as compared to the design spacing, to leave space for the return route
to the manifold. Therefore, with a pipe spacing of 22,5 cm, the pipe must be laid starting from the
perimeter of the room toward the centre, leaving a distance of 45 cm between the pipes (Figure
7.3).
When the centre of the room has been reached, invert the installation direction by bending the
pipe but at the same time respecting the minimum radius allowed (Figure 7.4).
For pipe bending the minimum radii indicated must be observed.
Connect the supply and the return of the circuit to the manifold.
Remember to record the initial and final length of pipe used for each circuit, using the marking on
the pipe, in order to verify the total length of pipe used.

Figure 7.3. Laying of the pipe from the perimeter to the centre of the room

121

Figure 7.4. Laying of the pipe from the centre to the perimeter of the room

7.6. Expansion joints


The expansion joints must be made in order to compensate for the dimensional
expansion/contraction of the heated cement screed, caused by variations in the temperature.
The joints shall cross the entire layer of cement and must be made when the surface is
greater than 40 m 2 or when the length of at least one of the walls is greater than 8 m.
In correspondence with these expansion joints, the pipes must be protected with a corrugated tube of 3040 cm (Figure 7.5).
The arrangement of the joint line must not cross the entire heating circuit but only the supply
routes (Figure 7.6).
The visible cut on the surface must be filled with a special sealant.

122

Figure 7.5. Floor section in correspondence with the expansion joint

Corrugated tube

Expansion joint

Figure 7.6. Arrangement of the expansion line

123

7.7. Settlement joints


Settlement joints must be made between one room and another and above all, when two different
floor coverings are used.
These joints are generally placed in door reveals and are made by cutting the cement screed by
approximately 1/3 of its thickness starting from the covering (Figure 7.7).
The visible cut on the surface must be filled with a special sealant.
Figure 7.7. Floor section in correspondence with a settlement joint

Settlement joints

7.8. Filling
Close the interception valves both at the supply and return of the manifold.
Close all the flow-check valves at the supply manifold.
Connect the supply pipe of the test pump by removing the insert of the supply manifold drainage
valve.
Open the drainage valve on the return manifold, connecting a pipe to the insert for the transport
of the water to the drain.
Open the flow-check valve of the first circuit and circulate the water until all the air contained in
the circuit has been expelled.
Close the circuit flow-check valve and repeat the operation for the other circuits.
Once the filling operation of the circuits has finished close the drainage valve on the return manifold.

124

7.9. Leak test

Open all the flow-check valves


The test pressure is to be twice the working pressure with a minimum of 6 bar.
Verify the absence of leaks by controlling the entire circuit pressure on the pressure gauge.
The pressure shall be applied to the pipes during laying of the screed.
When there is a danger of freezing, it is necessary to add anti-freeze liquid to the water. If no further frost protection is necessary for the normal operation of the system, the liquid shall be removed and the system shall be flushed using at least 3 changes of water.

7.10. Laying of the screed


The cement must be prepared without the use of insulating agents.
During preparation of the mixture, the fluidising additive V-FLUID shall be used; the percentages
indicated on the product shall be respected. The fluidiser must be kept out of direct sunlight and
the room temperature must not fall below 0C. Verify also the expiry date on the product.
The fluidiser reduces water content necessary and improves workability.
The cement must be poured with the system working at a pressure of 6 bar and the temperature of the room must not fall below 5C.
If fusion welded grids are to be used, these shall be laid in observance with the expected quotas
(1/3 of the height of the screed in relation to the covering).

7.11. Heating up
This operation shall be carried out at least 21 days after the laying of the cement screed or in
accordance with the manufacturers instructions but at least 7 days in the case of anhydrite screeds
or, at any rate, also in this case, in accordance with the manufacturers instructions.
The initial heating up commences at a supply temperature between 20C and 25C, which shall
be maintained for at least 3 days. Subsequently the maximal design temperature shall be set and
maintained for at least another 4 days.
At the end of the test, the floor covering can be laid.

125

A. Heat transfer
Heat transfer concerns all physical processes in which a certain quantity of heat energy is transferred from one system to another due to a difference in temperature. Such processes occur according
to the principles of thermodynamics:
The heat energy given off by a system has to be the same as the energy received by the other.
Heat passes from a warmer to a colder body.
The speed with which the heat transfer process occurs is also very important
and therefore the quan.
tity of heat exchanged within the unit of time or the thermal output Q which is measured in Watts.

A.1. Modes of heat transfer


The transfer of heat is a spontaneous phenomenon, which continues to occur between a hot and a
cold object, until both objects have reached the same temperature, the temperature of thermal balance. The hot object transfers part of its thermal energy to the cold object and the heat transfer can be
by conduction, convection or radiation.
A.1.1. Conduction
Conduction occurs between solid materials when placed in direct contact with each other. It is the
temperature difference between the two objects that causes the hot object to transfer energy to the
cold object, thus increasing the temperature until a thermal balance has been reached (same temperature). In Figure A.1 it is observed how two objects at different temperatures are placed together
and by conduction the heat flows from the hot object to the cold object until the balance temperature is reached.

