Porosity

PE 2090-505
Introduction To Petroleum Engineering
POROSITY
Dr. Hassan Alkandari
PE 2090-505
RESERVOIR POROSITY
Definition: Porosity is the fraction of the bulk volume of
a material (rock) that is occupied by pores (voids).
Or can be defined as: storage capacity of a rock, void
space available for fluids.
Discussion Topics
Origins and descriptions
Factors that effect porosity
Methods of determination
PE 2090-505
Note different use of

matrix by geologists
and engineers
Geologist - Rock
matrix is the grains
of sandstone,
limestone,
dolomite, and/or
shale that do not
make up the
supporting
structure.
Engineer - Matrix is
the non-pore space
Rock matrix
Pore space
PE 2090-505
Porosity: The fraction of the bulk

volume of a rock that is occupied
by pores
Porosity is an intensive property describing the
fluid storage capacity of rock
V
V
where:
= porosity, fraction
Vb = bulk volume, cm 3 , ft 3
Vg = grain volume, cm 3 , ft3
Vp = pore volume, cm 3, ft3
Vf = fluid volume, cm 3 , ft 3
V
V
f
b
PE 2090-505
Water often exists

as a thin film
coating the rock
grain surface.
Oil and gas
occupy the larger
pore spaces with a
film of water
between the rock
surface and the
hydrocarbons.
Rock matrix
Water
Oil and/or gas
PE 2090-505
To provide an understanding of
The
concepts of rock matrix and porosity

The difference between original (primary)
and induced (secondary) porosity
The difference between total and
effective porosity
Laboratory methods of porosity
determination
Determination of porosity from well logs
PE 2090-505
Rock-forming Source of
process
m aterial
IGNEOUS
SEDIMENTARY
METAMORPHIC
Molten materials in
deep crust and
upper mantle
Weathering and
erosion of rocks
exposed at surface
Rocks under high

temperatures
and pressures in
deep crust
Crystallization
(Solidification of melt)
Sedimentation, burial
and lithification
Recrystallization due to
heat, pressure, or
chemically active fluids
PE 2090-505
IGNEOUS
Igne ous rocks are formed from

molten material which is either
ejected from the earth during
volcanic activity (e.g., lava flows,
and ash falls), or which
crystallizes from a magma that is
injected into existing rock and
cools slowly, giving rise rocks
such as granites. Igneous rocks
are of minor importance for oil
exploration. Rarely, hydrocarbon
is produced from fractured
igneous rocks.
SEDIMENTARY
Se dimentary rocks are

formed from particles
derived from igneous,
metamorphic or other
sedimentary rocks by
weathering and erosion.
Sedimentary rocks
provide the hydrocarbon
source rocks and most of
the oil and gas reservoir
rocks.
METAMORPHIC
Me tamorphic rocks are formed

by subjecting any of the three
rock types to high temperatures
and pressures, that alter the
character of the existing rock.
Common examples of
metamorphic rocks are marble
derived from limestone and slate
derived from shale. Due to the
high temperature and pressures
there is very little organic matter
or hydrocarbons in metamorphic
rocks.
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PE 2090-505
Clastics
Carbonates
PE 2090-505
Comparison of Compositions of Clastic

and Carbonate Rocks
Clastic Rocks
Carbonate Rocks
Fossils
Sand
Grains
Allochemical Pelloids
Oolites
Grains
Quartz
Feldspar
Rock Fragments
Intractlasts
Av erage
Sandstone
Av erage
Mudrock
(Shale)
Av erage
Micritic
Limestone
Clay
Matrix
Chemical
Cement
Illite
Kaolinite
Smectite
Quartz
Calcite
Hematite
Av erage
Sparry
Limestone
Microcrystalline
Matrix
Calcite
Chemical
Cement
Calcite
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PE 2090-505
Grain-Size Classification for Clastic Sediments

