1.

Introduction
Thomas Edison, the father of electricity and inventor of the motion picture, predicted
in 1922 that "the motion picture is destined to revolutionize our educational system and ... in
a few years it will supplant largely, if not entirely, the use of textbooks."
Since then high levels of excitement and expectation have been generated by every
new generation of information and communication technologies (ICTs). The list of "hot"
technologies available for education goes on and on.
Twenty years ago, Seymour Papert predicted that, "there won't be schools in the
future. I think the computer will blow up the school, that is, the school as something where
there are classes, teachers running exams, people structured in groups by age, [who] follow a
curriculumall of that."[1]
Where are we today?
ICTs have definitely revolutionized business processes and organizations, created a
worldwide network of e-commerce, and turned the domain of entertainment into a fascinating
experience. But can ICTs have a similar impact in education?
There are the believers, the skeptics, the agnostics, and the pragmatists.
Believers think that under the right conditions technologies can have a monumental
impact on the expansion of learning opportunities to wider populations, beyond the
confines of teaching institutions and over the lifetime of the individual. Also,
technologies can improve the teaching/learning process, enhance higher levels of
cognition, and facilitate institutional management.
The skeptics have been told many times before that certain technologies, from
filmstrips to tape-recorders to television, would remake their world. Why is it any
different this time?
The agnostics are not sure. They have an open mind but do not think that there is
enough evidence to incorporate ICTs into educational systems. They think that our
empirical knowledge of the effectiveness of different ICTs is spotty, and that our
experience with what works and does not is still tentative.
The pragmatists are holding back. The technologies are changing so fast and prices
are dropping so rapidly, that they are waiting for the technologies to stabilize and
prices to hit bottom.
Yet almost every decision maker in every school system across the world is under
tremendous pressure to provide every classroom (if not every student) with technologies,
including computers and their accessories and connectivity to the Internet. The pressures are
coming from vendors who wish to sell the most advanced technologies; from parents who
want to ensure that their children are not left behind in the technological revolution; from
businesses that want to replicate in schools the dramatic impact that ICTs have had in the
worlds of commerce, business, and entertainment; and from technology advocates who see
ICTs as the latest hope to reform education.
1. Seymour Papert. 1984. Trying to Predict the Future. Popular Computing, 3(13), pp. 3044.

A close look at the ICTs is critical particularly in the context of global development
goals, the increasing demand of education for all, and the inability of existing educational
systems to meet such a demand without support from the ICTs.
The Potential of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs)
Today, from the time we awaken in the morning to the time before we sleep, we are
surrounded by media, such as newspapers, radio, television, and computers. Sometimes we
are not even aware that we are surrounded by these media. All these media come under the
overall umbrella of what are known as todays ICTs. Knowing and using ICTs is important in
todays fast changing knowledge society, but we very often are confused about what these
media are.
Definition of ICTs
Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) are often associated with the
most sophisticated and expensive computer-based technologies. But ICTs also encompass the
more conventional technologies such as radio, television and telephone technology.
While definitions of ICTs are varied, it might be useful to accept the definition
provided by United Nations Development Programme (UNDP): ICTs are basically
information-handling tools- a varied set of goods, applications and services that are used to
produce, store, process, distribute and exchange information. They include the old ICTs of
radio, television and telephone, and the new ICTs of computers, satellite and wireless
technology and the Internet. These different tools are now able to work together, and combine
to form our networked world a massive infrastructure of interconnected telephone
services, standardized computing hardware, the internet, radio and television, which reaches
into every corner of the globe.
When we talk of ICTs, we refer not only to the latest computer and Internet based
technologies, but also to simple audio visual aids such as the transparency and slides, tape
and cassette recorders and radio; video cassettes and television; and film. These older and
more familiar technologies are referred to under the collective heading of analogue media
while the newer computer and Internet based technologies are called the digital media.
However, in todays world, with the increased convergence or blending of the
engineering designs and with the coming together of the satellite and the computer, the
dividing lines between these different media are becoming blurred and consequently, the way
people define and refer to ICTs is also getting blurred. Often, the definition of ICTs is also
done in terms of old and new as if to distinguish between the analogue and digital. But
what is old and what is new? Livingstone (1999), in an extensive exploration of the idea
of newness, has argued that the notion of new can either be seen with reference to the
newness of technology or in the context of whats new for society about these media.
Livingstone further argues that what is new for the western world is not necessarily so for the
rest of the world. Within a social context, the introduction of radio or television may be as
new as the introduction of Internet.
While there is much euphoria about the ICTs, after more than half a century of
research, social scientists are still sceptical about tall and ill-defined claims about potential
societal changes that may follow a technological innovation. This means that new cannot
merely be defined either in terms of time and time scales or in terms of the technology
innovation.
ICTs and Education
Do the ICTs have a role in education? We can argue both ways. Supporters of the
view that ICTs have a role in education, especially adult learning, have many arguments that
2

they put forward and most of these arguments centre on issues of the global and Indian
contexts, the changing nature of the learner and demand of education for all, and the reality
that the existing educational system cannot cope with the demand for education on the one
hand, and the issues of access, equity, and resources on the other.
The context: Liberalization, privatization, and globalization constitute the current social,
economic, technological and political space within which television and all other media have
to exist, survive, and function. Revolutions in information and communication technologies
have reduced national boundaries to meaningless lines drawn on maps. And in the new
scenarios, education has been identified as one of the twelve main services, which need to be
opened up for free flow of trade between countries. The form of this flow will become clear
only when GATS comes into full force after rounds of negotiations among participating
countries.
Then, more than now, knowledge is expected to become a tradable commodity; and it
will be essential that Indian educators keep pace with the change, or else perish in the face of
competition from multinational forces in all fields of education and learning, including adult
learning. At the same time, changes in the capabilities, needs, and interests of the user;
changes in the medium and its content, the close interdependence of the media and the
competition of each medium to survive, and changes in the availability and attractiveness of
accessible alternatives; interact freely with social, economic and political and technological
contexts.
The learner community: Indias demographic mosaic consists of an increasing demand for
education for a population, half of which is below 15 years of age, 75% rural, a literacy rate
of about 60%; and a linguistic break-up of 15 different major languages. The demand for
education far outstrips the conventional systems ability to provide it, leaving no alternative
to the use of technology in education.
We are at a critical junction, when the new technologies of communication - from the
individualized computer assisted learning systems to the more mass directed radio and
television today offer an unparalled opportunity to reconsider conventional educational and
learning practices and institutions. The notion that teaching and learning can be taken out of
the confines of existing schools and colleges, that teaching can be individualized and
insensitive to geoclimatic distances is one which has emerged out of the telecommunications
revolution sweeping across the world in the 1980s and 1990s. And yet, the urban-rural divide
in terms of access, equity, and resources will continue to be the main issues that Indian
educators, particularly adult educators will have to address as the needs of the learning
community in the new social, economic and political contexts will change.
In the new educational system, there are likely to be four levels of learners.
i) The first level will consist of students, who, able to afford the high cost of education,
will obtain it from either public or private institutions of higher education. They will
be getting the best of the facilities, and will soon form educational elites.
ii) The second level of learners will consist of intelligent and competent students, who
unable to afford the cost of education, will obtain it from existing public institutions
and will soon be competing with the first level for membership in the educational
elite.
iii) A third level of students will consist of the academically and financially poor
students, who will seek access to education from lower quality institutions of higher
learning.

iv) And the last group of learners would be most of the illiterate and the poor, whom you
will be addressing as part of your work.
Current ways of imparting adult education use extensive ground work in the field and
require both large numbers of trained personnel as well as committed individuals working in
a world where access to technology is going to determine the gap between the haves and the
have-nots. We no longer have a choice. It is no longer an if but how to deploy the
technologies optimally. ICT application constitutes an absolute necessity, given huge
dispersed populations in a sub-continent; inadequate resources and mind boggling needs.
The new technologies offer us the chance to telescope decades of infrastructure building
and development activities by providing us with the advantage of high speed delivery with no
dilution in quality; wide reach; individualization of learning in a anytime, anywhere situation;
and interactivity, a low per unit cost. These technologies and facilities can be equally used for
language teaching, for literacy and adult learning. This brings the role of the teachers or
educators into focus. The adult educator is a key person in the whole process of learning and
transacting education and a gateway to the learner. The responsibilities of the teachers or
adult educators are many, and very often they feel threatened and further challenged when
told that they have to use ICTs, sometimes even feeling that they may well lose their jobs or
be replaced by the ICTs.
Strengths and Weaknesses of ICTs
Like all innovations that we have come to accept, ICTs also have strengths and
weaknesses. We should list these because it is important to know what they are especially if
we are to plan and use them effectively.
Some of the strengths of the ICTs include
Individualization of learning: This means that people learn as individuals and not as
a homogenous group. ICTs allow each individual to relate to the medium and its
content.
Interactivity: Interactivity is the way in which a person can relate to the content, go
forward and backward in the content, start at any point depending upon prior
knowledge instead of always in a sequential way.
Low per unit cost: Per person, ICTs reduce the cost of education from very high to
very low.
Distance and climate insensitive: It does not matter where you are, or how the
weather is, you can still access and learn from ICTs.
Can serve multiple teaching functions and diverse audiences: ICTs, especially the
computer and Internet based can be useful in drill and practice; to help diagnose and
solve problems, for accessing information and knowledge about various related
themes.
High speed delivery, wide reach at low cost: There is instant delivery of
information.
Uniform quality: If content is well produced and is of good quality, the same quality
can be delivered to the rich and the poor, the urban and the rural equally and at the
same low cost.
But ICTs also have weaknesses which we must understand. Some of these include
High infrastructure and start-up costs: It costs money to build ICT systems and to
maintain them.

 Tend toward centralized uniform content in economies of scale: The larger the
numbers, the lower the cost. This means that sometimes we try to reach large numbers
so we make content common, not taking into account individual differences.
Are not ideally location and problem sensitive: Address problems in a general way,
but cannot, without special effort, solve local and culturally sensitive problems?
Problems of reach, access, remain: Not everyone has equal access; so not everyone
benefits equally from the use of ICTs.
Tend to create new class of knowledge rich/knowledge poor: Those who have
access and knowledge through the media become richer and those who do not become
poorer, widening the knowledge or digital gap between rich and poor.
Essentially delivery systems: A medium is different from the content; and often we
forget that we can deliver any content, because ICTs are essentially meant only to
deliver content, not to change attitudes or bring about behaviour change.
Hard to assess impact: Learning from ICT delivered content is difficult to assess
since such learning is of a multidimensional and long term kind, rather than from
immediate learning assessment as in a classroom test.
Officers, trainers need reorientation and retraining: Just as people learn to use
ICTs, trainers and officers also need training -something they sometimes resent.
Call for attitudinal change to understanding of teaching and learning: These are
different media and have a different way of teaching from what we are accustomed
totherefore, they need different ways of understanding what teaching and learning
is all about
And so, they are a mixed bag and it is necessary that we recognize both their strengths
and weaknesses, before planning to use them in our adult learning setup. It is more important
that we recognize because if we use a technology thinking it to be ideal one, but not
recognizing its limitations, we are likely to fail in our effort and then to believe that all ICTs
are useless and inadequate in education.
Different Types of ICT/ Media Technologies
We can study ICTs them in terms of the technologies, i.e. the delivery systems or in
terms of their content. Let us look at the different types of ICTs/Media Technologies first.
Delivery systems: Based upon their characteristics, media technologies can be grouped into
two categories, namely, synchronous and asynchronous (Table 1). Synchronous media
require all participants to be together at the same time even though in different locations.
Asynchronous ICTs allow for participants in the learning process to be at different times
and different places.
Table 1: Types of Media/ICT Technologies used in Education
Synchronous Media
Asynchronous Media
Audio-graphics
Audio and video tapes and
CDs
Audio conferencing, as in a telephone E-mail
conference
Computer file transfers
Broadcast radio and television
Virtual conferences
Teleconferencing
Multimedia products, off line
Computer conferencing such as chat
Web based learning formats
and Internet telephony

Types of Media /ICT Content: Just as we can divide ICT technologies into two types,
educational content is also categorized into two different types of educational content general awareness and instructional content. Table 2 describes the different features of
educational and instructional content.
Table 2: Types of Educational Content
Educational
Instructional
Broad audiences
Clearly defined target Enrichment,
awareness orientation
Clear Objectives
Nature of learning is broad, multidimensional, Target related format and treatment
even incidental process, and summative
methods
Evaluation critical, through formative
When a decision is taken to use ICTs for educational purposes, we must be able to
define and describe for what purpose the content will be used and also be very clear as to
what delivery system we are going to use. Such a decision should not be based on the
technologies but on the conditions and contexts in which we seek to use the ICTs; e.g. access
to media by the learners, etc. Factors that will determine the choice of ICT use and of the
content are important. We must ensure that there is adequate reach and access.
Some Common Myths about ICTs
In the environment surrounding the potential and use of ICTs, many myths and
misconceptions have developed and are being promoted across countries and institutions. It is
important for decision makers to be aware of these myths in order to avoid making decisions
based on them.
Access: A first myth is that todays ICTs enable us to transcend the barriers of reach
and provide access. The reach of any medium is not the same as access. A 100% of
reach of radio or a 90% reach of television does not mean that listeners or viewers
have access to the medium. For instance, if community radio has a reach of 25 km
radio from the station, but there is no FM radio set within the transmission area, there
is reach, but no access. Similarly, if the television set is placed in a location that
women cannot access, for social and cultural reasons, reach is not the same as access.
If the timing of a broadcast is wrong, there is no access. Or, if there is no electricity in
a village, there is no access. In addition to the conditions of socio cultural factors,
poverty, illiteracy, and time, mobility and relevance are key factors influencing
access.
Ownership and Control: Access is also determined by patterns of ownership and
control. A second myth is about people, especially poor, illiterate, rural women, not
being able to handle technology - therefore ownership and control cannot be given to
them. Ownership and control of the means of communication bring involvement and
commitment. They enable people to use the technologies to give voice to their own
needs and to create their own materials. And when ownership and control is
transferred to the community, the likelihood of change is greater and the ICTs break
down barriers when technology is demystified.
Technology driven vs. people driven: A third myth places the technology first. The
technology worked, but the effort did not yield results is a common assessment of
projects using ICTs. This is because the bulk of investment in any project generally
goes toward such overhead costs and few resources are left for project activities.
People issues must be addressed first. Choice and use of ICTs depends upon the
6

investment in people first, rather than on the deployment of sophisticated ICT based
solutions without adequate attention to the people issues.
Content matters: That content for technology is readily available, and if not it is easy
to develop is the fourth misconception about ICTs. A dangerous myth because content
is at the heart of the issue. There are two aspects of content development that merit
attention. First, much has been said about relevant, timely, local content. There simply
is not enough useful and relevant content available; especially content that addresses
the realities and needs of women and girls. Content takes time and costs money to
produce. Multimedia content suitable to be used by the new ICTs takes longer and
costs more. If we have to deliver knowledge in local languages, in this part of the
world, even fonts in local languages are not readily available; and if available, cannot
be integrated easily in to existing multimedia packages easily.
Participation: Who determines what is relevant, timely and local? Unless it is the
learner, there is less chance of actual use. Relevant, appropriate, time and problem
solving content is critical. This has to be developed in a partnership with the learners;
otherwise, it will not be used, because it is not rooted in ground realities.
Appropriate ICTs: Project managers in many ICT based efforts have yet to
determine what is the most appropriate medium to deliver knowledge?
Appropriateness of medium and content is related to issues of reach and access;
technologies of both hardware and software content relevance, cultural acceptability
and usability.
Ground support: The lessons of history tell us any medium can be used to bring
about awareness and to open a window to the world. However, without strong
ground support, media initiatives can fail to deliver. Ground support includes
community mobilization and participation; timely availability of support materials,
whether of fertilizers or books or literacy primers. Using a teleconference, as a
technology intervention is fine, provided that ground support has ensured that there
are learners at the receiving end and that follow through activities are carried out.
Otherwise, it is a colossal waste of time and money.