Figure A.1. Heat transfer by conduction

126

A.1.2. Convection
Convection occurs when one of the substances is a fluid (water, air, etc.) and the heat transfer may be associated with a transfer of matter. When the temperature of a fluid is not uniform, that is, it contains hot and cold areas, the difference in temperature and the speed of
the fluid itself, generate a continuous movement of the particles in the fluid, causing them to
be mixed, thus favouring the transfer of heat from the hot to the cold particles. This phenomenon is called natural convection. When, on the other hand, the movement of the particles
is caused mechanically, by a pump in the case of water circulation, or simply by wind, the
phenomenon is called forced convection. Convection occurs, for example, when an intermediate fluid circulates between two bodies (thermal fluid), which heats up when in contact with
the hot matter, and then transfers its heat when it comes into contact with the cold matter
(Figure A.2).

Figure A.2. Transfer of heat by convection

A.1.3. Radiation
Radiative heat transfer involves the emission and consequent absorption of electromagnetic rays. The
heat exchanged in this case rapidly increases with a difference in temperature. Radiation differs from
the other modes of heat transfer, in that it does not require the presence of a means in order to transfer energy. Electromagnetic radiation that generates the transmission of heat is linked to the energetic state of the atoms of which it is made up. In this case, the hot matter emits electromagnetic rays
that are absorbed by the cold matter (Figure A.3).
127

Figure A.3. Heat transfer by radiation

A.2. Combined heat transfer processes


Depending on the nature of the material, with heat transfer, one mode will be more predominant than the others, or the heat will be transferred thanks to the combined action of two or
all three modes. This is due to the physical characteristics of the materials, such as density,
transparency, etc. The heat which is lost through the walls of a room to the outside of a building, is transferred by conduction across the various layers which make up the wall and by
convection and radiation through the air spaces between the bricks. From the external surface of the room, the heat is released into the surrounding outside air by means of convection
and radiation.
Figure A.4 shows a room where the floor and ceiling are at different temperatures (TA >TB ). In
this case, the heat is transferred from the floor to the ceiling by convection and radiation. If
there was no air to act as a medium, then there would only be the phenomenon of radiation
and less heat would be exchanged between the two structures. After a certain time, the total
heat output is given by the sum of the heat transferred by convection and radiation:

TO TAL

128

Convection

Radiation

[A.1]

The two transmission mechanisms act in a parallel way. There is, in fact, an analogy with electrical
circuits, which allows an analysis of the phenomenon of combined heat transfer (Figure A.4).
Figure A.4. Heat transfer between floor and ceiling

The flow of current which circulates in the two resistances R1 and R2, which represent respectively the
resistances of convection and radiation, behaves in an analogous way to the quantity of heat which
flows for a certain period between the two bodies caused by convection and radiation. The total flow
of current, in fact, is given by the sum of the currents, which circulate in the two resistances, just as
the total thermal output is given by the sum of the exchanged thermal output of the single transfer
mechanisms [ A.1].
On the other hand, if we consider a wall made of two layers of different materials, with the two external parallel surfaces at different temperatures, as shown in Figure A.5, the heat is transferred by conduction only and it flows from wall A to wall B.

129

Figure A.5. Heat transfer inside a wall

During its passage it meets different materials and the heat transfer intensity is different according
to the type of material. We can consider the three layers as three resistances placed in a series
(Figure A.5) for which the following relation is valid:

[A.2]
TO TAL

Conduction1

Conduction2

Conduction3

where,
are the thermal outputs transferred by conducConduction1
Conduction2
Conduction3
tion respectively through the cement, the insulating layer and the bricks. As noted in the
equation [A.2] the total thermal output transferred is less than the output that would flow
singly in each material. The walls of houses are made of several layers in order to minimise
the heat loss though them.

130

A.3. Heat transfer in heating systems


A.3.1. Radiator systems
In this type of system, the transfer of heat from the radiator to the room occurs both by radiation and by convection. The convection component, however, is greater than the radiative one.
Hot air movement is therefore created at the ceiling and cold air at the floor as shown in figure A.6. This air current that is created transports the dust present in the room, which can create breathing problems; furthermore, the combustion of such dust particles generates dark
stains on the walls behind the radiator.

Figure A.6. Radiator system

A.3.2. Fan heater system


In this type of system, the radiative component is even lower than in radiator systems. The convective component is further accentuated by the fact that an internal fan inside the heat convector itself
increases hot air movement.

131

A.3.3. Floor heating systems


The transfer of heat from the screed heated by the pipe occurs due a combined effect of radiation
and convection. In this case, however, the convective component is negligible compared to the radiative component. The effects of dust movements, as seen in the other traditional heating systems, are
not created. Furthermore, layers of heat are generated between the floor and ceiling, that is, the temperature is higher at the floor and diminishes in proximity to the ceiling. This stratification is close to
the ideal conditions of thermal well-being.