Name
Millimeters
Boulder
Cobble
Pebble
Granule
Very Coarse Sand
Coarse Sand
Medium Sand
Fine Sand
Very Fine Sand
Coarse Silt
Medium Silt
Fine Silt
Very Fine Silt
Clay
Micrometers
4,096
256
64
4
2
1
0.5
0.25
0.125
0.062
0.031
0.016
0.008
0.004
Commonly, phi-sizes are used

for sediment analysis
500
250
125
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Average Detrital Mineral Composition

of Shale and Sandstone
Mineral Composition
Shale
Sandstone
Clay Minerals
60 (%)
Quartz
30
65
10-15
<5
15
<1
<3
<1
Feldspar
Rock Fragments
Carbonate
Organic Matter,
Hematite, and
Other Minerals
5 (%)
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PE 2090-505
SANDSTONE CLASSIFICATION
Quartz + Chert
5
Quartzarenite
Subarkose
Sublitharenite
25
25
Lithic
Subarkose
50
25
Feldspar
50
Lithic
Arkose
10
25
Felspathic
Litharenite
50
25
25
10
Unstable
Rock
Fragments
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FOUR MAJOR COMPONENTS OF

SANDSTONE
Framework
Sand (and Silt) Size Detrital Grains
Matrix
Silt and Clay Size Detrital Material
Cement
Material Precipitated Post-Depositionally,
During Burial. Cements Fill Pores and
Replace Framework Grains
Pores
Voids Among the Above Components
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FOUR COMPONENTS OF SANDSTONE

Geologists Classification
1.
2.
3.
4.
Framew ork
Matrix
Cement
Pores
Engineering
m atrix
Note different use of matrix

by geologists and engineers
PORE
FRAMEWORK
MATRIX
(QUARTZ)
CEMENT
FRAMEWORK
(FELDSPAR)
0.25 m m
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Primary (original)
Secondary (induced)
(Generally more complex than
primary porosity)
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Classification of porosity depending on origin:

1. Primary porosity: original porosity (when the rock is
formed), the porosity present at the time of lithification
(cementing and compaction).
a.
Inte rr-granular porosity
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1. Primary porosity: original porosity (when the rock is formed),
the porosity present at the time of lithification (cementing
and compaction).
a.
Inte rr-granular porosity
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PE 2090-505

1. Primary porosity: original porosity (when the rock is
formed), the porosity present at the time of lithification
(cementing and compaction).
b. IntraIntra -granular porosity
PE 2090-505
2.
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Developed by geologic processes after

deposition (diagenetic processes)
Examples (a) Intercrystal porosity:
Grain dissolution in sandstones or carbonates
Vugs and solution cavities in carbonates
Fracture development in some sandstones, shales,

and carbonates
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2.

Examples (a) Intercrystal porosity:
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2.
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Examples (b) Solution porosity (Moldic, Vuggy)
Grain dissolution in sandstones or carbonates

Vugs and solution cavities in carbonates
Fracture development in some sandstones, shales,
and carbonates
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2.

Examples (b) Solution porosity
(Moldic porosity)
(Moldic porosity)
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2.
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(Moldic, Vuggy)
(Moldic, Vuggy)
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2.

(Moldic porosity)
(Vug porosity)
PE 2090-505
2.
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(Vug porosity)
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2.

Examples (b) Solution porosity (Vug & Fracture porosity)
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SANDSTONES POROSITY TYPES

Intergranular (Primary) Interstitial Void Space Between
Framework Grains
Micropores
Small Pores Mainly Between Detrital

Framework Grains or Cement
Dissolution
Partial or Complete Dissolution of

or Authigenic Grains (Can Also Occur
Within Grains
Fractures
Breakage Due to Earth Stresses
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PE 2090-505
PRIMARY
Particle sphericity and angularity
Packing
Sorting (variable grain sizes)
SECONDARY (diagenetic)
Cementing materials
Overburden stress (compaction)
Vugs, dissolution, and fractures
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Porosity
ROUNDNESS AND SPHERICITY

OF CLASTIC GRAINS
High
Low
Very
Angular
Angular
SubSubWellRounded
Angular Rounded
Rounded
ROUNDNESS
Porosity
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In the geology section, we show core photographs with examples

o f porosity. For now, it is useful to note these effects:
Porosity increases as angularity of particles decreases.
Porosity increases as the range of particle s ize decreases. In

c ontrast, porosity decreases as the volume of interstitial and
c ementing material increases.
Porosity decreases as the c ompaction increases (greater depth

generally means higher overburden s tresses, higher c ompaction
forces, and lower porosity)
V ugs and fractures will c ontribute to porosity, but to understand

their affect on effective porosity requires c areful s tudy of c ores and
s pecial logging measurements.
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PRIMARY
Packing
SECONDARY (DIAGENETIC)
Cementing materials
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GRAIN PACKING IN SANDSTONE