Using ICTs in Education

What does using ICTs in education, especially adult learning, mean? This is a good
question to begin our discussion of ICTs with.
There are three ways in which ICT in education is considered in current thinking.
These are i) ICT education; ii) ICT supported education, and iii) ICT enabled education.
i)

ICT Education: This is the most common understanding of the field of ICTs in
education. Essentially, it refers to the creation of human resource to meet the IT
needs of the knowledge economy. In developing countries of Asia, each country is
trying to create a pool of manpower to address job opportunities in computers
hardware and software, creating and training people in computer engineering.
Very often, an ICT in Education policy of a government describes the steps by
which computers will be placed in schools, how teachers and students will be
provided the basic computer programming skills to cater to the growing job
market in computer based technologies.

ii)

ICT Supported Education: A large number of distance education universities

and programmes use ICT to support the print content that they deliver to students.
These include broadcast audio and video such as radio and television programmes,
audio and video tapes delivered to students as part of a learning kit, and in more
7

recent times, multimedia content such as lessons which are delivered off line, i.e.
on CDs. This is also sometimes called multimedia education, where multiple
media are used to support learning.
iii)

ICT Enabled Education: Any educational programme that is purely delivered

through ICTs, or with ICT delivered content as the primary backbone of the
teaching-learning process, such as on line courses through the web, is ICT enabled
education. In simple words, this form of education requires ICT access and
requires that the learner use ICTs as a primary or basic medium of instruction.
When deciding to use ICTs, you must always decide the purpose for which you
have made the decision and what you expect to achieve from the content that will
be produced. Is it to teach computer skills, to support the learning process, or to
instruct through the ICTs itself?

Evaluating ICTs in Education

If, as we have seen in the earlier part of this lesson, using ICTs for education,
especially adult learning, is a complex process involving a lot of careful choices and decision
making without which we cannot succeed, then why use ICTs in education at all?
We have already seen that the strengths of the ICTs include expanding reach and
access, while retaining uniform quality. And that ICT content can be, if carefully made, suit
the audience it is intended for. Half a century of research into learning from media has
revealed that there are no undifferentiated effects and that learning from media is not a direct
cause effect relationship. Learning from any form of media intervention, whether print or
computer enabled, is multidimensional, non-linear, and indirect, unexpected and critically, it
is long term. It is of an enriching and even incidental kind. And it is the user or learner, not
the content producer or delivery agency, who determine the extent and nature of benefit. If
the media technology fails to meet needs, it will be replaced or substituted by another
medium, another activity. It is necessary that we recognize this aspect of learning from media
because no learner, no matter how poor, illiterate, or deprived is going to accept any content
which does not meet felt needs or provide some gratification. Hardly any results will be
visible in the short term. Results, if any, are not of a direct, cause effect variety. If ICTs are to
be effective as learning tools, they have to be used in a long-term sustained manner; and
learning from media often provides unexpected results.
Despite all this history, we need to evaluate ICTs and ICT content before taking any
decision to use them in adult learning settings. What we try to evaluate, whether it is readily
available content, or material that is going to be prepared is essentially
Knowledge, i.e. what has been learned. And we do this through knowledge tests and
longitudinal testing.
Understanding, i.e. what has been understood, testing to check if learner can
rephrase in own terms.
Application, i.e. has the learner been able to apply what has been learned; i.e. solve
problems. Very often, in educational evaluation and testing, immediate testing is done
or an experimental design is followed. In immediate testing, we give a test
immediately after teaching the lesson and then judge whether the person has learned
the content through scores on this test. If we give a test before teaching the lesson and
then immediately after teaching, we are using a simple experimental design. What do
we know about the use of ICTs in education, especially adult learning, in India? India
has a vibrant system in the use of ICTs and is considered a world leader. For instance,
a glance at the information and communication technologies scenario would show
8

that today, there is a system with Indias own satellite system providing round the
clock multipurpose services
Nearly 100% reach of radio
A satellite to cable and terrestrial system of television, with above 50 channels in
different languages within the private and public sector
One of the largest television systems in the world
About four 24 h dedicated satellite to cable educational television channels
A 24 h TDCC channel available for use in teleconference support for education
A private sector technology channel covering information technology and bio
technology
State level initiatives underway for the use of satellite based systems on the Ku Band
in almost all the states of the country, capable of providing bandwidth for data, voice
and picture transmission through the EDUSAT network
Wide reaching telephone access, through PCOs throughout the country
The fastest growing sector of the economy being that of information and
communication. And so we have the ICT systems in place. The question now remains
is - how do we best use them?

Implications for Education

The above challenges pose serious questions for the planning of education and training
systems and force rethinking in the way education is perceived, delivered, and managed.
Where does this leave education development? With six far-reaching implications:
1. Holistic Education Structure. The workforce of the future will need a whole
spectrum of knowledge and skills to deal with technology and the globalization of
knowledge. It also will need to be agile and flexible, and to be able to adjust to
continuous economic and social changes. This means that countries must embrace a
holistic approach to education, investing concurrently in the whole pyramid of basic
education, secondary education, skill training, and tertiary education.
2. Focus on Learning. The ancient objective of education, to teach how to learn,
problem solve, and synthesize the old with the new, is now transformed from
desirable to indispensable.
3. Education for Everyone. Modern economic, social, political, and technological
requirements demand that all members of society have a minimum level of basic
education.
4. Education Anytime. The need for continuous access to information and knowledge
makes learning lifelong and the traditionally neat distinction between learning and
work unreal. Education thus becomes a continuum, with no marked beginning and
end, which provides opportunities for lifelong learning to help individuals, families,
workplaces, and communities to adapt to economic and societal changes, and to keep
the door open to those who have dropped out along the way.
5. Education Anywhere. To cope with the diversity, complexity, and changing nature of
demands for education services, learning cannot be confined to the traditional
classroom. It is unrealistic and unaffordable to continue to ask learners to come to a
designated place every time they have to engage in learning. Delivery must extend
beyond the face-to-face institutional modality to include distance education,
enrichment mass media, and non-formal settings.
6. Preparation for the future. We are moving out of the industrial age into the age of
free trade, information systems, knowledge economy, and technological innovations.
The best and most efficient of our past and present schools have served a different
9

age. Schools of the future have to meet the needs of the future. But what is the future,
and can we predict it?
We cannot predict the future. The only thing we can predict is that it will be beyond our
wildest imaginations. The future is changing so dramatically and quickly that it poses a
nightmare for the traditional educational strategist and planner. We can no longer draw
occupational pyramids or do manpower planning. We are educating students for the
unknown; the best we can do is to equip them with the necessary conceptual, cognitive,
attitudinal, and social tools to continue learning anytime, anywhere, on demand. The
skills include:

A conceptual open-ended foundation of the physical, human, environmental, and

cultural world
Skills to access knowledge, assess it, and apply it.
Skills to analyse, critique, and apply knowledge to generate solutions and test options.
Interpersonal skills to interact and work collaboratively
Social skills to exercise good citizenship, tolerate diversity, and respect other
perspectives and rationalities

Enhancing Learning through use of ICTs - What We Have Learnt?

There are many aspects of ICT use in adult learning in India in which we already have
sufficient knowledge, based on experience of using different media for more than forty years
for educational and developmental purposes. Let us look at what we know.
The technology works: Twenty five years of satellite broadcasting and more than ten years
of teleconferencing, and five years of computer based systems has shown that the
technological end is the strongest part of the system in India. The technology works but there
is room for improvement. Findings from all the exercises has shown that there is much to be
improved in the technical quality. Generally speaking, there are fairly good facilities at the
teaching or the providers end. The same could not be said of the receiving/ learners end
where there was inadequate space for viewers, disruptions in power supply, and an
undependable telephone line, and a varying reception quality of data, video and audio in
transmitted programmes and interaction.
Content matters: Since the primary purpose of using the technologies in adult learning is to
disseminate particular contents in the form of learning packages, the single most important
element in the entire process is the content of the programmes or package of programmes.
We know that content must be of good quality and relevant to the needs, learning levels, and
life experiences of the learners and in local languages for there to be maximum use.
Conclusion
To summarize, when using ICTs in our adult learning work, make sure and
Mix, supplement with different media
Mix and experiment with formats and treatments
Greater emphasis upon substance, less on style
Use of graphics, animation
Summarizing and recap of main points
Build in interactivity

10

This project has attempted to highlight the factors that an adult educator or adult learner
may usefully keep in mind while choosing the appropriate medium and appropriate content.
Elsewhere in the world, determinants of choice are quality, utility, price, and innovative
content. In India, we can add availability and local relevance to these criteria. You can also
chose the delivery medium, keeping in mind the inherent characteristics of each medium. In
selecting already existing educational programmes, choice or the programme, in addition to
the above mentioned criteria, you would do better look for an evaluation based on questions
such as Are the instructional objectives as stated or implied in the lesson clear to the viewer?
Does the content of the programme relate closely to the main objectives?
Does the amount of time taken to develop each concept, procedure, or example seem
appropriate for the intended audience?
Is the content organised and so structured as to facilitate learning?
Is the material based on expert, up to date professional information?
Is the vocabulary level appropriate for the intended audience?
Does the presentation provide for optimum repetition of the main idea?
Does the programme effectively use pictures, film clips, demonstrations, diagrams
and other graphics?
Is the production quality of the programme good? Is there appropriate integration of
audio and video?
What is the quality of the presenter, in terms of expertise, ability to present material?
Are the techniques designed to provide viewer participation?
Does the presentation motivate the learner to do supplementary work, etc.?
Is there any testing incorporated into the programme?
Is there any provision for testing the learning gain from the programme?
Keeping in mind that merely the selection of the medium is not necessarily going to
enhance learning outcomes, and that each medium has its strengths and weaknesses, a mix of
media would be ideal for any distant learner. Criteria for selecting the medium of delivery
include aspects such as the reach of the medium, its availability, its ruggedness, the ease with
which it can be used by the individual learner or the counsellor at a distant location, and cost
effectiveness (both for the institution as well as for the learner). Any medium which draws
the learner into a participatory learning situation is likely to be more readily accepted by the
learners.
---------------------Use of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) in Education
1. Modern developments in information and communication technologies (ICT) provide
exciting possibilities to enhance the quality of education. Interactive education software, open
access digital libraries, and cheaper and more intuitive technology may facilitate new forms
of interaction between students, teachers, education employees and the community and
enhance the quality of education by making it more accessible.
2. Education may be enriched by integrating such technologies into traditional educational
activities. However, it must be recognised that ITC may never displace the relationship
between teacher and learner which is crucial to the learning and development process.
3. ICT has the capacity to enhance the learning process and facilitate communications
within education institutions and between educators and learners but it must be used in
education institutions under the supervision of qualified well-trained professionals with the
expertise in pedagogy and in education to ensure that its impact does not damage or
undermine the learning process or the development of learners.
11

4. Education unions should

i) Support the use of ICT as an integral part of the provision of quality education for all. They
should advocate for the use of ICT in education as a key modern aid to teaching and learning;
ii) Advocate for free access for all teachers and learners, support professionals and
administrators in education, to high quality dedicated ICT;
iii) Insist that ICT in education is appropriate to the learning requirements in the curriculum
in each subject, is supportive of the work of teachers and learners, and of administrative and
professional staff in education;
iv) Insist that educators are consulted about the introduction of ICT into education institutions
and involved in the design and development of appropriate ICT for education purposes;
v) Monitor the implementation of any agreements entered into by governments, national
education or school authorities for the provision of ICT by commercial companies.
5. Governments and national education authorities should
i) Develop national plans for the use and promotion of ICT in education in consultation with
education unions and education community interests and others with relevant expertise;
ii) Allocate the necessary funds to develop appropriate ICT for schools and education
institutions and ensure that the outcome of such development work is available freely to all;
iii) Allocate the necessary funds to ensure that every education institution has access to high
quality ITC, both hardware and software, irrespective of where it is situated;
iv) Allocate the necessary funds to provide continuous professional development in the use of
ICT for teachers and other education professionals;
v) Ensure that high quality internet access is available to all schools and education
institutions.
6. Where commercial ICT companies are engaged by Governments or national education
or school authorities to contribute to the provision of ICT in education or become voluntarily
involved in such provision, that engagement should be subject to agreements which
i) Recognise the professional integrity and independence of the education institutions and
personnel who are affected;
ii) Ensure that the primary purpose of the engagement is to provide support for teaching
and learning;
iv) Ensure that consultative processes with professional education staff are an essential
element in the development of the software and hardware provided;
v) Include provision for monitoring mechanisms for the implementation of any such
agreements which include professional education staff.
The Role and Nature of ICTs
ROLE OF ICTS IN EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT: POTENTIAL, PITFALLS AND CHALLENGES

4.1 Necessity of ICTs

These five far-reaching implications pose a daunting challenge for the education strategist. On one
hand, there is a backlog that must be fulfilled, a set of global challenges that must be faced, and
an escalating demand for education in both traditional and uncharted territories. On the other
hand is the need to provide the whole spectrum of education services to everyone, anywhere,
anytime, with a focus on learning acquisitionall under conditions of an ever-expanding base of
education clientele and limited physical and human resources.