Figure A.7. Floor system

132

B. Heat conductance and resistance


of materials.
Table B.1. Heat conductance
Material

Heat Conductance [W/mK]

Asphalt

0.70

Reinforced concrete

1.51

Ordinary concrete

1.28

Chalk

0.43

Dry gravel in layers

0.93

Plaster with lime mortar

0.70

Plaster with lime and chalk

0.93

Linoleum

0.18

Cement mortar

1.40

Expanded polystyrol

0.035

Expanded polyurethane

0.028

Dry sand

0.58

Sand and cement

0.93

Cork leaves

0.04

Expanded vermiculite

0.07

Table B.2. Heat resistance of flooring materials


Materials

Heat resistance R , [m2K/W]

Ceramic tiles 6 mm

0,0060

Ceramic tiles 8 mm

0,0080

Ceramic tiles 10 mm

0,0100

Ceramic tiles 12 mm

0,0120

Cotto tiles 10 mm

0,0111

Cotto tiles 15 mm

0,0167

Cotto tiles 20 mm

0,0222

Cotto tiles 30 mm

0,0333

Rubber 2 mm

0,0071

Rubber 3 mm

0,0107

Rubber 4 mm

0,0143

Rubber 5 mm

0,0179
133

Table B.2. Heat resistance of flooring materials


Materials

Heat resistance R , [m2K/W]

Marble 10 mm

0,0029

Marble 15 mm

0,0044

Marble 20 mm

0,0059

Marble 30 mm

0,0088

Parquet 6 mm

0,0300

Parquet 8 mm

0,0400

Parquet 10 mm

0,0500

Parquet 12 mm

0,0600

Parquet 14 mm

0,0700

Parquet 16 mm

0,0800

Parquet 18 mm

0,0900

Parquet 20 mm

0,1000

Moquette 10 mm

0,1100

Moquette 12 mm

0,1300

Moquette 14 mm

0,1600

Moquette 16 mm

0,1800

Moquette 18 mm

0,2000

Moquette 20 mm

0,2200

Table B.3. Heat resistance of decks


Type of deck

134

Heat resistance Rb [m2K/W]

Tiled deck 200 mm

0,320

Tiled deck 240 mm

0,350

Tiled deck 280 mm

0,370

Predalles deck 150 mm

0,360

Predalles deck 200 mm

0,400

Predalles deck 250 mm

0,430

C. Wood as a Floor Covering


Particular attention must be given to wooden floor coverings.
The factors influencing the characteristics of the coverings are temperature for the glue and
humidity for the wood.
The temperature of the screed does not influence the characteristics of the wood, however,
it can be an important factor for the glue used. In fact, special glues must be used that do
not depend on the temperature.
The factor that can damage a wood covering is humidity. Variations in the concentration
of humidity generate movements in the wood itself; all types of wood are more or less
prone to such movements. Clearly the more constant the level of humidity, the less risk
there is of damage being caused to the flooring.
The formation of cracks is due to low levels of humidity, bending, on the other hand, is caused by levels of humidity that are too high.
When the temperature increases, the humidity level generally falls; therefore, an overly
heated room will present a greater risk of cracking to the wood. When, however, the temperature goes down, the cracks will close again.
In climates where winters are drier than summers, this phenomenon will be present whether underfloor heating has been installed or not, and above all, if there is no control over
humidity in the surroundings.
Both cracking and bending of the wood will occur, if it is not allowed to move and to
adapt itself to the environment prior to installation.
Various types of wood may be used for floor coverings; the choice should be made between woods that offer a greater dimensional stability than others.
The ground rules to be followed for the correct design of a floor heating system are:
1) low temperatures of the floor surface,
2) the heat flow must be as uniform as possible on the surface and therefore spacing must
be kept relatively low,
3) the cement screed must be completely dry before the wood flooring is laid,
4) the wood should be allowed to acclimatize to the conditions which will be generated in
the room where it is to be installed.

135

D. Dimensioning of metal grid reinforcement


in the floor
The metal grids placed in industrial floors have the function of limiting the opening of cracks in the
concrete screed due to shrinkage, in the proximity of contraction joints and are not intended to
increase the load capacity of the screed. By preventing the crack from increasing, the metal grid
allows maintenance of a good load distribution on the concrete screed.

Figure D.1. Floor with contraction joint

Dimensioning of the grid can be done by means of a mathematical equation defined as slip
equation:

[D.1]

where:
L is the distance between two successive contraction joints [m],
f is the coefficient of static friction between floor and subfloor,
is the specific weight of the concrete including any permanent loads [kg/m3],
su is the thickness of the concrete screed [cm],
s is the allowable traction stress of the steel [MPa],
Aa is the grid area by linear meter of floor [cm2/m] or rather the ratio between the section of grid
and the dimension of the mesh as indicated:

[D.2]

136

where da is the diameter of the thread [cm] and pa is the dimension of the mesh [m] (see Figure D.2).