Line of Traverse
(using microscope)
4 Types of Grain Contacts

Packing Proximity
Sutured Contact
A measure of the extent to

w hich sedimentary particles
are in contact w ith their
neighbors
Long Contact
Packing Density
Tangential Contact
Cement
Matrix
(clays, etc.)
A measure of the extent to

w hich sedimentary particles
occupy the rock volume
Concavo-Convex
Contact
This Example
Packing Proximity = 40%
Packing Density = 0.8
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CUBIC PACKING OF SPHERES

Porosity = 0.48
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Bulk volume =
Matrix volume =
Pore volume = bulk volume - matrix volume
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PoreVolume
BulkVolume
BulkVolume MatrixVolume
=
BulkVolume
=
Porosity=
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RHOMBIC PACKING OF SPHERES

Porosity = 0.26
Bulk Volume= 4 2 r
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Mixing of larger and

smaller particles clearly
has a significant affect on
porosity, reducing the
original porosity of
47.6% to 12.4%.
Real formations do not
consist of these perfectly
shaped spheres, but these
theoretical packing
models help us
understand the effects of
particle size and
distribution on porosity.
Packing of Two Sizes of Spheres

Porosity = 0.124
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Show that Cubic packing with

two - mixed grain s izes leads to
porosity of 12.4%
Given: Container volume = 1ft3
i.
Cubic packing w/2 grains (12.4 % porosity)
Grain size
BV
GV=[BV(1-
)]
PV=Bv-Vg
container
Cubical
Rhombohedral
PE 2090-505
PRIMARY
Packing
Cementing materials
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Grain-Size Sorting in Sandstone
Very Well
Sorted
Well
Sorted
Moderately
Sorted
Poorly
Sorted
Very Poorly
Sorted
SORTING
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TYPES OF TEXTURAL CHANGES SENSED
BY THE NAKED EYE AS BEDDING
Fluvial
sediment is
deposited by
rivers.
Sand
Shale
Slow Current
Fast Current
Change of Composition
Eolian
sediment is
deposited by
wind (example:
desert sand
dunes)
Change of Size
River
Eolian
Beach
Fluvial
Change of Shape
Change of Orientation
Change of Packing
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PROGRESSIVE DESTRUCTION OF
BEDDING THROUGH BIOTURBATION
T he intensity of
bioturbation varies
greatly.
Many bioturbated
rocks appear mottled
(that is, they have
patches of rock that are
lightly colored and
patches that are more
darkly colored.
Intense bioturbation
can completely destroy
bedding.
Some rocks that have
been completely
bioturbated appear
structureless. In these
rocks, bioturbation can
be proven by X-rays.
Regular
Layers
Mottles
(Distinct)
Irregular
Layers
Bioturbated Sandstone
(Whole Core)
Mottles
Homogeneous
(Indistinct)
Deposits
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PRIMARY
Packing
Cementing materials
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DIAGENESIS
Diagenesis is the PostDepositional Chemical and
Mechanical Changes that
Occur in Sedimentary Rocks
Carbonate
Cemented
Some Diagenetic Effects Include

Compaction
Precipitation of Cement
Dissolution of Framework
Grains and Cement
Oil
Stained
Whole Core
Misoa Formation, Venezuela
The Effects of Diagenesis May

Enhance or Degrade Reservoir
Quality
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DUAL POROSITY IN SANDSTONE

Sandstone Comp.
Framew ork
Matrix
Cement
Pores
1.
2.
Prim ary and secondary matrix porosity system

Fracture porosity system
FRACTURE
DISSOLUTION
PORE
PORE
FRAMEWORK
CEMENT
(QUARTZ)
MATRIX
FRAMEWORK
(FELDSPAR)
Note: different use of matrix by geologists and engineers
0.25 m m
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PE 2090-505
This photograph shows a partially

dissolved (skeletal) feldspar in a
reservoir sandstone.
Feldspar detrital grains and
calcite cement most commonly
dissolve in sandstone to produce
secondary porosity.
The term, secondary porosity, is
used in other disciplines in a different
context. For example, engineers may
refer to fractures as secondary
porosity.
S econdary framework grain (or
cement) dissolution may form early
in the burial history of a sandstone.
However, secondary porosity
formed during late burial significantly
improves the pore system of many
reservoirs.
DISSOLUTION POROSITY
Dissolution of
Framew ork Grains
(Feldspar, for
Example) and
Cement may
Enhance the
Interconnected
Pore System
Partially
Dissolved
Feldspar
Pore
This is Secondary
Porosity
Quartz Detrital
Grain
Thin Section Micrograph - Plane Polarized Light