12

It is going to be very difficultif not impossiblefor countries to meet the objective of effective
learning, for all, anywhere, anytime. Our inability to meet this challenge, however, is selfinflicted because we tend to think of linear scaling, that is, using the same model of education (a
school constrained by space and time) but more of it and on a larger scale. What we really need is
to think differently and radically. Through the advancement of ICTs, the world is experiencing a
real revolution in the dissemination of knowledge and the enhancement of instruction. This is the
third revolution in learning, the first being the invention of the written language and the second
being the development of moveable type and books. ICTs make both the content of learning
and the interactions of high-quality (and other) instruction affordable and available anytime,
anywhere.

4.2 ICTs for Instructional Objectives

Learning objectives differ in scope, level and complexity. They relate to hierarchical levels of
thinking and cognitive processing. When we design teaching/learning activities and experiences, as
well as ICT interventions, we must plan explicitly for the type of cognitive processing that we hope
to foster.
The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives was created by Benjamin Bloom in the 1950s to describe
these levels. During the 1990s, Lorin Anderson (a former student of Blooms) led a team of
cognitive psychologists in revisiting the taxonomy to examine the relevance of the taxonomy as we
enter the 21st century. Table 4.2.1 is a summary of the Revised Taxonomy.
Table 4.2.1. Revised Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Objectives
Selection of a technology and the way it is applied should be driven by the nature and level of the
learning objective it is meant to stimulate and enhance. Table 4.2.2 translates the above
taxonomy into ICT-fostered learning objectives. The lowest level of this taxonomy involves using
technology simply to store or display material for students to use; it places them in a passive role.
The highest taxonomic level represents active students synthesizing material and using ICTs to
construct projects such as hypermedia presentations.
Table 4.2.2 ICT-Fostered learning Objectives
ICT-Fostered
Learning
Objective

Description

1. Allow the storage

or display
Information

This level involves the passive hearing or viewing of stored information, individually or as
a group.

2. Foster
exploration of
materials and ideas

At this level the learner is engaged in the conscious pursuit of information that will lead to
a better understanding of an existent issue, question or concept.

3. Enable the
application of
understanding

At this level, ICTs can provide a powerful tool for applying a concept or understanding to a
new situation.

4. Organize
materials or ideas to
foster analysis

Here ICT tools allow individuals to analyze materials or ideas by organizing them and
manipulating them as a means of understanding their relationship.

5. Support
evaluation and
problem-solving

This level represents the use of ICTs to support the process of evaluation. This can be
done by compiling information and resources into a digital repository, developing
simulations that will immerse students in an environment that will help them evaluate
relevant dimensions and solve the problems that are posed, and collaborative Web-based

13

environments that support or foster evaluation and problem-solving.

6. Facilitate
constructing or
designing projects

At the highest level ICTs are used to foster the design or construction of integrating
projects, whereby students must explore wide range of ideas and resources, analyze and
evaluate them, and synthesize them in a project. ICTs can fully utilize the multimedia
environment to support this process.

Similarly, there are teaching objectives for the use of ICTs, such as

Presentation of a piece of information

Research for professional development and preparation of lessons

Management of student learning

Demonstration of a concept, idea, phenomenon, law, or theory

Drill and practice to achieve student competence in the application of knowledge
Simulations and animations to abstract reality and offer an efficient and inexpensive
environment to reach generalizations or to draw implications from a law or theory
Collaboration on projects with other teachers in the school or in other schools in the
country or elsewhere, or with scientists in the field

Tables 4.2.3 and 4.2.4 depict the potential of use of different technologies to foster different
learning and teaching objectives.
Table 4.2.3 Learning Objectives vs. Technologies
Technology

Learning Objective
Text

Audio

Video

Computer

Internet

Storage or display

Exploration

Application

Analysis
Evaluation

Constructing or design of project

Table 4.2.4 Teaching Objectives vs. Technologies

Technology

Teaching Objective
Text

Audio

Video

Computer

Internet

Presentation

Demonstration

Drill & practice

(e.g., language lab)

networked

Animation and simulation

Research

Collaboration/ communication
Management of student learning

14

Considering the variety and levels of learning objectives and teaching goals, the question for each
objective becomes: What is the most appropriate technology, and what is the best way to apply it
to get the best results in achieving the particular goal? If technology is to be used for presentation
and demonstration only, investment in computers and connectivity may not be justifiable. On the
other hand, the potential for interactive and collaborative learning can best be achieved by
networked computers and connectivity to the World Wide Web.
Since there is no one-to-one correspondence between instructional objectives and technologies
and their application, the next question becomes: What is the value added for using one
technology compared to a simpler and cheaper one? For instance, why use a video instead of a
photo, a digital text instead of a textbook, or a simulation instead of an animation?

4.4 ICTs and the School

ICTs do not substitute for the school or diminish its role. On the contrary, ICT tools can improve
performance of conventional schools by improving teaching, learning, and management. More
important, ICTs can broaden the concept of the school beyond the traditional confines of space
and time, by evolving its components into the corresponding components of an enhanced model
(see Table 4.4.1).
Table 4.4.1-Evolution of an Enhanced School Model
From

To

A school building

A knowledge infrastructure (schools, labs, radio, television, Internet,

museums)

Classrooms

Individual learners

A teacher (as provider of knowledge)

A teacher (as tutor and facilitator)

A set of textbooks and some audiovisual aids

Multimedia materials (print, audio, video, digital...)

Education will not be a location anymore, but an activity: a teaching/learning activity. This is the
ultimate raison deter of ICTs for education. The foundation of this educational system is a
knowledge infrastructure that includes the traditional school, broadcast television, digital radio,
virtual courses, Internet chat rooms, Web portals, tele-centers, and other information and
communication technologies that have not yet been conceived. In this learning structure, students
will learn through a variety of ways: face-to-face, in groups, or in a synchronous or asynchronous
online course. They will pursue expeditions with scientists on the Web, follow space flights,
perform simulated experiments, take virtual archaeological and geographic tours, do research in
digital libraries, and perform collaborative projects with students in other schools in their country
and all over the world.

5.1 Expanding Educational Opportunities

5.1.1 The Objective
Decision makers and beneficiaries alike now recognize that education is crucial for economic development,
human welfare, societal advancement, and environmental protection. Looking into the future, the demand for
education is going to escalate.
st

Countries have entered the 21 century with a basic education deficiency gapin terms of children out of school
and illiterate youths and adults. Equally pressing is the demand for higher levels of education, triggered by more

15

completers of first-level education, higher ambitions of parents and students, and more sophisticated
requirements of the marketplace. As developing countries are forced to contend with more developed countries in
a competitive knowledge-based global economy, they find themselves behind in providing educational
opportunities beyond the basic levels. Moreover, the fast changes in knowledge and skills require further
education, upgrading, and reorientation of a significant segment of the population. If only 10% of the adult
population needs such educational services, we are talking about a significant segment of the population.
The biggest challenge is to reach individuals and groups that are historically underserved:

girls and women, who face cultural and physical obstacles to educational institutions;
rural populations that are too thinly dispersed to populate "regular" schools with reasonable class sizes;
adult workers who have no time to attend regular courses; and
persons who cannot come to learning centers because of security hazards.

Here we need to be innovative and think radically. In some situations, we may need to go "over" the hurdles and
provide education where these potential learners areanywhere and everywhere.
5.1.2 The Potential
It is unrealistic to assume that conventional delivery mechanisms will provide educational opportunities for all in
affordable and sustainable ways. ICTs have the potential to contribute to the realization of this objective. They
can overcome geographic, social, and infrastructure barriers to reach populations that cannot be normally served
by conventional delivery systems. Additionally, they provide feasible, efficient, and quick educational
opportunities.
The potential of ICTs to reach large audiences was tapped initially in the late 1800s, when correspondence
courses became an alternative means to educate individuals who could not attend regular schools due to
geographical, social, or cultural barriers. Experiments with radio broadcast started in the early 1900s, and, in
1924, the British Broadcast Corporation (BBC) began to air educational programs. Since then, radio has been
instrumental in reaching scattered and rural populations.
Although experiments with televised broadcast began in the 1930s, it took another 20 years for television to
become popular. Two of the most prominent examples are Telecurso in Brazil and Telesecundaria in Mexico (see
section 5.1.3.2).
Computer-related technologies, which began to make inroads 30 years ago, are changing the concept of time
and space rapidly. There are now virtual high schools, virtual universities, and virtual programs provided by
campus-based universities. About 60% of U.S. universities provide virtual education programs. In addition, open
universities expand opportunities to populations that traditionally have been excluded from education due to
geographic, cultural, and social barriers: minorities, girls, rural populations and the elderly.
5.1.3 Specific Solutions
5.1.3.1 Radio
In the age of computers and the Internet, we tend to forget about simpler and less expensive technologies.
Radio, almost universally available, has the potential to expand access to education. All countries have radio
stations, and almost all households in developing countries have at least one radio. Radio is an inexpensive,
reliable technology; it is easy to use and maintain, and it can be used where there is no electricity infrastructure.
Radio can offer many educational advantages:

Stations may broadcast programs prepared by specialists in instructional design and production.

Programs may be aired more than once without additional development costs.

Well-designed educational packages may use sound effects, drama, and other audio-enhancement
mechanisms.
Radio breaks the isolation of schools by offering educational news, directives, pedagogical guidelines,
etc.

16

Radio does have some drawbacks, however:

Radio programs are restricted to the audio dimension of knowledge.

Radio programs follow a prearranged schedule, to which learners have to adjust.
There is no interactivity with broadcast programs. Since there is no explicit response from students, it is
difficult to know how effective the program is. There are, however, mechanisms to deal with this issue,
such as Interactive Radio Instruction (see Section 5.1.3.1.2 below).

5.1.3.1.1 Broadcast Radio

Broadcast programs usually entail an audio lecture or lesson, with printed materials for the students to follow. In
this way, a "general" teacher or an underqualified subject-matter teacher can use the radio program as a main
instructional source with his or her students. Broadcast programs follow the traditional model of education and
can cover every subject in many different languages, depending on the target audience. They also can be geared
toward adults for lifelong learning.
Advantages of broadcast radio

Programs prepared by specialists

May use sound and other effects
Programs aired again with no additional development cost
Breaks the isolation of schools

Disadvantages of broadcast radio

Restricted to audio dimension

Pre-arranged schedule
No interactivity

5.1.3.1.2 Interactive Radio Instruction (IRI) [2]

Interactive radio instruction (IRI), developed in the early 1970s, turns a typically one-way technology into a tool
for active learning inside and outside the classroom. It requires that the learners stop and react to questions and
exercises through verbal response to radio characters, group work, and physical and intellectual activities while
the program is on the air. For both teacher and student, the lesson becomes an immediate hands-on, experiential
guide. Short pauses are provided throughout the lessons after questions and during exercises to ensure that
students have the time to think and respond adequately. Interaction is also encouraged within the learning
environment among the teacher and learners as they work together to conduct short experiments, do activities,
and reach objectives using local resources and imaginative situations and stories.
IRI episodes guide learners through the learning process by means of a progression of activities related to
measurable learning objectives. Educational content is organized and distributed across lessons so that learning
builds on previous knowledge and new learners can construct an understanding of the subject being taught more
easily. Activities and objectives are first modeled by radio characters so that the teacher and learners have an
idea of the process they are undertaking and the skills and support that may be required. All of these elements
are knit together through storylines, music, characterization, and other attributes available through the audio
medium.
Advantages and disadvantages:
IRI has the same advantages and disadvantages as broadcast radio with one exception. Unlike broadcast radio,
IRI allows for limited interaction between the scripted program and the learner and teacher. Also radio can be
combined with other technologies, if available, to provide synchronous opportunities for interaction with tutors and
students through e-mail and chat rooms.
5.1.3.2 Television
Television, like radio, is widely available in households. There is also an abundance of national, regional, and
satellite TV stations on which to piggyback. TV educational programming enjoys the same benefits of radio

17

programming with the additional benefit of video. TV programs can bring abstract concepts to life through clips,
animations and simulations, visual effects, and dramatization. They can also bring the world into the classroom.
However, TV broadcast shares with radio programs rigid scheduling and lack of interactivity.
Experience has shown that TV can be successful in expanding educational opportunities through:

Targeting young adults who left primary or secondary schools before graduation, allowing them to follow
the curricula by watching television.

Facilitating effective installation and implementation of lower secondary schools in sparsely settled rural
areas, whereby a complete curriculum can be covered cost effectively because:

most of the teaching is done through TV programs, and

one teacher covers all of the subjects rather than having specialized teachers for each one.

5.1.3.3 Virtual High Schools

Virtual learning multimedia packages are excellent instructional aides to engage students in the learning process.
They use the best specialists and experts who develop and make them available to learners anywhere, anytime;
they provide opportunities for independent pursuit of knowledge on demand; they can connect learners with other
learners to exchange information and perform collaborative programs; and they may be the most cost effective
(and in some cases the only) means of bringing the whole world into the realm of the learner.
Potential and Characteristics
Virtual education covers a variety of approaches:

Full self-study program provided via the Internet and may be supplemented by printed materials

Structured program of Internet-based materials and tutors, plus physical study centers where students
can meet with tutors and other students and use library facilities

Full self-study program supplemented by interaction with a tutor and other students through e-mail and
chat rooms.