Figure D.2. Characteristic dimensions of net for grid

metal grid

In the following table, the area of several types of frameworks is given.


Table D.1. Area of framework

da [cm]

pa [m]

2/5

0,2

0,05

0,63

3/10

0,3

0,1

0,71

5/20

0,5

0,2

0,98

5/30

0,5

0,3

0,65

5/35

0,5

0,35

0,56

6/20

0,6

0,2

1,41

6/30

0,6

0,3

0,94

6/35

0,6

0,35

0,81

8/30

0,8

0,3

1,68

8/35

0,8

0,35

1,44

Net

Area A a [cm2/m]

In the following table, the f values in relation to the type of subfloor are given.

Table D.2. Coefficient of static friction between floor and subfloor


Type of Subfloor

Static friction f

PE film

0,80

Fine sand

0,90

Ganular mix

1,65

Gravel and sand

1,80

Clay

2,00

137

It is recommended to use static friction coefficient values f equal to 2,5 considering in this
way the irregularities of the ground on which the concrete floor is to be laid and which
significantly influence the effects of friction.

The principle on which the slip equation is based, is that the power of friction which is created between the floor and the subfloor is in proportion to the weight of the floor itself and the friction coefficient of the subfloor. The forces at the interface between the subfloor and the floor generate traction stress in the metal grids due to the friction between the two surfaces.
Figure D.3. Force of friction between the subfloor and the concrete floor

metal grid

concrete
ground

In order to limit the degree of cracking in proximity of the contraction joints, the metal grid will have
to be laid as near as possible to the upper surface of the floor. In doing so, however, there is a risk
that the grid is cut during installation of the contraction joints.

The correct compromise for the installation height of the grid is 1/3 of the total height of
the screed starting from the surface of the floor as shown in Figure D.3.

D.1. Example of dimensioning of a metal grid


Imagine an industrial floor made of 15 cm of concrete (specific weight 2300 kg/m3) and with a distance between the contraction joints of 4,5 m. The net is made of steel with an allowable load traction of 210 MPa. Considering the recommended friction coefficient of f=2,5, the grid area is calculated:

According to Table D.1 it is possible to choose between a grid of 5/20 (0,98 cm2/m) or else a
grid of 6/30 (0,94 cm2/m) to be positioned at 10 cm from the subfloor (5 cm from the floor).
138

E. Anti-freeze liquid in heating circuits


In floor heating systems for snow melting or for heating industrial pavements, or whenever there is
a risk that the water inside the circuit will freeze, it is convenient to add an anti-freeze liquid in suitable proportions to the expected minimum temperature.
In the case of systems left unused during the winter season, it is recommended to leave any circuit
section valves open so that the entire circuit can absorb the variations in volume of the water, in relation to the temperature.
In the following tables, the typical concentrations (volume percentage) of the most commonly used
anti-freeze liquids are indicated: ethylene or propylene glycol.

Table E.1. Concentrations of anti-freeze with ethylene glycol base


Temperature

Volume concentration

-4C

10%

-9C

20%

-17C

30%

-26C

40%

-37C

50%

Table E.2. Concentrations of anti-freeze with propylene glycol base


Temperature

Volume concentration

-10C

25%

-15C

33%

-32C

50%

The concentrations may vary from one product to the other. The aim of these values
is to give a general idea of the quantities of anti-freeze required in relation to outdoor
temperatures.

139

F. Calculation of quantity of concrete for laying


The quantity of concrete to be used in a floor heating system depends on a number of factors some
of which have very little influence.
The height of concrete above the pipe and the panel bosses is the element which obviously has the
greatest influence, as does the panel type (V-ELLE or V-ESSE), other factors such as spacing and pipe
diameter are not as important.
The quantity of concrete can be determined thanks to the following tables which give the volume
necessary for carrying out a heating system over a surface area of 100 m2.

Table F.1. Quantity of concrete for pipe De=16 mm and V-ESSE panel
Quantity of concrete in m3/100 m2 with external pipe diameter 16 mm and V-ESSE panel
screed
InHeight
the offollowing
tables, the typical concentrations (volume
of the most commonly used
Pipe spacingpercentage)
[cm]
above the bosses
anti-freeze liquids are indicated: ethylene or propylene glycol.