Avile Sandstone, Neuquen Basin, Argentina
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FOLK CARBONATE ROCK CLASSIFICATION

Over 2/3 Lime Mud Matrix
1-10%
0-1%
Micrite &
Dismicrite
10-50%
Over
50%
Subequal Over 2/3 Spar Cement

Spar & Sorting
Sorting Rounded,
Lime Mud Poor
Abraded
Good
Poorly
FossiliSparse Packed Washed Unsorted Sorted Rounded
ferous
Biomicrite Biomicrite Biosparite Biosparite Biosparite Biosparite
Micrite
Claystone
Sandy
Clayey or
SubClaystone Immature Sandstone mature SS
Depositional Texture Recognizable
Mature
SS
Supermature SS
Depositional Texture
Not Recognizable
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DUNHAM CARBONATE ROCK CLASSIFICATION

Depositional Texture Recognizable
Components Not Bound Together During Deposition
Contains Mud
(clay and silt size particles
Mud Supported
<10 %
Grains
>10 %
Grains
Grain
Lacks Mud,
Grain-
Original Components
Bound Together
During Deposition
Depositional
Texture
Not Recognizable
Supported
Supported
Mudstone Wackestone Packstone
Grainstone
Boundstone
Crystalline
Carbonate
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CARBONATES POROSITY TYPES

Interparticle
Pores Between Particles or Grains
Intraparticle
Pores Within Individual Particles or Grains
Intercrystal
Pores Between Crystals
Moldic
Pores Formed by Dissolution of an

Individual Grain or Crystal in the Rock
Fenestral
Primary Pores Larger Than Grain-Supported

Interstices
Fracture
Formed by a Planar Break in the Rock
Vug
Large Pores Formed by Indiscriminate

Dissolution of Cements and Grains
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Idealized Carbonate Porosity Types

Interparticle
Intraparticle
Intercrystal
Moldic
Fabric
Selective
Fenestral
Shelter
Grow th-Framew ork
Non-Fabric
Selective
Fracture
Channel
Vug
Breccia
Boring
Burrow
Shrinkage
Fabric Selective or Not Fabric Selective

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CARBONATE POROSITY - EXAMPLE

Moldic
Pores
Dolomite
Due to dissolution
and collapse of ooids
(allochemical particles)
Isolated pores
Moldic
Pore
Low effective porosity

Low permeability
Calcite
Thin section micrograph - plane-polarized light
Smackover Formation, Alabama
Blue areas are pores.
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PE 2090-505
CARBONATE POROSITY - EXAMPLE

Moldic and
Interparticle Pores
Interparticle
Pores
Combination pore system

Moldic pores formed through
dissolution of ooids (allochemical
particles)
Connected pores
Moldic
Pore
High effective porosity

High permeability
Thin section micrograph

Smackover Formation, Alabama
Black areas are pores.
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Total porosity, t = Total Pore Volume

Bulk Volume
Effective porosity, e =
Interconne
cted Pore Space
Bulk Volume
Effective porosity
of great importance;
contains the mobile fluid
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Very clean sandstones : e t
Poorly to moderately well -cemented

intergranular materials: t e
Highly cemented materials and most

carbonates: e < t
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I.
Core samples (Laboratory)

Core samples are either obtained using the drilling rig with a special coring bit and barrel
(whole core) or using a logging tool (side-wall coring).
Whole cores are often 4 to 5 inches in diameter and are usually obtained in 30 or 60-foot
segments.
T hey are generally preferred for technical evaluation but they are also more expensive.
Side-wall cores can be obtained by making an additional logging run with a special
logging device.
A geologist usually studies the initial logs and picks intervals where he thinks that he
needs a formation sample.
Side-wall cores are of less use to the engineer because they are often irregularly shaped
and partially damaged from the side-wall coring process.
II.
Openhole wireline logs

Open-hole porosity measurement logs (density, neutron, and sonic) are
routinely used to estimate formation porosity.
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SANDSTONE POROSITY MEASURED