A virtual school can serve many clienteles:

Students who are unable to attend regular schools for a wide range of reasons, including travel, medical
conditions, or careers

Students who have been suspended from their regular schools for long periods because of serious
violation of the rules

Students who need remedial work during summer vacations as a condition for promotion to the next
grade level

High achievers and gifted students by offering them enriched courses and advanced self-study
programs

Because of their nature and cost, virtual schools need a large clientele to achieve reasonable unit per student
costs. In such case, a collective effort by many countries to establish and support virtual institutions has many
advantages:

The developmental upfront component of virtual education is high. Distributing the initial cost across
countries achieves linear economies of scale. Moreover, serving all of the countries increases the size
of the clientele and thus lowers the unit per student cost.

The development of multimedia materialsthe backbone of virtual programsrequires highly

specialized expertise, equipment, and software. Working together, countries will need only one team of
experts, spread among them, and will not duplicate the required physical facilities.

Students served by a regional virtual institution will interact and collaborate across country boarders,
thus strengthening their regional ties.

General Characteristics of Virtual Schools

Virtual schools generally provide all the services that a conventional school provides except physical facilities.
Students enroll in courses, have teachers, do homework, and interact with other students and teachers. Teachers

18

manage the learning process through a learning management system, address questions, give feedback,
evaluate homework, tutor, confer with parents, etc.
There are presently hundreds of virtual schools, predominantly in the U.S., but also in Canada, Australia, and the
UK. They are run by states, colleges and universities, and profit and nonprofit entities. It is important to
distinguish between Websites that provide individual courses and entities that offer a complete online program
through which a student can obtain a diploma.
Existing virtual schools vary in terms of scheduling and interaction.

Some schools offer scheduled synchronous courses at particular times. These schools use new
technologies to provide real-time interaction between teacher and students.

Most virtual schools offer unscheduled asynchronous courses that are available on the Web. In these
classes, exchanges between students and teacher and among students take place through e-mail, in a
chat room, or on a dedicated listserv.

Issues with Virtual Schools

Virtual schools have great potential, but basic issues must be faced and dealt with during planning and
implementation.

Online courses require high expertise to develop. To exploit the potential of ICTs fully, online courses
must combine good instructional design, multimedia tools, and interactive techniques. They must be
developed by highly trained and specialized teams to achieve economies of scale and expertise.

Online instruction requires special skills. Teachers who are effective in face-to-face teaching are not
automatically capable of facilitating an online course. They need to be trained in the specialized area of
online teaching, which includes understanding the technology that supports the course and the various
tools that can to enhance it, such as video, audio, use of online chats and discussion spaces, groupware
for common work on documents, etc.

Online learning requires self-discipline. Without the physical environment of the classroom, students
should be intrinsically motivated and able to exercise self-discipline and time management. Many may
have difficulty functioning without face-to-face peer interaction and teacher feedback.

Virtual schools require management and support systems. Virtual schools have management needs
similar to those of conventional schools, with the exception of management of physical facilities. But
they require additional management and support systems to develop and run the online environment.
Above all, they need to maintain and support the technical infrastructure needed for instruction,
interactivity, and management of the learning portfolios.

Virtual schools cost money. Although virtual schools may be less costly than campus-based ones, they
still require money to create a virtual platform, develop and test courses, train teachers and pay their
salaries, manage and maintain the system, and continue updating the content, the human resources,
and technology.

5.1.3.4 Virtual Universities

A virtual university provides a significant supplement to the existing campus institutions by broadening learning
opportunities, offering more flexible options, and serving a clientele whose needs are difficult or impossible to
meet through on-site learning. Virtual universities are not a substitute for on-site, campus-based institutions. Onsite institutions that are vibrant with research, exploration, and intellectual discourse are irreplaceable. The
personal contact with peers and teachers in a good on-site institution is incomparable in its richness. Libraries
also still serve as an unmatched resource for investigation and learning. Virtual learning, on the other hand,
provides opportunities for those who cannot attend courses on campus because of cost and time constraints.
Virtual learning increasingly provides rapid and personal interaction; can offer more reliable learning materials
than inferior institutions; is generally far lower in terms of cost to the student; and often offers more for lower
capital and recurrent costs.
There are at least three institutional models to explore:

dual-mode, which offers both classroom instruction and virtual education programs;
single-mode, which is a wholly dedicated virtual learning institution; and

19

international partnership mode, under which an external provider of virtual education programs enters
into partnership with local tertiary institutions to offer these programs jointly. This model offers many
advantages to the local partner institution, among them it starts with a set of already developed courses
and with the experience and expertise of the external partner.

Virtual universities face similar issues that virtual high schools face, and these must be taken into consideration
during planning and implementation.
5.3.3.3 Virtual Labs
All school systems want to provide labs because science is empirical. Few schools have them, however, fewer
have them equipped, and fewer yet are willing to risk using them. Technology allows for video and digital
demonstrations as well as digital simulations of lab activities in a very real manner, but without the risks and costs
associated with lab experiments. Simulations of science lab experiments can also use real data. Data logging is a
type of software that enables the use of actual sensors and probes connected to the computer. Rather than an
individual having to feed the information to the computer manually, the sensor directly uploads the measurement,
thus reducing the margin of error and reproducing circumstances that are closer to an actual experiment.
Computer simulations are particularly helpful for learning science in the following situations:

Experiments that are too risky, expensive, or time-consuming to be conducted in a school laboratory,
such as those involving volatile gases

"Tidy" experiments that require precision so that students can see patterns and trends or ones where
students may not be able to achieve the necessary precision without simulation tools

Experiments that break the laws of nature, such as exploring kinematics collisions that violate
conservation of momentum law

When ethical issues are at stake, such as in the case of some biology experiments

Simulations should not replace hands-on activities totally. Rather, they should prepare the learner to conduct
real-life experimentsin the same manner that flight simulations prepare the student-pilot for test flying.
5.3.3.4 Connecting with the World
ICTs can take students on exciting journeys through time and space. Movies, videos, audio technology, and
computer animations bring sound and movement to static textbook lessons and enliven children's reading
classes. They also enable social studies and foreign language students to experience distant societies and
bygone times vicariously. The Internet offers virtual reality settings where students can manipulate parameters,
contexts, and scenarios.
Videos and computer animations enable students to "witness" a volcano eruption to learn about pressure, rock
formation, or psychological and sociological responses to crises. A simple radio or tape recorder can allow
students in a foreign language class to listen to native speech regardless of their teachers' origin. Better yet, with
interactive technologiessuch as two-way radios or videoconferencingstudents can communicate with native
speakers without leaving their classrooms. Videos, DVDs, computer software, and the Internet bring to schools
anywhere in the world information that can be obtained only through the use of powerful scientific instruments
that no single school can afford. For instance, at the Website of the Space Telescope Science Institute
(http://opposite.stsci.edu), students can observe planets and stars through the lens of the Hubble space
telescope, and at the Molecular Expressions Website (http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu), they can examine tiny
insects under fluorescence microscopy or study details of DNA structure.
More than any other technology, the Internet opens new opportunities for collaborative work. From group
discussions to full collaborative research projects, the Internet has the potential to connect classrooms to
research centers and students to actual scientists.
5.3.3.5 Designing and Creating Things
Learners can use computers to design and create thingsWeb pages, music, simulated environments and
events, etc. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Media Lab and the Boston Museum of Science
have established a network of learning centers in economically disadvantaged communities. At these centers,
called Computer Clubhouses, young people use leading-edge software to create their own artwork, animations,
simulations, multimedia presentations, musical compositions, Websites, and robotic constructions.

20

Educational Policy
Technology is only a tool; no technology can fix a bad educational philosophy or compensate for
bad practice. In fact, if we are going in the wrong direction, technology will only get us there
faster. Likewise, distance learning is not about distance, it is about learning. Just as we can have
bad education face to face, we can have bad education at a distance. Therefore, educational
choices first have to be made in terms of objectives, methodologies, and roles of teachers and
students before decisions can be made about the appropriate ICT interventions.
For instance, if teaching is demonstrating and telling, and if learning is memorizing and reciting,
using learning technologies and multimedia programs for this purpose will not have the desired
impact. Also, if students are not asked to search and work collaboratively, and if teachers function
independently, investment in connectivity will not be cost effective. The effectiveness of different
levels of sophistication of ICTs depends to a large extent on the role of learners and teachers as
practiced in the educational process and on the reasons behind using ICTs for student learning and
for teaching; see figures 6.1.1 and 6.1.2. Before investing in ICTs, therefore, it is essential to
determine:

The roles expected of teachers and learners

The educational purposes for which ICTs are to be used

Figures 6.1.1

Figures 6.1.2

21

22

Educational technology, also termed instructional technology, information and

communication technology (ICT) in education, EdTech, and learning technology, is "the
study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using
and managing appropriate technological processes and resources." A closely related term, elearning, refers to the use of modern technology, such as computers, digital technology,
networked digital devices and associated software and courseware with learning scenarios,
worksheets and interactive exercises which facilitate learning.
Educational technology is utilized by learners and educators in many settings, such as home,
school, higher education, and business and professions. As a terminology, educational
technology encompasses both material objects, such as machines and networking hardware,
and also aspects such as instructional theory and learning theory.

Theory and practice

The theory of educational technology can be grouped into three main theoretical schools or
philosophical frameworks: behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism.

Behaviorism
This theoretical framework was developed in the early 20th century based on animal learning
experiments by Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike, Edward C. Tolman, Clark L. Hull, and B.F.
Skinner. Many psychologists used these results to develop theories of human learning, but
modern educators generally see behaviorism as one aspect of a holistic synthesis.
B.F. Skinner wrote extensively on improvements of teaching based on his functional analysis
of verbal behavior and wrote "The Technology of Teaching", an attempt to dispel the myths
underlying contemporary education as well as promote his system he called programmed
instruction. Ogden Lindsley developed a learning system, named Celeration, that was based on
behavior analysis but that substantially differed from Keller's and Skinner's models.

Cognitivism
Cognitive science underwent significant change in the 1960s and 1970s. While retaining the
empirical framework of behaviorism, cognitive psychology theories look beyond behavior to
explain brain-based learning by considering how human memory works to promote learning.
The Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeley's working memory model were established
as theoretical frameworks. Computer Science and Information Technology have had a major
influence on Cognitive Science theory. The Cognitive concepts of working memory (formerly
known as short term memory) and long term memory have been facilitated by research and
technology from the field of Computer Science. Another major influence on the field of Cognitive
Science is Noam Chomsky. Today researchers are concentrating on topics like cognitive
load and information processing. In addition, psychology as applied to media is easily measured

23

in studying behavior. The area of media psychology is both cognative and affective and is central
to understanding educational technology.

Constructivism
Educational psychologists distinguish between several types of constructivism: individual (or
psychological) constructivism, such as Piaget's theory of cognitive development, and social
constructivism. This form of constructivism has a primary focus on how learners construct their
own meaning from new information, as they interact with reality and with other learners who bring
different perspectives. Constructivist learning environments require students to use their prior
knowledge and experiences to formulate new, related, and/or adaptive concepts in learning.
Under this framework the role of the teacher becomes that of a facilitator, providing guidance so
that learners can construct their own knowledge. Constructivist educators must make sure that
the prior learning experiences are appropriate and related to the concepts being taught.
Jonassen (1997) suggests "well-structured" learning environments are useful for novice learners
and that "ill-structured" environments are only useful for more advanced learners. Educators
utilizing a constructivist perspective may emphasize an active learning environment that may
incorporate learner centered problem based learning, project-based learning, and inquiry-based
learning, ideally involving real-world scenarios, in which students are actively engaged in critical
thinking activities.

Educational

technology

is

also

termed as

instructional

technology, information

and

communication technology (ICT) in education, Ed.Tech. and learning technology.

It is "the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating,
using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources."
A closely related term is e-learning, refers to the use of modern technology, such as computers,
digital technology, networked digital devices and associated software and courseware with learning
scenarios, worksheets and interactive exercises which facilitate learning.
Educational technology is utilized by learners and educators in many settings, such as home, school,
higher education, and business and professions. As a terminology, educational technology
encompasses both material objects, such as machines and networking hardware, and also aspects such
as instructional theory and learning theory.

Benefits
Benefits of incorporating technology into the classroom may include:

Easy-to-access course materials. Course material on a website allows learners to study at a time
and location they prefer and to obtain the study material very quickly.

24

Student motivation. According to James Kulik, who studies the effectiveness of computers used
for instruction, students usually learn more in less time when receiving computer-based
instruction and they like classes more and develop more positive attitudes toward computers in
computer-based classes. Teachers must be aware of their students' motivators in order to
successfully implement technology into the classroom. Students are more motivated to learn
when they are interested in the subject matter, which can be enhanced by using technologies in
the classroom and targeting the need for screens and digital material that they have been
stimulated by outside of the classroom.

More opportunities for extended learning. According to study completed in 2010, 70.3% of
American family households have access to the internet. According to Canadian Radio Television
and Telecommunications Commission Canada, 79% of homes have access to the internet. This
allows students to access course material at home and engage with the numerous online resources
available to them. Students can use their home computers and internet to conduct research,
participate in social media, email, play educational games and stream videos.
Using online resources such as Khan Academy or TED Talks can help students spend more time
on specific aspects of what they may be learning in school, but at home. These online resources
have added the opportunity to take learning outside of the classroom and into any atmosphere
that has an internet connection. These online lessons allow for students who might need extra
help to understand materials outside of the classroom. These tutorials can focus on small
concepts of large ideas taught in class, or the other way around. Schools like MIT have even
made their course materials free online so that anybody can access them. Although there are still
some aspects of a classroom setting that are missed by using these resources, they are still helpful
tools to add additional support to the already existing educational system.

Wide participation. Learning material can be used for long distance learning and are accessible
to a wider audience.

Improved student writing. It is convenient for students to edit their written work on word
processors, which can, in turn, improve the quality of their writing. According to some studies,
the students are better at critiquing and editing written work that is exchanged over a computer
network with students they know.