[mm]

7,5

15

22,5

30

37,5

45

30

4,8

4,9

5,0

5,0

5,0

5,0

35

5,3

5,4

5,5

5,5

5,5

5,5

40

5,8

5,9

6,0

6,0

6,0

6,0

45

6,3

6,4

6,5

6,5

6,5

6,5

50

6,8

6,9

7,0

7,0

7,0

7,0

55

7,3

7,4

7,5

7,5

7,5

7,5

60

7,8

7,9

8,0

8,0

8,0

8,0

65

8,3

8,4

8,5

8,5

8,5

8,5

70

8,8

8,9

9,0

9,0

9,0

9,0

Table F.2. Quantity of concrete for pipe De=20 mm and V-ESSE panel
Quantity of concrete in m3/100 m2 with external pipe diameter 20 mm and V-ESSE panel
Height of screed
above the bosses

140

Pipe spacing [cm]

[mm]

7,5

15

22,5

30

37,5

45

30

4,6

4,9

4,9

5,0

5,0

5,0

35

5,1

5,4

5,4

5,5

5,5

5,5

40

5,6

5,9

5,9

6,0

6,0

6,0

45

6,1

6,4

6,4

6,5

6,5

6,5

50

6,6

6,9

6,9

7,0

7,0

7,0

55

7,1

7,4

7,4

7,5

7,5

7,5

60

7,6

7,9

7,9

8,0

8,0

8,0

65

8,1

8,4

8,4

8,5

8,5

8,5

70

8,6

8,9

8,9

9,0

9,0

9,0

Table F.3. Quantity of concrete for pipe De=14 mm and V-ELLE panel
Quantity of concrete in m3/100 m2 with external pipe diameter 14 mm and V-ELLE panel
Height of screed
above the pipe

Pipe spacing [cm]

[mm]

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

30

4,1

4,2

4,3

4,3

4,3

4,3

4,4

4,4

35

4,6

4,7

4,8

4,8

4,8

4,8

4,9

4,9

40

5,1

5,2

5,3

5,3

5,3

5,3

5,4

5,4

45

5,6

5,7

5,8

5,8

5,8

5,8

5,9

5,9

50

6,1

6,2

6,3

6,3

6,3

6,3

6,4

6,4

55

6,6

6,7

6,8

6,8

6,8

6,8

6,9

6,9

60

7,1

7,2

7,3

7,3

7,3

7,3

7,4

7,4

65

7,6

7,7

7,8

7,8

7,8

7,8

7,9

7,9

70

8,1

8,2

8,3

8,3

8,3

8,3

8,4

8,4

75

8,6

8,7

8,8

8,8

8,8

8,8

8,9

8,9

80

9,1

9,2

9,3

9,3

9,3

9,3

9,4

9,4

85

9,6

9,7

9,8

9,8

9,8

9,8

9,9

9,9

90

10,1

10,2

10,3

10,3

10,3

10,3

10,4

10,4

95

10,6

10,7

10,8

10,8

10,8

10,8

10,9

10,9

100

11,1

11,2

11,3

11,3

11,3

11,3

11,4

11,4

Table F.4. Quantity of concrete for pipe De=16 mm and V-ELLE panel
Quantity of concrete in m3/100 m2 with external pipe diameter 16 mm and V-ELLE panel
Height of screed
above the pipe

Pipe spacing [cm]

[mm]

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

30

4,2

4,4

4,5

4,5

4,5

4,5

4,5

4,5

35

4,7

4,9

5,0

5,0

5,0

5,0

5,0

5,0

40

5,2

5,4

5,5

5,5

5,5

5,5

5,5

5,5

45

5,7

5,9

6,0

6,0

6,0

6,0

6,0

6,0

50

6,2

6,4

6,5

6,5

6,5

6,5

6,5

6,5

55

6,7

6,9

7,0

7,0

7,0

7,0

7,0

7,0

60

7,2

7,4

7,5

7,5

7,5

7,5

7,5

7,5

65

7,7

7,9

8,0

8,0

8,0

8,0

8,0

8,0

70

8,2

8,4

8,5

8,5

8,5

8,5

8,5

8,5

75

8,7

8,9

9,0

9,0

9,0

9,0

9,0

9,0

80

9,2

9,4

9,5

9,5

9,5

9,5

9,5

9,5

85

9,7

9,9

10,0

10,0

10,0

10,0

10,0

10,0

90

10,2

10,4

10,5

10,5

10,5

10,5

10,5

10,5

95

10,7

10,9

11,0

11,0

11,0

11,0

11,0

11,0

100

11,2

11,4

11,5

11,5

11,5

11,5

11,5

11,5
141

Tabella F.5. Quantity of concrete for pipe De=20 mm and V-ELLE panel
Quantity of concrete in m3/100 m2 with external pipe diameter 20 mm and V-ELLE panel
Height of screed
above the pipe

142

Pipe spacing [cm]

[mm]