BY VARIOUS TECHNIQUES
Total Porosity - Neutron Log
Total Porosity - Density Log
Absolute or Total Porosity
Rock
Matrix
Oven-Dried Core Analysis Porosity

Humidity-Dried
Core Analysis Porosity
V Shale
Quartz
Clay
Clay Surfaces
(Framework) Layers & Interlayers

Structural
(OH -) Water
Small
Pores
Large, Interconnected
Pores
Isolated
Pores
Capillary
Water
Hydration or
Bound Water
Hydrocarbon
Pore Volume
Irreducible or
Immobile Water
(modified from Eslinger and Pev ear, 1988)
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Standard Analysis
Special Core Analysis
Porosity
Vertical permeability to air
Horizontal
permeability to air
Relative permeability
Capillary pressure
Grain density
Cementation exponent
(m) and saturation
exponent (n)
*Allows calibration of wireline log results
PE 2090-505
Unlike a normal drill bit,

which crushes the rock
into small pieces, a core
bit can be visualized as a
hollow cylinder with
cutters on the outside.
The cylinder of rock that
is cut by the bit is
retained within the core
barrel by an arrangement
of steel fingers or slips.
Core diameters are
typically from three to
seven inches and are
usually about 90 feet
long.
59
Drill collar
connection
PDC Cutters
Thrust bearing
Outer barrel
Inner barrel
Core retaining
ring
Fluid
vent
Core bit
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Drill collar
Once the core is
connection
retrieved from the
well, it is common
to do a lithologic
description at the Thrust bearing
well site. In
addition, to keep
Outer barrel
the core from
drying out, it is
Inner barrel
sometimes sealed
in a coating of hot
Core retaining
wax and foil.
ring
PDC Cutters
Fluid
vent
Core bit
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Drill collar
At the laboratory,
connection
the core is
photographed
under normal and
Thrust bearing
ultraviolet light.
(UV light will
reveal the presence
Outer barrel
of hydrocarbons.)
Inner barrel
Routine and special
core analysis may
then be conducted. Core retaining
ring
PDC Cutters
Fluid
vent
Core bit
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Whole Core
Photograph,
Misoa C
Sandstone,
Venezuela
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The sidewall sampling tool

can be used to obtain small
plugs from the formation.
The tool is run on a wireline
after the hole has been
drilled. S ome 20 to 30
bullets are fired from each
gun at different depths.
The hollow bullet will
penetrate the formation and a
rock sample will be trapped
inside the steel cylinder.
When the tool is pulled
upwards, wires connected to
the gun pull the bullet and
sample from the borehole
wall.
Core bullets
Formation rock
Core sample
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Sidewall cores are

useful for identifying
hydrocarbons zones,
when viewed under
UV light. Qualitative
inspection of porosity
is possible; however,
the cores may have
been crushed during
the collection process,
so quantitative
sampling of porosity
is questionable.
Core bullets
Formation rock
Core sample
PE 2090-505
A newer wireline
tool actually drills a
plug out of the
borehole wall, thus
avoiding crushing of
the sample. Up to
20 samples can be
individually cut and
are stored inside the
tool.
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Coring bit
Samples
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WHOLE CORE ANALYSIS vs.

PLUGS OR SIDEWALL CORES
WHOLE CORE
Provides larger samples
Better and more consistent

representation of formation
Better for heterogeneous rocks or for

more complex lithologies
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WHOLE CORE ANALYSIS vs.

Smaller samples
Less representative of heterogeneous

formations
Within 1 to 2% of whole cores for mediumto high-porosity formation
In lowlow-porosity formations, from core
plugs tends to be much greater than
from whole cores
Scalar effects in fractured reservoirs
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RESERVOIR PETROPHYSICS
LABORATORY DETERMINATION
OF POROSITY
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Porosity: The fraction of the bulk

volume of a rock that is porous.
Porosity is a static property it can be measured
in the absence of flow
Determining effective porosity requires fluid flow
to determine if pores are interconnected
V Vm
=
= b
Vb
Vb
Vp
Vb
Vm
Vp
Vb
=
=
=
=
=
Porosity, expressed as fraction

Bulk volume of reservoir rock, ft3
Matrix volume, ft3
Pore volume, ft3
Vm + Vp
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matrix
pore space
Matrix - non pore space; the grains of sandstone, limestone, dolomite,

and/or shale
Pore space - filled with fluids: water, oil, and/or gas
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1.
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Core samples (measure two of: Vb, Vp, or Vm )