Differentiated Instruction. Educational technology provides the means to focus on active

student participation and to present differentiated questioning strategies. It broadens
individualized instruction and promotes the development of personalized learning plans in some
computer programs available to teachers. Students are encouraged to use multimedia components
and to incorporate the knowledge they gained in creative ways. This allows some students to
individually progress from using low ordered skills gained from drill and practice activities, to
higher level thinking through applying concepts creatively and creating simulations. In some
cases, the ability to make educational technology individualized may aid in targeting and
accommodating different learning styles and levels.
Overall, the use of internet in education has had a positive impact on students, educators, as well
as the educational system as a whole. Effective technologies use many evidence-based strategies
(e.g., adaptive content, frequent testing, immediate feedback, etc.), as do effective teachers. It is

25

important for teachers to embrace technology in order to gain these benefits so they can address
the needs of their digital natives

Additional Benefits

The Internet itself has unlocked a world of opportunity for students. Information and ideas that
were previously out of reach are a click away. Students of all ages can connect, share, and learn
on a global scale.

Using computers or other forms of technology can give students practice on core content and
skills while the teacher can work with others, conduct assessments, or perform other tasks.

Using technology in the classroom can allow teachers' to effectively organize and present lessons.
Multimedia presentations can make the material more meaningful and engaging.

Technologys impact in schools has been significant, advancing how students learn, how
teachers teach and how efficiently and effectively educational services can be delivered, said
Carolyn April, director, industry analysis, CompTIA. With emerging technologies such as
tablets and netbooks, interactive whiteboards and wireless solutions gaining ground in the
classroom, the reliance on IT by the education market will only grow in the years ahead.

Studies completed in "computer intensive" settings found increases in student-centric, cooperative

and higher order learning, students writing skills, problem solving, and using technology. In
addition, positive attitudes toward technology as a learning tool by parents, students and teachers
are also improved.

Types of Educational Technology

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
MULTIFACETED CONCEPT
LUMBSDAINE (1964)
Has listed 3 distinct approaches
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY I or HARDWARE APPROCH
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY II or SOFTWARE APPROCH
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY III or SYSTEM APPROCH
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY I or HARDWARE APPROCH
MACHINES
APPLIANCES
EQUIPMENTS
SILVERMAN
HAS STATED
IT HAS ORIGINE IN PHYSICAL SCIENCES AND ENGINEERING.
IT IS BASED ON THE CONCEPT OF SERVICE USING TECHNOLOGY IN EDUCATION

26

MECHANICAL and TECHNOLOGICAL REVOLUTION

Has almost mechanized the teaching learning process
USE OF HA is a lot to reach the educational benefit to masses with great ease and in a cost effective
way.
Hardware aids
We usually includes those machine like appliances and equipment's which are considered to
be technical in terms of their composition and working
Audio and visual Hardware aids,

Audio aids
Radio :General
broadcast
Educational
broadcast

Visual
aids
Projector : O H P
Micro Projector

Overhead projector
TAPERECORDER
:record player

OPAQUE or
Transparent
Projector

Audio _ visual Hardware aids

Television
Video slides
Closed circuit television (CCTV)
VIDEOTAPE or CASSATTE RECORDER

Computer
Storehouse of knowledge
Good source of self instruction
Helps all stakeholders
Best substitute for traditional teaching aid
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY II or software approach
OWES its ORIGINE to the Behavioral sciences and their applied aspect concerning the p
psychology of learning
SOLID TECHNOLOGY
INSTRUCTIONAL Procedure
Hence known as
INSTRUCTIONAL Or
BEHAVIOURAL TECHNOLOGY
ORIGNATED FROM THEORIES OF LEARNING
A PROCESS ORIENTED TECHNIQUE
Which
Develops and utilizes software aids for bringing the desirable changes in the students

27

Software aids
Blackboard or chalk board
Bulletined board or Information board
Flannel board
Pictures
PROPER AND JUDICIOUS SELECTION OF PICTURE
Should follow the following criteria
1. General value Who are the students .
2. Suitability, Realistic ,Artistic
3. TECHNICALLY CORRECT
4. Clear and meaningful
GRAPHIC SOFTWARE AIDS
MAPS
GRAPHS
CHARTS
GLOBES
DIAGRAMES
PHOTOGRAPHS
POSTERS FLASHCARDS
NEWS PAPERS

MODELS
CATOONS
DIORAMA -3 dimensional miniature model making use of small objects.

VISUAL AND PROJECTIVE SOFTWARE AID

SLIDES
FILMSTRIPS
VEDIOS
TRANCEPERANCIES
CAI
PROGRAMMED LEARNING PACKAGES
TELECONFERANCING
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY iii or system approach
Related with the concept of system engineering
Owes it ORIGIN to the computer science.
Here TECHNOLOGY STANDS FOR SYSTEMATIC WAY TO DESIGN, CARRY OUT AND EVALUATE
THE TOTAL PROCESS OF EDUCATION IN TERM OF SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE.
IN SA CONTINUOUS COMPARISION OF DIFFRENET ROLES PLAYED BY MEN MACHINE AND MEDIA IN
A SYSTEM OF EDUCATION AND DEVELOP AN APPROPRIATE INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY

28

System approach can help us

Role

INDIVIDUALIZATION OF INSTRUCTION
MULTISENSORY
AN EFFICIENT AND PRODUCTUVE TO MANAGES EDUCATIONAL PROCESSES
PROPER INPUT
FULFILLES THE EXPECTATIONS OF DISTANCE ,CORRESPONDENCE LEARNING
PURPOSEFUL AND PRODUCTIVE

Technology in education
Concepts and Definitions
Educational Technology has no agreed upon definition.

Technology is commonly thought of in terms of gadgets, instrument, machines, and

devices.most (educators) will defer to technology as computers
- Muffoletto (1994)-p.5 Integrating Education
Technology into Teaching (IETIT)

Only about a decade ago, a history of technology in education since 1920 placed the emphasis on
radio and television, with computers as an afterthought.
--Cuban, 1986 (IETIT) p.5
However, Saettler (1990) urges
The historical function of educational technology is a process rather than a product.

Any useful definition of educational technology, therefore, must focus on the process of applying
tools for educational purposes, and the materials used.

29

In education, the combination of process and product merges instructional procedures with
instructional tools.
Technology in Education as Media and Audiovisual Communications
Audiovisual movement: ways of delivering information that could be used as alternatives
to lectures and books.
Audiovisual communications: the branch of educational theory and practice concerned
primarily with the design and use of messages which control the learning process.
(Saettler, IETIE,p6)
AECT- Association for Ed. Commo. and Technology.
Technology in Education as Instructional Systems
1960s and 1970s
Human and non-human resources (teachers and media).
Systematic approach to designing, developing, and delivering instruction matched to
carefully identified needs.
International Society for Performance Improvement.
Validating and creating instruction.

Technology in Education as Vocational Training Tools

Technology in Education:
1. School learning prepares students for the world of work.
2. Vocational training can be a practical means of teaching.
ITEA (International Technology Education Association).
Technology in Education as Computers and Computer-based Systems
Instructional and supportive applications of computers.
Computers began to be used in classrooms in 1960s until 1990 and was known as
educational computing.
By the mid-1990s, educational computing became known as educational technology.
ISTE (International Society for Technology in Education) holds the following views:
Approaches to Technology in Education

An emphasis on Computer Systems

Computers as media are becoming more complex and more capable.
Computer systems are subsuming other forms of media.
The perceived complexity of computer-based systems has made it more difficult for
educators to effectively integrate software and computer media into classrooms.

30

Background on Computer-based Educational Technology

Whats a computer?
Hardware Providing the Electronic Capability
Software Communicating with the Hardware
Any electromechanical device that accepts input, processes input and produces output.
Software in a Computer System
Systems Software ( Types of Operating Systems)
Applications Software (used for Education, Entertainment, or Edutainment)
Systems Software (Types of Operating Systems)
Unix
Ms-DOS
Apple Dos, ProDOS
Macintosh DOS, System 7
Windows 95
Applications Software for Education
Tool Software:
1. Word Processing
2. Spreadsheets
3. Database Management
4. Integrated Packages
5. Graphics Software
6. Communications Software
7. Other Tools
Tool Software:
1. Word Processing
2. Spreadsheets
3. Database Management
4. Integrated Packages
5. Graphics Software
6. Communications Software
7. Other Tools
Programming Software:
1. BASIC
2. Logo
3. FORTRAN
4. COBOL, SNOBOL
5. C
6. Pascal
7. PL/1
Courseware:
1. Tutorial
2. Drill & Practice
3. Simulation
4. Instructional Games
5. Problem Solving
Hardware: Providing the Electronic Capability
1. Input functions:
Keyboard
Mouse

31

Joystick and game paddle

Bar-code reader
Scanner
Touch screen and light pen

2. Output Functions
Printers
Monitors
3. Input and Output Functions
Disk drives
The CPUs Steps
Step 1.
The controller gets an instruction from the systems internal memory and puts it in a register.
Step 2.
The controller directs the ALU to do necessary computations.
Step 3.
The controller gets the result from the register and stores it once again in internal memory.
CPU: Central Processing Unit
ALU : stands for Arithmetic/Logic Unit
Control Unit: directs the activities of the whole system.
The Internal and External Memory and Communication Functions
The internal memory functions:
A limited amount of space is arranged inside the computer for storage of instructions. For
example: RAM and ROM.
The external memory functions:
External storage devices can store larger quantities of information. For Example: Hard Disks and
CD-ROM.
Types of Computer Systems
Personal Computers
Mini and Mainframe Computers
Supercomputers
Cost , the number of users that can be supported, size, speed, and storage capacity
distinguish between these.
The Developments During the Period before Microcomputer
IBM 1500 system in universities and
Stanford University and the CCC
Control Data Corporation (CDC) and the PLATO System
Brigham Young University and the TICCIT System
Computerized instructional management systems
The Microcomputer Revolution in Education
The Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium (MECC) and the software publishing
movement.
MicroSIFT, EPIE, and other courseware evaluation efforts.
Courseware authoring activities.
The Computer Literacy Movement
Logo and Problem-Solving

32

 The emergence of integrated learning systems.

Current Types of Educational Technology Systems
Standalone Personal Computers
Portable units (PDAs)
Workstations
Labs
Networked Stations: From LANs to MANs
Networks are for sharing(Kee 1994), and this sharing was designed to make computing
activities more efficient and cost-effective.
A network centralizes resources and cuts down on handling of individual disks.
Types of LANs
Physical design

Function (transmission method or protocol)

33

* Token ring method

* Ethernet method

Three kinds of cable for connecting LANs

Coaxial cable: Designed to transfer signals with minimal interference.
Twisted pair cable: An inexpensive way of handling ARCnet, Ethernet, and token ring
connections.
Fiber optic cable:Allow networks to send large amounts of information at high speeds.

Current Applications of Educational Technology Systems

Instructional Technology Applications:
--Instructional software
--Interactive video-based materials
--Courses through distance learning
Productivity Tools:
--Prepare print instructional materials
--Keep records and analyze data
--Prepare and make instructional and informative presentations
--Organize time and materials
Tools for Students:
-- Writing assignments
-- Helping with research
-- Assisting with learning tasks in various content areas
-- Developing products and presentations.

34

Necessity of ICTs
Globalization of
Economy
Information

Tech Innovations

Knowledge-based
Economy
Society
Escalating Demand
for Education

35

Potential:
1. Expanding Educational Opportunities
Radio Broadcast
Interactive Radio Instruction
Television
Virtual Schools
Virtual Universities
2. Increasing Efficiency
Issues
Dual Shift Systems
Multigrade Schools
Small Urban or Rural Schools
Flexibility in Learning Schedule
Solutions
Broadcast Radio
Interactive Radio
Educational TV
Virtual Online Courses
3. Enhancing Quality of Learning
Potential
Motivate and engage learners
Bring life to concepts and processes
Foster inquiry
Provide flexibility
Allow application of information
Provide access to world of information
Bring the world into the classroom
Offer collaborative opportunities and communication
Offer tutored and individualized learning
Solutions
Radio and TV
Multimedia Learning Modules
Virtual Labs
Connecting to the Worlds
Designing and Creating Things
4. Enhancing Quality of Teaching
Issues
Difficult Profession
No One-Shot Training
Continuum
Initial Training
Lifelong Upgrading
Connecting
Solutions
Multimedia Training and Support System
Training Videos
Teacher Development Portal
Internet Resources for Teachers
5. Facilitating Skill Formation
New Workplace Realities

36

E-Training
Just-in-Time
Convenient Place
Up-to-Pate
User-centric
Solutions
Simulations
Competency-based multi-media
Video and Interactive media
Workplace Training
6. Sustaining Lifelong Learning
Issues
Workers need to learn new skills
Modern societies demand constant updating
The educated can become obsolete
Life-cycle pattern is changing
Solutions
Radio and TV
Multimedia Packages
Online Courses
Open Universities
Third Age Universities
7. Improving Policy Planning & Management
Management of Institutions and Systems
School: Admissions, student flow, personnel, staff development, facilities
System: School mapping, personnel payroll, MIS, communication, information, . . .
Management of Policy Making
Storage and analysis of data
Construction and assessment of policy scenarios
Tracer studies and tracking systems
8. Advancing Community Linkages
Growth in ICT Access
1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0
1991

1992

1993

1994

Main telephone lines (millions)

1995

1996

1997

Mobile cellular subscribers (millions)

1998

1999

2000

Personal computers (millions)

2001

2002

2003

Internet users (millions)

Telephones, Cellular phones and PCs per 1,000 inhabitants

37

14
0

12
0

10
0

Telephone subscribers/100
Inhabitants
Cellular subscribers/100
Inhabitants
PCs/100
inhabitants

8
0

6
0

4
0

2
0

0
Afric
a

America w/o
US&
Canada

US and
Canada

Asi
a

Euro
pe

ICT access varies within countries

Disparities is magnified by gender factor

ICT access contributes to escape from poverty

ICT access for all requires attention to

Infrastructure

Cost

Laws and regulations

Ocean
ia

WOR
LD

Radio Stations and Receivers

Suitcase Radio Station

Crank Radio
Digital
Satellite Radio
Crank/Solar Radio

38

Telecenters

Women-Friendly Telecenters
Within accepted culture; fosters harmony
Women do not have to travel far
Center meets needs of men and women
No childcare problem
Space is roomy and provides privacy
Staff is well integrated

39

From Potential to Effectiveness

1. Educational Policy
2. Approach to ICTs
3. Infrastructure
4. ICT-Enhanced Content
5. Committed and Trained Personnel
6. Financial Resources
7. Integration
8. Piloting and Evaluation

ICT Education More Effective and Responsive

We do not think anymore of the spectacle of printing every time we read a book, the phenomenon
of TV every time we watch a movie, or the miracle of the telephone every time we make a call.
The ultimate success of ICTs for learning will be attained when we stop marveling about the ICTs and
apply our minds and emotions to the wonders of learning.