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

30

4,4

4,7

4,8

4,8

4,9

4,9

4,9

4,9

35

4,9

5,2

5,3

5,3

5,4

5,4

5,4

5,4

40

5,4

5,7

5,8

5,8

5,9

5,9

5,9

5,9

45

5,9

6,2

6,3

6,3

6,4

6,4

6,4

6,4

50

6,4

6,7

6,8

6,8

6,9

6,9

6,9

6,9

55

6,9

7,2

7,3

7,3

7,4

7,4

7,4

7,4

60

7,4

7,7

7,8

7,8

7,9

7,9

7,9

7,9

65

7,9

8,2

8,3

8,3

8,4

8,4

8,4

8,4

70

8,4

8,7

8,8

8,8

8,9

8,9

8,9

8,9

75

8,9

9,2

9,3

9,3

9,4

9,4

9,4

9,4

80

9,4

9,7

9,8

9,8

9,9

9,9

9,9

9,9

85

9,9

10,2

10,3

10,3

10,4

10,4

10,4

10,4

90

10,4

10,7

10,8

10,8

10,9

10,9

10,9

10,9

95

10,9

11,2

11,3

11,3

11,4

11,4

11,4

11,4

100

11,4

11,7

11,8

11,8

11,9

11,9

11,9

11,9

G. Insulating panels for floor heating


Why install floor insulating panels? What influence do they have on system response time and
efficiency, and therefore on energy saving? These are the questions we will try to answer in
this section of the manual.

G.1. Influence of insulating panels on system performance


G.1.1. Mechanical function
One of the functions of the insulating panel in floor heating systems is to provide a support onto
which the circuits are laid. The panels can be pocketed and contain slots for holding the pipe, or
they can be smooth, in which case the pipe is fixed by means of appropriate anchoring clips. Due
to the manner in which floor heating is conceived, insulating panels are therefore, a part of the
system itself, and although their use is often neglected for economical reasons, they actually have a
very important effect on the system's performance. It is, of course, possible to create radiant panels
without using insulation, by using metal reinforcement grids on top of which the pipe is laid by means
of suitable clips; in this case, however, there would be no barrier to downward heat dispersion and
the performance of the system would consequently be compromised.
G.1.2. Reduction of thermal mass
Thermal mass refers to the capacity of materials to store thermal energy (heat). A rock, for example,
has a greater thermal mass than a piece of wood; it in fact retains heat for longer than a piece of
wood. This is due to the fact that the rock is denser and therefore contains a greater mass at equal
volume. When a heated thermal mass is subject to a stream of old air, for example, it starts to dissipate thermal energy (heat) at a speed proportionate to the difference in temperature between the
air and the thermal mass. The principle of floor heating is to maintain constant and uniform the temperature of the thermal mass in such a way as to dissipate sufficient thermal energy to heat the room.
The presence of insulating panels inside the floor structure reduces the thermal mass. The insulating
panels, by separating the layer of concrete in which the heating pipes are buried from the load-bearing sub-floor, reduce the thermal mass to be heated and therefore create systems which respond
quicker to the variation in room or outdoor temperatures. Let's evaluate a floor heating system in a
residential building of approximately 100 m2, the structure of the floor containing insulating panel is
illustrated in Figure G.1.

143

Figure G.1. Stratification of an insulated radiant floor

In this case, the volume of the concrete in direct contact with the pipe, and which therefore influences the thermal mass effect, is approximately 0.061 m3/m2 (quantity of concrete per square meter
of surface). If the same system had been created without insulating panels (see Figure G.2), the volume of concrete in direct contact with the pipe would be 0.213 m3/m2 (given by the volume of screed
above the pipe and the volume of concrete). It is easy to verify that the relationship between the volume of concrete is from 1 to 3.5 and therefore there is a significant increase in the thermal mass
should insulating panels not be used. Based on what has been expressed in the introduction, it follows that the greater the thermal mass the longer it will take the system to respond to the variations
in temperature.

Figure G.2. Stratification of a radiant floor with insulation

144

G.1.3. Thermal insulation


The energy produced by the coils is directed both upwards, bringing the necessary contribution to
the heating of the room, and downwards, generating a loss of energy towards the underlying
ground.
The flow of downward energy depends on the temperature of the ground and the room below and
on the total thermal resistance of the layers of material below the pipes.
Obviously, the better the insulation the less thermal energy that is wasted.
To reduce energy loss, the Standard UNI EN 1264, which establishes the sizing rules for floor heating systems, imposes minimum thermal resistance values for the layer of insulating material in relation to the climatic conditions. The minimum value required is 0,75 m2K/W for rooms which lie
above other continuously heated rooms. A panel of expanded polystyrene which insures such a thermal resistance value must have a minimum thickness of at least 22-25 mm.
A critical analysis of the difference between a building with an insulated floor and one without will
successively be made.

G.2. Numeric analysis of insulation


G.2.1. Calculation basis
To evaluate the positive effect of insulating panels on the output of the floor heating systems, the project results of two systems to UNI EN 1264 will be compared: one with V-ESSE30 panels and the
other with no type of insulation. According to the Standard requirements, and with reference to
Figure G.3, the thermal resistance to the vertical thermal flow both towards the inside of the room
Ro and towards the underlying room Ru must be calculated as indicated in chapter 5. The percentage energy loss is calculated as the proportion qb /(qa+qb) between the downward thermal flow and
the total thermal flow created by the system.