40

10 Types of Computers
There are a lot of terms used to describe computers. Most of these words imply the size, expected
use or capability of the computer. While the term computer can apply to virtually any device that
has a microprocessor in it, most people think of a computer as a device that receives input from the
user through a mouse or keyboard, processes it in some fashion and displays the result on a screen.
1. PC
The personal computer (PC) defines a computer designed for general use by a single person. While
a Mac is a PC, most people relate the term with systems that run the Windows operating system.
PCs were first known as microcomputers because they were a complete computer but built on a
smaller scale than the huge systems in use by most businesses.
2. Desktop
A PC that is not designed for portability is a desktop computer. The expectation with desktop
systems are that you will set the computer up in a permanent location. Most desktops offer more
power, storage and versatility for less cost than their portable brethren.
3. Laptop
Also called notebooks, laptops are portable computers that integrate the display, keyboard, a
pointing device or trackball, processor, memory and hard drive all in a battery-operated package
slightly larger than an average hardcover book.
4. PDA
Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) are tightly integrated computers that often use flash memory
instead of a hard drive for storage. These computers usually do not have keyboards but rely on
touch screen technology for user input. PDAs are typically smaller than a paperback novel, very
lightweight with a reasonable battery life. A slightly larger and heavier version of the PDA is the
handheld computer.
5. Workstation
The fifth type of computer is a workstation. A workstation is simply a desktop computer that has a
more powerful processor, additional memory and enhanced capabilities for performing a special
group of task, such as 3D Graphics or game development.
6. Server
A computer that has been optimized to provide services to other computers over a network.
Servers usually have powerful processors, lots of memory and large hard drives. The next type of
computer can fill an entire room.
7. Mainframe
In the early days of computing, mainframes were huge computers that could fill an entire room or
even a whole floor! As the size of computers has diminished while the power has increased, the
term mainframe has fallen out of use in favor of enterprise server. You'll still hear the term used,
particularly in large companies to describe the huge machines processing millions of transactions
every day.

41

8. Minicomputer
Another term rarely used anymore, minicomputers fall in between microcomputers (PCs) and
mainframes (enterprise servers). Minicomputers are normally referred to as mid-range servers now.
9. Supercomputer
This type of computer usually costs hundreds of thousands or even millions of dollars. Although
some supercomputers are single computer systems, most are comprised of multiple high
performance computers working in parallel as a single system. The best known supercomputers are
built by Cray Supercomputers.
10. Wearable Computer
The latest trend in computing is wearable computers. Essentially, common computer applications
(e-mail, database, multimedia, and calendar/scheduler) are integrated into watches, cell phones,
visors and even clothing! For more information see these articles on computer clothing, smart
watches and fabric PCs.

Different types of computers

Hi everyone, I had been busy the past couple of days and did not have the time to write articles. However,
with the weekend approaching, I will be taking this opportunity to write a good many articles. Something
over the past few days inspired me to write about computers.
Now computers are a passion of mine and I thought it would be a good idea to write about them. Also,
being in the I.T. industry for a great many years, I feel obliged to write to my best extent on computers.
Now, I am beginning a series of articles here similar to the financial series of articles that I would be
posting up soon.
Now, let us define computers: A computer is the most basic understanding is an electronic device that
processes data, converting it into information that is useful to people.
Even at this very moment, you are using a computer to read this article, and the history of computers dates
way back to the 17th century in what was known as Generation zero. If you are wondering, we are currently
in the fifth generation with artificial intelligence, quantum computation, nanotechnology, etc;
Now, I will write on the history of computing which would be interesting to some people, and fascinating
to others in another article.
In this article, I am going to talk more about the different computers that are present in the current world:
Desktop computers
Workstations
Notebook computers
Tablet computers
Handheld computers
Smart phones
Supercomputers
Mainframe computers
Minicomputers
Desktop computers
Different type of computers

42

The most common computer used in todays world are the desktop computers which were specially built
for personal use be it at home or work. These computers are everywhere, from your office, to your house,
schools, laboratories and even public places like a public library, universities and so on. There is a great
chance that you have accessed this website using a desktop computer.
Todays computers are brilliant at task management than many years ago. Todays desktop computers can
be used to communicate, produce music, edit photographs and videos, play sophisticated games, and much
more.
As the name implies, a desktop computer is a full size computer that is too big to be carried around.
Nowadays, most desktop computers are equipped with two primary hardware solutions the monitor and a
casing inside which is stored the central processing unit (CPU), the motherboard, the graphic card, storage
devices, buses, power supply and so on.
A desktop computer is also equipped with a keyboard and mouse which are connected to their appropriate
ports at the back of the casing.
Workstations
A workstation is a specialized, single user computer that typically has more power and features than a
standard desktop computer. These machines are more popular in the lab of scientists, engineers or even
animators who require a system with greater than average speed and power to perform sophisticated
calculations, rendering, or high level tasks.
Workstations often have larger and higher resolution monitors, and accelerated graphics. In relation to this,
I would give you an example : - such as the Quadro series of graphic cards. They are commonly used in
workstations.
This higher specifications allow for advanced architectural engineering design, modeling ,animation and
even video editing.
Notebook computers
Notebook computers as the name implies is approximately the size of an 8.5-11 inch notebook and can
easily fit inside a briefcase. Since most people including yourself would set this device on your lap and use
it conveniently in eateries, cafes, at the work place, in education institutions and so on, hence the name
laptop.
Notebook computers can operate on alternating current or special batteries. These special device also
weighs less than 8 pounds and some even lesser than three pounds.
Using a laptop is as simple as opening a book. Think of it as opening your notebook. Similarly, when a
laptop is opened, the upper lid will present a screen or lcd monitor. At the bottom is the keyboard and
beneath the keyboard is the specialty hardware such as the motherboard, cpu, hard-disk and so on.
The portability of laptops is one of the most major reasons for the increased use of laptops nowadays. They
are the mobile computers that can be carried anywhere and used conveniently.
Tablet PC
Different type of computers
Tablet PCs are some of the more newer developments in portable, full featured computers. Tablet PCs
just like a notebook offers the full range of functionalities except that they are lighter and accepts input
from pen/pointers known as a stylus.
Most interactions are done directly via the screen of the computer and some tablet PCs also allow for
input via the users voice. As you know, even phones these days accept voice commands to get things
done.
Tablet PCs can run specialized versions of standard programs and can be connected to a network or to the
internet. Certain and in most new models now a keyboard and a mouse can be attached as well.
Tablet PCs are used mainly in the graphic design field where drawing on the tablet PCs can be translated
into digital drawings and be edited by various graphic editing tools.
Handheld PCs
Different type of computers
Handheld personal computers are computing devices small enough to fit in your hand. A popular type of
handheld computer is the personal digital assistant (PDA).
A PDA is no larger than a small appointment book and is normally used for special applications such as
taking notes, displaying telephone numbers and addresses and keeping track of dates or agendas.
Many PDAs can be connected to computers to exchange data. Most PDAs come with a pen (stylus) that
allows for handwriting recognition and some even have tiny built-in keyboards or microphones for voice
input.

43

A wireless connection (Wi-Fi) can be used to access the internet with a PDA. PDAs in the later part of this
century were converted into phones, cameras, music players and GPS.
The demands for PDA phones have been in the increase and of late have been mostly replaced by smartphones that are equipped with much functionality similar to a computer.
Smart phones
Different type of computers
Smart phones are handheld devices or mobile phones that have a processing unit attached to act as a
handheld computer cum phone.
These phones offer advanced features not typically found in normal cellular phones. These phones come
with additional features beyond the traditional SMS and calling features. Smart phones these days allow
you to surf the internet using your phone, take pictures, videos, listen to music, conduct presentations,
record voice, play games, e-mail, and many other additional features.
Smart phones are also equipped with an operating system just like your desktop or laptop computers are
equipped with an operating system, Windows, Linux, etc;
Supercomputers
Different type of computers
Supercomputers are the most fastest, and expensive modern computer systems. They are mostly used for
intense processing and forecasting such as forecasting the weather, or super high resolution graphics such
as ray traced images.
Government processes such as immigration clearances, and all other high level functionalities are handled
by a supercomputer.
Supercomputers are also extensively used in the military to manage and calculate or even analyze full
range of information from coordinates to traffic control and even launching systems.
Today, the worlds fastest supercomputer was developed by IBM the IBM Roadrunner which runs on
1.026 1.105 Pflops or petaflops and is placed in the Los Alamos National Laboratory, New Mexico USA
taking up a space of 6000 square feet.
Mainframe computers
Different type of computers
Mainframe computers are used in large organizations such as insurance companies and banks, where many
people frequently need to use the same data. In a traditional mainframe environment, each user accesses
the mainframes resources through a terminal (network terminal).
There are two kinds of terminal, one is a dumb terminal which does not process or store data, just basic I/O
input output and the intelligent terminal which can perform processing operations but these terminals
normally do not have any storage.
Mainframes are large and powerful systems to handle the processing of thousands of users at any one time.
Most large organizations implement mainframes due to their flexibilities in which department computers
can be allocated a certain functionality that is related to the department in response to all programs.
For instance, an airline company which wishes to sell tickets online through the internet will require to
connect their current website interface to a mainframe system.
You as the user would then connect to the website or the mainframe system to key in your ticket purchase.
Minicomputers
Different type of computers
Minicomputers are small sized computers which have their capabilities between the range of a personal
desktop computer and a mainframe.
Minicomputers were replaced by the microcomputers which took over the reign of those mighty
minicomputers due to their greater processing power.
Today, mini and micro computers are replaced by much more powerful systems as you can see from
above.
Well, thats some bit on the various types of computers. The next time perhaps I will write an article on
the history of computers from Generation 0 Generation 5 (currently).

44

From
Classroom Interactions and Achievement
By Loyce Caruthers
http://www.mcrel.org/products/noteworthy/noteworthy/loycec.asp
Studies have found that students' perceptions of the classroom environment can
have a direct impact not only on their achievement but also on their personal-social
behaviors (Vasquz, 1988). Furthermore, depressed rates of student classroom
participation predict lowered achievement as early as the first three grades (Finn &
Cox cited in Cohen & Lotan, 1995). In the words of Scott-Jones and Clark (1986),
"Academic achievement is dependent on more than individual abilities and
aspirations. The social environment in which learning takes place can enhance or
diminish the behaviors that lead to achievement" (p. 523).
These examples clearly illustrate the complexities of teacher and student interactions
in classrooms. A single teaching episode or an isolated interaction between the
teacher and a student or between a student and his or her peers can influence the
student's perceptions of the learning environment and his or her motivation to
achieve. What a student comes to expect from the teacher and peers is a
consequence of behaviour based on the interactions between the student and
teacher, as well as between the student and his or her peers. That consequence
may affect future behavior or life options.
The power of expectations in the lives of children begins long before they come to
school. Through socialization in the home and community, children learn of
expectations for their lives. What they come to believe about themselves is a result
of the messages from significant others such as parents and other adults. During the
past two decades we have learned that teachers do, indeed, form expectations for
student performance and that teacher expectations influence student performance
(Baron, Tom & Cooper, 1985; Dusek, 1985).
The Communication of Expectations through Classroom Interactions
Expectations are assumptions or inferences that teachers (or parents and
administrators) may make about the academic achievement or future behavior of
their students. The powerful influence of expectations in our lives was demonstrated
by Rosenthal and Jacobson (cited in Good & Brophy, 1987) who manipulated
teacher expectations for student achievement to see if these expectations would be
fulfilled. When teachers were told that randomly selected students had been
identified as "intellectual late bloomers," teacher behavior changed enough to have a
significant positive effect on student performance, both in the classroom and on
achievement tests. Results were explained in terms of the powerful effects of the
self-fulfilling prophecy effects of teacher expectations. The work of Rosenthal and
Jacobson created controversy and interest in how teachers form expectations and
how they are communicated to students. Despite the criticism of their work, it has
been well documented that teacher expectations are communicated to students
during teacher-student interactions (Dusek, 1985). Researchers (Good and Brophy,
1987) studied the ways teachers communicate their expectations to high achievers
and low achievers. Their observations of classrooms revealed that teachers treat low
achievers differently than they treat high achievers. The following behaviors indicate
differences toward students perceived to be low achievers:
providing general, often insincere praise;
providing them with less feedback;
demanding less effort;
45

interrupting low achievers more often;

seating them farther away from the teacher;
paying less attention to them;
calling on them less often;
waiting less time for them to respond to questions;
criticizing them more often for failure; and
smiling at them less or giving them fewer other nonverbal indicators of support.
(p. 10 )
Cooper (cited in Winfield, 1986) believes that these behavioral differences indicate
the existence of sustaining expectation effects that would make learning by lowexpectation students relatively more difficult. Cohen (cited in Cohen & Lotan, 1995)
supports this view, stating that "differences in classroom interactions can lead to
differences in learning outcomes--that is, those who talk more, learn more" (p. 100).
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) IN EDUCATION IN INDIA
INTRODUCTION
Information and Communication Technology1 integration in education projects was first piloted
in May 2012 at four supplementary education centres for adolescents in four villages of the
Kandi block in the Murshidabad district of West Bengal. The purpose was to provide an
opportunity for adolescents to interact, explore and authenticate their learning at school,
using technology. The integrated approach to technology in education referred here, assumes
the following prerequisitesIt should be:
student use of technology to create learning artefacts
integrated with curriculum
focused on learning achievement
teacher designed instruction
This concept note will share the scenario of computer use in schools in India, explain the
concept of the integrated approach to Technology in Education (ITE) used by the Trusts; share
results from the Trusts sanctioned pilot project in ITE; and present a plan for future
dissemination.
The sub-topics of this paper are listed in the table below:
1. Computer use in schools in India
2. Concept of Integrated Technology in Education
3. Relevance and objectives of the ITE approach in Trusts supported projects
4. The pilot project in Murshidabad and its outputs
5. Other ITE approach projects initiated
6. Project design proposed
7. Annexure- International Standards for Measurement of the ITE approach
1. USE OF COMPUTERS IN SCHOOLS IN INDIA
Integrated approach to use of technology in education has been used and researched for many
years, but its adaptation in underprivileged settings in India has remained at the skill level or
as a teaching tool. This approach may not be rare with international schools, but remains rare
and novice in schools of poor students. Installing computers in schools of poor children has
gained considerable momentum in India. Organisations with corporate partners have been
loading government schools with computers and fancy software. Skill based focus is another
big objective of the government and many corporate CSRs. Many believe that technology
taught in schools where children from underprivileged backgrounds learn will assure skilled
workforce in the future. However, there are numerous computer centres and institutes even in
the most backward villages that can provide technological skills. It doesnt take a whole school