Figure G.3. Energy flow of a radiant floor

145

G.2.2. Results
To evaluate the energy loss through the floor, systems were sized with and without insulating panels,
maintaining the floor structure and varying several fundamental parameters: the temperature of the
underlying room Tu and the useful thermal flow qa.
A building of a residential type of approximately 100 m2 was considered and the system was installed with the multilayer pipe Valsir Mixal 16x2.
Variation of the external temperature at equal thermal flow
A thermal flow of 70 W/m2 was considered and the downward energy loss in a room with floor
insulation and one without insulation was calculated at varying temperatures in the underlying room.
From Table G.1 and Figure G.4 the following can be observed: going from a temperature
Tu of -6C (rooms over a terrace in cold climates) to a temperature of +4C (rooms on the ground)
until reaching a temperature of +16C (rooms over heated rooms) there is an energy loss which
varies from 26% to 12% for systems with insulating panels and which goes from 44% to 24% for
systems without insulating panels.
A building without insulation, therefore, has significantly higher energy losses and on average, they
are double the losses in buildings with floor insulation. In the coldest conditions, the energy loss in a
system with no floor insulation can reach values as high as 44%.

Table G.1. Downward energy loss according to the variation in temperature of the room below

146

Temperature
of the room below

Downward
thermal flow with
insulating panel

Tu

qa

[C]

[W/m2]

[%]

-6

24,1

-4

Energy
loss

Downward thermal
flow without
insulating panel

Energy
loss

[W/m2]

[%]

[%]

26%

56,1

44%

+19%

22,8

25%

53,0

43%

+19%

-2

21,5

23%

49,9

42%

+18%

18,8

21%

43,7

38%

+17%

17,5

20%

40,6

37%

+17%

16,1

19%

37,5

35%

+16%

14,8

17%

34,5

33%

+16%

10

13,5

16%

31,4

31%

+15%

12

12,2

15%

28,3

29%

+14%

14

10,8

13%

25,2

26%

+13%

16

9,5

12%

22,1

24%

+12%

qb

Figure G.4. Trend of downward loss in relation to the temperature variation in the underlying room

Variation of thermal flow at equal external temperature


A building situated on the ground with a temperature of +5C was taken into consideration and, as
the temperature necessary for heating the rooms varied, the downward energy loss was calculated
for rooms with and without floor insulation.
From Table G.2 and Figure G.5 the following can be observed: going from a thermal flow qa of 50
W/m2 to 95 W/m2 there is an energy loss which drops from 23% to 17% for systems with insulating
panels and 41% to 32% for systems without insulating panels.
Again, it has been revealed that the energy loss for systems without floor insulation is double the loss
in systems with floor insulation. In conditions of low thermal flow (50 W/m2) the energy loss reaches
41%.
Table G.2. Downward energy loss in relation to the variation of useful thermal flow
Upward
thermal flow

Downward thermal
flow with
insulating panel

qa

qa

Energy
loss

Downward thermal
flow without
insulating panel

Energy
loss

qb

[W/m ]

[W/m ]

[%]

[W/m2]

[%]

[%]

50

14,9

23%

34,6

41%

+18%

55

15,3

22%

35,7

39%

+18%

60

15,8

21%

36,8

38%

+17%

65

16,3

20%

38,0

37%

+17%

70

16,8

19%

39,1

36%

+16%

75

17,3

19%

40,2

35%

+16%

80

17,8

18%

41,4

34%

+16%

85

18,3

18%

42,5

33%

+16%

90

18,8

17%

43,6

33%

+15%

95

19,3

17%

44,8

32%

+15%

147

Figure G.5. Trend of downward loss in relation to the variation of thermal flow

Economic analysis
From a simplified economic analysis it is possible to evaluate the difference in terms of heating
expense between the two buildings, the first with floor insulation (which we will call case A), the
second without floor insulation (which we will call case B). Let's suppose that the building is situated
on the round (Tu=+4C) and the heating power is 7000 W (70 W/m2 for a surface of 100 m2).
From the table the following is read:
- the downward energy loss in case A is 19%
- the downward energy loss in case B is 36%
therefore:
- the necessary heating power in case A is 8640 W
- the necessary heating power in case B is 10937 W
If a boiler efficiency of 90% and methane heating power of 8200 kcal/m3 (34330 kJ/m3) is considered, it is possible to determine the flow of methane necessary in both cases and the annual consumption, considering 75 days of heating per year and the cost of methane at 0,55 /m3.
The result is therefore:

- a flow of methane in case A of 1.01 m3/h,


- a flow of methane in case B of 1.27 m3/h
and annual consumption is:
- 1810 m3/year equal to approx. 996 /year in case A, and
- 2290 m 3/year equal to approx. 1260 /year with a difference of approx. 265 /year in
case B.
148

G.3. Conclusion
From the results obtained it is deduced that the absence of insulating panels has a significant negative effect on the heat output of the heating system which could entail an energy loss of as much as
40%. The use of insulating panels is therefore always strongly recommended; it allows, in fact, to
achieve important reductions in annual consumption, in the example taken into consideration, a
saving in methane consumption of approximately 20% was calculated. The considerations that were
made for residential floor heating systems can be transferred to an industrial type floor heating
system with the same results.
The use of insulating panels influences not only consumption but also the performance of the system,
it has been seen how the presence of the panel reduces the thermal mass and therefore enables the
system to respond quicker to changes in the temperature.

149

H. Measurement units
Table H.1. Basic and supplementary measurement units
Quantity

Unit

Symbol

Length

meters

Mass

kilogram

kg

Time

seconds

Electricity

ampere

Temperature

kelvin

Light intensity

candle

cd

mole

mole

Plane angle

radian

rad

Solid angle

steradian

sr

Quantity of a substance

150

Table H.2. Conversion factors


Length
1 inch

25,40 mm

1 ft

0,3048 m

(foot)

1 yd

(yard)

0,9144 m

1 mi

(US mile)

1,609 km

1 mi

(nautical mile)

1,852 km

1 inch2

645,2 mm2

1 ft2

0,09290 m2

1l

0,001 m3

1 inch3

16,39 cm3

1 ft3

0,02832 m3

0,003785 m3

1 US gal

3,785 l

1 UK gal

0,004546 m3

1 UK gal

4,546 l

1 kg

2,204 lb

1t

1000 kg

28,35 g

16,02 kg/m3

1 N (Newton)

0,102 kgf

1 kgf

9,81 N

4,448 N

1 Pa

1 N/m2

1 bar

100000 Pa

1 bar

1,019 kg/cm2

1 bar

14,48 psi

101325 Pa

1 atm

760 mm Hg

1 at

1 kg/cm2

Area

Volume and capacity

1 US gal

(gallon)

Mass
(tonne)

1 oz

(ounce)

Density
1 lb/ft3
Force
(kg force)

1 lbf
Pressure

1 atm

(standard atmosphere)

(metric atmosphere)

151

1 at

736 mm Hg

1 at

10 m H2O

1 atm

1,033 at

1 lb/inch2

6,895 kPa

1 inch H2O

249,1 Pa

1 inch Hg

3,386 kPa

1 mm H2O

9,807 Pa

1 mm Hg

133,3 Pa

1 torr

133,3 Pa

1 mbar

100 Pa

1 psi

1 lb/inch2

1,055 kJ

1 kWh

3,6 MJ

1 kcal

4,187 kJ

1 J (Joule)

1 Nm

1J

0,102 kgfm

1 W (Watt)

1,36 CV

1W

1,34 HP

1W

0,860 kcal/h

1 kcal/h

1,162 W

1 CV

0,986 HP

1 HP

1,014 CV

1 Btu/h

0,2931 W

1 J/s

1W

0,30 kW

1 ft3/h

7,866 ml/s

1 ft3/min

471,9 ml/s

1 l/s

60 l/min

1 l/s

3600 l/h

1 l/s

3,6 m3/h

1 Btu/ft3

37,26 kJ/m3

1 kcal/m3

4,187 kJ/m3

1 Btu/lb

2,326 kJ/kg

1 kcal/kg

4,187 kJ/kg

Energy Heat - Work


1 Btu

(British Thermal Unit)

Output

1 lb/h

(vapour)

Flow

Energy flow

152

Heat flow
1 Btu/ft2.h

3,155 W/m2

1 Btu/in2.h
1 kcal/m2.h

454,2 W/m2

1,162 W/m2

Specific heat
1 Btu/lb.F

4,187 kJ/kg.K
4,187 kJ/kg.K

1 kcal/kg.C
1 Btu/ft3.F

1 kcal/m3.C

Heat conductivity
1 Btu/ft.h.F

67,07 kJ/m3.K
4,187 kJ/m3.K

1,731 W/m.K
1,162 W/m.K

418,7 W/m.K

=
=

5,678 W/m2.K
1,162 W/m2.K

41,87 W/m2.K

1 K (Kelvin)

5/9.R

1R (Rankine)

1C (Celsius)

F + 459,67
5/9.(F - 32)

1K

5/9.(F + 459,67)

1K

C + 273,15

1 kcal/m.h.C
1 cal/cm.s.C
Heat conductance
1 Btu/ft2.h.F
1 kcal/m2.h.C
1 cal/cm2.s.C
Temperature scale

153

Notes:

to obtain the ISO 9001:2000

LO2 - 242/

Among the first companies in the world

Uff. Pub. Valsir - Settembre 2004 (2.000 - 09/2004)

Certificate from DNV Certification Institute

VALSIR S.p.A.
Localit Merlaro, 2
25078 Vestone - Brescia - Italia
Tel. +39.0365.877011 - Fax +39.0365.820261
valsir@valsir.it - commerciale.italia@valsir.it - impianti@valsir.it

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