46

life cycle to learn the computer basics and advanced functions. Such a skill based motive to
connect schools with technology seems superficial and a weak technical rationality to bring in
social change in education for the poor. On the other hand, the National Policy on Information
and Communication Technology (ICT) In School Education (2011-draft) is a comprehensive
document that envisages such approaches discussed in this paper. But its implementation is
more than challenging because of many factors. The most vigilant is access and digital divide.
As per a NUEPA 2007 study report, 87 percent of the schools in India do not have a single
computer. However, the model school concept announced by the Prime Minister promises an
ICT infrastructure in schools. The most awaited Aakash will soon hit the schools. But at this
juncture, it is more about access and the systemic approach for integration within the
curriculum remains a consideration. Although, access to computers has been documented as
influencing classroom use of computers (Becker 1999; Becker, Ravitz &Wong, 1999; Charania &
Shelley, 2007), it is not a sufficient factor for use. The World Bank study (2011) suggested that
merely putting computers in schools and training teachers to use them will not improve the
learning levels in students. A two year study conducted by the World Bank (2011) in Colombia
where the computers were deputed in public schools from the year 2002 to 2008, showed no
relationship between learning achievement and computers in the classroom. One of the
obvious reasons for this as explained in the study was that the computers in the schools were
used to learn computer systems and applications with no plan and efforts to integrate it with
the teaching and learning in the classroom. This argument is also consistent with Koehler and
Mishra (2009) claim that emphasising on learning technology will merely yield student learning
of technology rather than leaning of the subject matter. Technology integration in education
as explained above is a systemic process. This has been well documented in the research and
the most recent article (2012) by the MIT lab scientist and educationist Russell has through
confirmatory analyses affirmed that teachers beliefs, and professional development play a
very important role.
In the Indian context, the most prevailing factors besides access are:
failure of understanding and implementing constructivist pedagogy in the education
system,
the overpowering attention on economic value of learning technology for these
students,
and most importantly, the lack of capacity building of teachers and school
administrators in this area.
An exploratory study: A dip and analyse technique was used to explore computers in school
projects initiated by three organisations. The designated Programme Officer explored three
organisations in Western and Southern India that run computer assisted learning programmes in
public or aided schools. These three organisations are very well known for technology in
education projects in schools. Two of the three organisations have developed their own
software to promote technology in schools.
A total of five government or government aided schools were visited. These schools had
adopted computer aided activities implemented by the three organisations. The detailed
observations at these three organisations are documented and available. In a nutshell,
computers at these projects were used to inculcate either skills based intervention or in the
form of CD based learning in government or aided schools. Two of the projects had computers
in the computer labs managed by computer teacher. The activities were computer centred,
where children were either playing educational games or learning software applications. In
one of the projects, the teachers were using open share software to create teaching tools.
But even here, the students use of computers to construct their own learning was not seen.
These observations indicated that they are merely witnessing a shift from teacher centred to
computer centred learning. Integration of technology in both teaching and learning processes
was not seen.

47

Even in the developed countries, integration of technology in the curriculum and school
culture was not easy. It requires a systemic approach where all the stake holders in the
education micro-systems are involved and engaged. In India, we are witnessing the issue at a
very basic level. We have not yet reached the stage where we know what successful
integration means and therefore, cannot answer if we have achieved it or not. The
organisations and corporations have been stuffing their fancy software in computer labs,
without making any impact in the teaching and learning processes in the classroom. As Zhao
(2003) claims that most software tools are rarely created as solutions to pedagogical
problems. One of the reasons is their pre-occupation with learning outcomes than teaching
and learning processes. The arguments raised here is not to attack educational software. It
definitely has value in improving learning outcomes. The question here is why has the
technology not been used as a tool to revitalise the teaching and learning pedagogy, student
centred and constructive processes in classroom, and most importantly, why are computers
an added layer and not integrated within the curriculum. This leads to understanding the
concept of the Integrated approach to Technology in Education (ITE).
2. THE CONCEPT OF INTEGRATED TECHNOLOGY IN EDUCATION
Integrated approach to Technology in Education (ITE): Technology when it fits
comfortably with the curriculum or instructional plans of teaching is an indicative of
integrated technology. Thus, technology rather than an additional layer in the classroom is
embedded within the design of the teachers lesson plan and the pedagogy. Thus, in this
approach, the teacher designs learning activities and students use technology to construct
their own learning. For example, the students use technology for seeking information,
construct and organise their learning and represent it through computer applications. Thus,
the teacher plays a role of a facilitator and student as a constructionist of his or her own
learning. Such an approach considers technology as a tool rather than an end itself, defines
the teachers role as a facilitator and designer of the learning environment, emphasises the
students use of technology, and authentic assessments and activities using technology in the
classroom (Grabe and Grabe cited in Charania, 2011).
An Illustration of Classroom Implementation using the ITE Approach Follows:
Ms. Nirmala had designed a four day lesson plan on carbohydrates. On the second day, one
group of students was busy reading a chapter on carbohydrates from the textbook, and a few

48

in their group were taking notes.

Another group was reading and
discussing from some 4 to 5
printouts from different websites
on the role of carbohydrates in the
diet and the recent trends. The
third group was at the computer
station in the classroom,
formatting a spreadsheet that had various columns. The first column had names of the dishes
which the group members had over dinner last night, the second column had the main food
ingredients in the dishes and their picture, and the third had its carbohydrate content per 100
grams. They were working on creating a graph in the spreadsheet that would compare the
carbohydrate contents of various foods. The teacher went around group by group asking
questions like which food has the highest and lowest carbohydrate content, what will happen
if you double the amount of potatoes in your diet- in general prompting them towards higher
order thinking and structuring their task.
In the example above, the technology is integrated in the curriculum and pedagogy. The
teacher selects and applies a variety of applications that best suits the task and the learning
process; in this case use of spreadsheet and Internet. Thus, technology is more at a service to
the learning process and students facilitated by the teacher play an active role. The example
above also emancipated the collaborative learning environment carefully designed and
facilitated by the teacher. It is best implemented within the classroom than in the computer
labs. Moreover, such an approach brings together technology, subject matter and pedagogy is
therefore called an integrative approach. The theoretical framework rooted in such an
approach is described on the next page.
Theoretical framework supporting an integrated approach: Teachers simultaneous use of
Technology, Pedagogy, and Content Knowledge brings into play what is known as a TPCK
model by Kohler and Mishra (2009), and originally based on Shulmans framework of PCK. This
framework underlines that Technology, Content or subject matter, and Pedagogy are not
isolated components. Successful integration is possible when the teacher assimilates his or
her Knowledge of Pedagogy, Knowledge of Content, and Knowledge of Technology. This
framework clearly explains why professional development of teachers in technological skills
did not yield integration of technology in classroom. A full version of this framework by Mishra
and Kohler (2009) is available.

49

1.1 GENERATION OF COMPUTERS

The first electronic computer was designed and built at the University of Pennsylvania based on
vacuum tube technology. Vacuum tubes were used to perform logic operations and to store data.
Generations of computers has been divided into five according to the development of
technologies used to fabricate the processors, memories and I/O units.

I Generation : 1945 55
II Generation : 1955 65
III Generation : 1965 75
IV Generation : 1975 89
V Generation : 1989 to present
First Generation (ENIAC - Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator
EDSAC Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator
EDVAC Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer
UNIVAC Universal Automatic Computer IBM 701)
Vacuum tubes were used basic arithmetic operations took few milliseconds
Bulky
Consume more power with limited performance
High cost
Uses assembly language to prepare programs. These were translated into machine level
language for execution.
Mercury delay line memories and Electrostatic memories were used
Fixed point arithmetic was used
100 to 1000 fold increase in speed relative to the earlier mechanical and relay based
electromechanical technology
Punched cards and paper tape were invented to feed programs and data and to get results.
Magnetic tape / magnetic drum were used as secondary memory
Mainly used for scientific computations.

Second Generation (Manufacturers IBM 7030, Digital Data Corporations PDP 1/5/8
Honeywell 400)
Transistors were used in place of vacuum tubes. (invented at AT&T Bell lab in 1947)
Small in size
Lesser power consumption and better performance

Lower cost
Magnetic ferrite core memories were used as main memory which is a random-access
nonvolatile memory
Magnetic tapes and magnetic disks were used as secondary memory
Hardware for floating point arithmetic operations was developed.
Index registers were introduced which increased flexibility of programming.
High level languages such as FORTRAN, COBOL etc were used - Compilers were
developed to translate the high-level program into corresponding assembly language
program which was then translated into machine language.
Separate input-output processors were developed that could operate in parallel with CPU.
Punched cards continued during this period also.
1000 fold increase in speed.

50

Increasingly used in business, industry and commercial organizations for preparation of

payroll, inventory control, marketing, production planning, research, scientific &
engineering analysis and design etc.
Third Generation (System 360 Mainframe from IBM, PDP-8 Mini Computer from Digital
Equipment Corporation)
ICs were used
Small Scale Integration and Medium Scale Integration technology were implemented in
CPU, I/O processors etc.
Smaller & better performance
Comparatively lesser cost
Faster processors
In the beginning magnetic core memories were used. Later they were replaced by
semiconductor memories (RAM & ROM)
Introduced microprogramming
Microprogramming, parallel processing (pipelining, multiprocessor system etc),
multiprogramming, multi-user system (time shared system) etc were introduced.
Operating system software were introduced (efficient sharing of a computer system by
several user programs)
Cache and virtual memories were introduced (Cache memory makes the main memory
appear faster than it really is. Virtual memory makes it appear larger)
High level languages were standardized by ANSI eg. ANSI FORTRAN, ANSI COBOL
etc
Database management, multi-user application, online systems like closed loop process
control, airline reservation, interactive query systems, automatic industrial control etc
emerged during this period.

Fourth Generation (Intels 8088,80286,80386,80486 .., Motorolas 68000, 68030, 68040,

Apple II, CRAY I/2/X/MP etc)
Microprocessors were introduced as CPU Complete processors and large section of main
memory could be implemented in a single chip
Tens of thousands of transistors can be placed in a single chip (VLSI design
implemented)
CRT screen, laser & ink jet printers, scanners etc were developed.
Semiconductor memory chips were used as the main memory.
Secondary memory was composed of hard disks Floppy disks & magnetic tapes were
used for backup memory
Parallelism, pipelining cache memory and virtual memory were applied in a better way
LAN and WANS were developed (where desktop work stations interconnected)
Introduced C language and Unix OS
Introduced Graphical User Interface

Less power consumption

High performance, lower cost and very compact
Much increase in the speed of operation
Fifth Generation (IBM notebooks, Pentium PCs-Pentium 1/2/3/4/Dual core/Quad core..
SUN work stations, Origin 2000, PARAM 10000, IBM SP/2)
Generation number beyond IV, have been used occasionally to describe some current
computer system that have a dominant organizational or application driven feature.
Computers based on artificial intelligence are available
Computers use extensive parallel processing, multiple pipelines, multiple processors etc
Massive parallel machines and extensively distributed system connected by
communication networks fall in this category.

51

Introduced ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology Intels Pentium 4

microprocessor contains 55 million transistors millions of components on a single IC
chip.
Superscalar processors, Vector processors, SIMD processors, 32 bit micro controllers and
embedded processors, Digital Signal Processors (DSP) etc have been developed.
Memory chips up to 1 GB, hard disk drives up to 180 GB and optical disks up to 27 GB
are available (still the capacity is increasing)
Object oriented language like JAVA suitable for internet programming has been
developed.
Portable note book computers introduced
Storage technology advanced large main memory and disk storage available
Introduced World Wide Web. (and other existing applications like e-mail, e Commerce,
Virtual libraries/Classrooms, multimedia applications etc.)
New operating systems developed Windows 95/98/XP/, LINUX, etc.
Got hot pluggable features which enable a failed component to be replaced with a new
one without the need to shutdown the system, allowing the uptime of the system to be
very high.
The recent development in the application of internet is the Grid technology which is still
in its upcoming stage.
Quantum mechanism and nanotechnology will radically change the phase of computers.

1.2 TYPES OF COMPUTERS

1. Super Computers
2. Main Frame Computers
3. Mini Computers
4. Micro Computers
1. Super Computers E.g.:- CRAY Research :- CRAY-1 & CRAY-2, Fujitsu (VP2000),
Hitachi (S820), NEC (SX20), PARAM 10000 by C-DAC, Anupam by BARC, PACE Series by
DRDO
Most powerful Computer system - needs a large room
Minimum world length is 64 bits
CPU speed: 100 MIPS
Equivalent to 4000 computers
High cost: 4 5 millions
Able to handle large amount of data
High power consumption
High precision

Large and fast memory (Primary and Secondary)

Uses multiprocessing and parallel processing
Supports multiprogramming
Applications

52

In petroleum industry - to analyze volumes of seismic data which are gathered during oil
seeking explorations to identify areas where there is possibility of getting petroleum
products inside the earth
In Aerospace industry - to simulate airflow around an aircraft at different speeds and
altitude. This helps in producing an effective aerodynamic design for superior
performance
In Automobile industry to do crash simulation of the design of an automobile before it
is released for manufacturing for better automobile design
In structural mechanics to solve complex structural engineering problems to ensure
safety, reliability and cost effectiveness. Eg. Designer of a large bridge has to ensure that
the bridge must be proper in various atmospheric conditions and pressures from wind,
velocity etc and under load conditions.
Meteorological centers use super computers for weather forecasting
In Biomedical research atomic nuclear and plasma analysis to study the structure of
viruses such as that causing AIDS
For weapons research and development, sending rockets to space etc

2. Main Frame Computers E.g.:- IBM 3000 series, Burroughs B7900, Univac 1180, DEC
Able to process large amount of data at very high speed
Supports multi-user facility
Number of processors varies from one to six.
Cost: 3500 to many million dollars
Kept in air conditioned room to keep them cool
Supports many I/O and auxiliary storage devices
Supports network of terminals

USERS ROOM
(Entry restricted to authorized persons)

53

Applications
Used to process large amount of data at very high speed such as in the case of Banks/
Insurance Companies/ Hospitals/ Railwayswhich need online processing of large
number of transactions and requires massive data storage and processing capabilities
Used as controlling nodes in WANs (Wide Area Networks)
Used to mange large centralized databases

3. Mini Computers E.g.:- Digital Equipments PDP 11/45 and VAX 11)
Perform better than micros
Large in size and costlier than micros
Designed to support more than one user at a time
Posses large storage capacities and operates at higher speed
Support faster peripheral devices like high speed printers
Can also communicate with main frames
Applications
These computers are used when the volume of processing is large for e.g. Data processing
for a medium sized organization
Used to control and monitor production processes
To analyze results of experiments in laboratories
Used as servers in LANs (Local Area Networks)

4. Micro Computers E.g.:- IBM PC, PS/2 and Apple Macintosh

54

A microcomputer uses a microprocessor as its central Processing Unit. Microcomputers

are tiny computers that can vary in size from a single chip to the size of a desktop model
They are designed to be used by only one person at a time
Small to medium data storage capacities 500MB 2GB
The common examples of microcomputers are chips used in washing machines, TVs,
Cars and Note book/Personal computers.
Applications
Used in the field of desktop publishing, accounting, statistical analysis, graphic designing,
investment analysis, project management, teaching, entertainment etc
The different models of microcomputers are given below:a) Personal computers:- The name PC was given by the IBM for its microcomputers. PCs
are used for word processing, spreadsheet calculations, database management etc.
b) Note book or Lap Top:- Very small in terms of size can be folded and carried around
Monitor is made up of LCD and the keyboard and system units are contained in a single
box. Got all the facilities of a personal computer (HDD, CDD, Sound card, N/W card,
Modem etc) and a special connection to connect to the desktop PC which can be used to
transfer data.
c) Palm Top:- Smaller model of the microcomputer- size is similar to that of a calculator
pocket size- It has a processor and memory and a special connection to connect to the
desktop PC which can be used to transfer data.
d) Wrist PC:- Smallest type of microcomputer can be worn on our wrist like a watch- It has
a processor and memory and a wireless modem

FUNCTIONAL UNITS OF A COMPUTER

Computer is a device that operates upon information or data. It is an electronic device
which accepts input data, stores the data, does arithmetic and logic operation and outputs the
information in desired format.
Even though the size, shape, performance, reliability and cost of computers have been changing
over the years, the basic logical structure proposed by Von Neumann has not change. The internal

55

architecture of computers differs from one system model to another. A block diagram of the basic
computer organization specifying different functional units is shown below. Here the solid lines
indicate the flow of instruction and data and the dotted lines represent the control exercised by the
control unit.

INPUT UNIT
Input unit accepts coded information from human operators through electromechanical
devices such as the keyboard or from other computers over digital communication lines. The
information received is either stored in the memory for later reference or immediately used by the
Arithmetic and Logic circuitry to perform the desired operation. Finally the result is sent back to
the outside through the output unit.
The keyboard is wired so that whenever a key is pressed, the corresponding letter or digit is
automatically translated into its corresponding code and sent directly to either the memory or the
processor.
Other kinds of input devices: Joy stick, track ball, mouse (pointing devices), scanner etc.

MEMORY UNIT
The memory unit stores program and data. There are two classes of memory devices :Primary memory and Secondary memory.

Primary memory (Main memory)

Contains a large number of semiconductor cells each capable of storing one bit of
information
These cells are processed in group of fixed size called words containing n bits. The main
memory is organized such that the contents of one word can be stored or retrieved in one
basic operation.
For accessing data, a distinct address is associated with each word location.
Data and programs must be in the primary memory for execution.
Number of bits in each word is called the word length and it may vary from 16 to 64 bits.
Fast memory
Expensive
Time required to access one word is called Memory Access Time - 10nS to 100nS. This
time is fixed and independent of the location.
E g. Random Access Memory (RAM)

Secondary storage
56

They are used when large amount of data have to be stored (also when frequent access is
not necessary)
E.g. Hard Disk, Compact Disk, Floppy Disk, Magnetic Tapes etc.

PROCESSOR UNIT
The heart of the computer system is the Processor unit.
It consists of Arithmetic and Logic Unit and Control Unit.

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

Most computer operations (Arithmetical and logical) are executed in ALU of the
processor.
For example: Suppose two numbers (operands) located in the main memory are to be
added. These operands are brought into arithmetic unit actual addition is carried. The
result is then stored in the memory or retained in the processor itself for immediate use.
Note that all operands may not reside in the main memory. Processor contains a number
of high speed storage elements called Registers, which may be used for temporary storage
of frequently used operands. Each register can store one word of data.
Access times to registers are 5 to 10 times faster than access time to memory.

Control Unit

The operations of all the units are coordinated by the control unity (act as the nerve centre
that sends control signal to other units)
Timing signal that governs the I/O transfers are generated by the Control Unit.
Synchronization signals are also generated by the Control Unit
By selecting, interpreting and executing the program instructions the program instructions
the control unit is able to maintain order and direct the operation of the entire system.
The control unit and ALUs are usually many times faster than other devices connected to a
computer system. This enabled a single processor to control a number of external devices such as
video terminals, magnetic taped, disk memories, sensors, displays and mechanical controllers
which are much slower than the processor.

OUTPUT UNIT
Counter part of input unit
Output devices accept binary data from the computer - decodes it into original form and
supplies this result to the outside world.
E.g. Printer, Video terminals (provides both input & output functions), graphic displays etc.

Basic Operational Concepts:Activity in a computer is governed by instructions

To perform a given task, a set of instructions called program must be there in the main
memory
Individual instructions are brought from the memory into the processor which executes
the specific operation.
Data to be used as operands are also stored in the memory.
E.g. Add LOCA, R0
This instruction adds the operand at the memory location LOCA to the operand in the Processor
R0 and places the sum into the register R0. Here the original contents of LOCA are preserved
whereas those of R0 are overwritten.

57

Steps:1. Instruction is fetched from the main memory into the processor
2. Operand at LOCA is fetched
3. Add the contents to the contents of R0
4. Finally store the result in R0

Memory access
operation

ALU operation

Note: Data transfer between the main memory and the processor are started by sending the
address of the memory location to be accessed to the memory unit and issuing the appropriate
control signal by the control unit.

INTERNAL ORGANIZATION OF PROCESSOR

Processor contains a number of registers used for temporary storage of data other than ALU and
Control circuitry
Instruction Register (IR) holds the instruction that is currently being executed its output is
available to the control circuits which generate the timing signals that control the various
processing elements involved in executing the instruction.
Program Counter (PC) It contains the address of the instruction currently being executed.
During the execution of an instruction, the contents of the program counter are updated to hold
the address of the next instruction to be executed. i.e. PC points to the next instruction that is to
be fetched from the memory.
n General Purpose Registers (R0 to Rn-1) Facilitates communication with the main memory.
Access to data in these registers is much faster than to data stored in memory locations because
the registers are inside the processor. Most modern computers have 8 to 32 general purpose
registers.
Memory Address Register (MAR) holds the address of the location to or from which data are to
be transferred
Memory Data Register (MDR) contains the data to be written into or read out of the address
location.

58

Fig: Processor

Steps involved during operation:1. Program is stored in the main memory

2. PC is set to point to the first instruction of the program
3. Contents of the PC are transferred to the MAR and a Read Control signal sent to the
memory
4. After the access time, the addressed word (in this case the first instruction) is read out of
the memory and is loaded into the MDR
5. Contents of the MDR are transferred to the IR. Now the instruction is ready to be decoded
and executed.
6. If the instruction involves an operation to be performed by the ALU, the required operands
are to be fetched from the memory (or CPU registers). This is done by sending its address
to the MAR and initiating a Read cycle.
7. Operands are read from the memory into the MDR and are transferred from MDR to the
ALU.
8. ALU will perform the desired operation.
9. If the result is to be stored in the memory, then it is sent to the MDR.

59

10. The address of the location where the result is to be stored is sent to the MAR and a Write
cycle is initiated.
11. At some point during the execution of the current instruction, the contents of the PC are
incremented so that the PC now points to the next instruction to be executed.
12. As soon as the execution of the current instruction is completed, a new instruction fetch
may be started.
NOTE:- In addition to transferring data between the memory and the processor, the computer
accepts data from input devices and sends data to output devices. For example, a sensing
device in a computer controlled industrial process may detect a dangerous condition. Here
the device raises an interrupt signal. An interrupt is a request from an I/O device for
service by the processor. Now the processor provides the requested service by executing
an appropriate interrupt-service routine. The internal state of the processor at such
moments (like the contents of the PC, the general registers, and some control information)
are saved in memory locations. When the interrupt-service routine is completed, the state
of the processor is restored so that the normal program may be continued.

Figure 1: Information needs at different levels of ICT penetration in education systems

over time
Source: Adapted from UNCTAD (2007)

60

The literature on ICT in education covers many conceptual frameworks. Figure 2

provides an example of a common framework for ICT in education. It provides a useful basis
for upstream policy monitoring and evaluation mechanisms.

Figure 2. Conceptual framework

Source: SITES 2006 study.

From an operational perspective, a classic approach to an ICT in education

framework comprises policy / strategy-input-process-output / outcomes. Figure 3 illustrates
the practical nature of the relationships between key areas.

61

Figure 3. Operational and conceptual framework for ICT integration in

education

6. Conclusion
There is a need to monitor and evaluate ICT in education from its implementation to
learning outcomes. There is also a concurrent demand to compare the expansion of ICT use
in education and its impact on learning achievements across countries. Global monitoring of
the integration, use and impact of ICT in education will allow countries to evaluate their
progress towards international development goals, such as MDGs, WSIS and EFA.
Based on a review of the literature, the UIS identified key concepts from
assessments where ICT usage in education was the focus either in a primary or a secondary
role. The UIS also explored various conceptual frameworks in the existing assessments as a
main source for establishing an operational framework that can be applied across countries
to produce internationally standardized statistics on ICT use in education. The proposed
framework also builds on the UIS regular education data collection methodology and
mechanism with established and regularly trained national statisticians. In addition to the
above logical process, a comprehensive review and mapping of the major global policy

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issues as they relate to ICT use in education formed the basis for identifying the expanded
list of ICT in education indicators to complement the current UIS core list. Detailed
information has been provided on the definition, purpose, measurement, data source,
interpretation and methodological limitations for these indicators.
Some practical considerations were outlined to prioritize the final selection of the
proposed indicators. Operational considerations, such as respondent burden, cost and time
required for data collection and processing, limit the type of indicators which can be readily
produced. Supplementary indicators have been suggested by UIS partners and pilot
countries to further monitor developments in this field. Once these supplementary indicators
are fully specified, experimented and proven robust for comparison within a cross-national
context, they will be further updated and refined through this guide.

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Creating and Editing a Word Document

What Is Microsoft Offi ce Word 2007?
Microsoft Offi ce Word 2007 is a full-featured word processing program that allows you
to create professional-looking documents and revise them easily. A document is a printed
or electronic medium people use to communicate with others. With Word, you can develop
many types of documents, including fl yers, letters, memos, resumes, reports, fax cover
sheets, mailing labels, and newsletters. Word also provides tools that enable you to create
Web pages. From within Word, you can place these Web pages directly on a Web server.
Word has many features designed to simplify the production of documents and
make documents look visually appealing. Using Word, you easily can change the shape,
size, and color of text. You can include borders, shading, tables, images, pictures, charts,
and Web addresses in documents.
While you are typing, Word performs many tasks automatically. For example, Word
detects and corrects spelling and grammar errors in several languages. Words thesaurus
allows you to add variety and precision to your writing. Word also can format text, such as
headings, lists, fractions, borders, and Web addresses, as you type.
This latest version of Word has many new features to make you more productive.
For example, Word has many predefi ned text and graphical elements designed to assist
you with preparing documents. Word also includes new charting and diagramming tools;
uses themes so that you can coordinate colors, fonts, and graphics; and has a feature that
enables you to convert a document to a PDF format.
To illustrate the features of Word, this book presents a series of projects that use
Word to create documents similar to those you will encounter in academic and business
environments.

Starting Word
If you are using a computer to step through the project in this chapter and you want your screen to
match the fi gures in this book, you should change your screens resolution to 1024 768. For
information about how to change a computers resolution, read Appendix E.
The Word Window
The screen in Figure 1-3 shows how the Word window looks the first time you start Word after installation on most computers. Your
screen may look different depending on your screen resolution and Word settings.

The following steps, which assume Windows is running, start Word based on a typical installation.
You may need to ask your instructor how to start Word for your computer.
1. Click the Start button on the Windows taskbar to display the Start menu.

Point to All Programs on the Start menu to display the All Programs submenu.
Point to Microsoft Offi ce on the All Programs submenu to display the Microsoft Offi ce submenu (Figure 12).

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2. Click Microsoft Office Word 2007 to start Word and display a new blank document in the Word window (Figure 13).

If the Word window is not maximized, click the Maximize button next to the Close button on its title bar to maximize the
window.

3. If the Print Layout button is not selected, click it so that your screen layout matches Figure 13.

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