Core samples are either obtained using the drilling rig with a special coring bit
and barrel (whole core) or using a logging tool (side-wall coring). Whole cores
are often 4 to 5 inches in diameter and are usually obtained in 30 or 60-feet
segments. They are generally preferred for technical evaluation but they are also
more expensive. Side-wall cores can be obtained by making an additional
logging run with a special logging device. A geologist usually studies the initial
logs and picks intervals where he thinks that he needs a formation sample. Sidewall cores are of less use to the engineer because they are often irregularly shaped
and partially damaged (often fractured) from the side-wall coring process.
2.
Openhole wireline logs

Open-hole porosity measurement logs (density, neutron, and sonic) are
routinely used to estimate formation porosity.
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Most methods use small samples (core plugs)

multiple samples must be analyzed to get
statistically representative results
sampling technique is important
often all samples are taken from sweet
spots skewing analysis
To determine porosity, measure 2 of 3

volumetric parameters:
1. Bulk volume, Vb
2. Matrix volume, Vm (also called grain volume)
3. Pore volume, Vp
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Volume is an extensive property
=V m+
Fraction of volume
consisting of
pores or voids
Fraction of volume consisting
of matrix
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Lithology
Matrix Density
(g/cm3)
Sandstone(SS)
Limestone(LS)
Dolomite(Dol)
These values are important for core and log analysis. Commit them to memory.
Unfortunately, few rocks consist of pure components but exist as a mixture of
numerous minerals of varying sizes and compositions. Therefore, one can
rarely assume the matrix density and get an accurate estimate of matrix volume.
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Bulk volume determinations

1. Direct calculation
2. Fluid displacement methods
Gravimetric
Volumetric mercury pycnometer ( a

precisely calibrated bottle)
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Applicable for regularly shaped cores or core plugs
Calculate from core dimensions
For example; volume of right circular cylinder
Vb =
d2 L
4
Vb
d
L
=
=
=
Bulk volume
Diameter
Length
Most core analyses are conducted on core plugs that are cut from the whole
core and are right circular cylinders. Special saws are used to cut the core
plugs and their faces, so they are ready for special core analyses.
Irregularly shaped cores require a different measurement.
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Bulk volume determinations

1. Direct calculation
2. Fluid displacement methods
Gravimetric (Archimedes) methods
Volumetric in pycnometer
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1) Mass is a measurement of
the amount of matter
something contains, while
Weight is the measurement of
the pull of gravity on an object.
Archimedes principle:
buoyant force is equal to the
weight of the fluid
displaced.
W dry
W sat
Self Study: Review

difference between mass
and weight.
Self Study: A boat containing a person
and a large rock floats in a swimming
pool. The level of the water is marked on
the side of the pool.
Then, the person throws the rock out of the
boat, and it sinks to the bottom of the pool.
Does the water level in the pool rise, fall
or stay the same?
Vp =
W sat - W dry
fluid
Vm =
W dry - W sub
fluid
Vb =
W sat - W sub
fluid
W sat - W dry
W sat - W sub
W sub
2) Mass is measured by
using a balance comparing
a known amount of matter
to an unknown amount of
matter. Weight is measured
on a scale.
3) The Mass of an object
doesn't change when an
object's location changes.
Weight, on the otherhand
does change with location.
PE 2090-505
79
i) Coating the rock with paraffin or similar substance
(Example 1, pg. 26-3, Bradley).

A core sample coated with paraffin immersed in a
container of liquid displaced 10.9 cm3 of the liquid.
The weight of the dry core sample was 20.0 g, while the
weight of the dry sample coated with paraffin was 20.9 g.
Assume the density of the solid paraffin is 0.9 g/cm3.
Calculate the bulk volume of the sample.
80
40
PE 2090-505
i) Coating the rock with paraffin or similar substance

(Solution to Example 1, pg. 26-3, Bradley).
Weight of dry sample in air, WA = 20 g
Weight of dry sample coated with paraffin, WB = 20.9 g
(density of paraffin, B = 0.9 g/cc)
Weight of coated sample immersed in water, WC = 10 g
(density of water, W = 1.0 g/cc)
PE 2090-505
81
Melc her Nutting Technique (simplified):

Weight an empty beaker.
Using a metal pycnometer, fill it with mercury (Hg), press down top, brush
Hg that spills out into a beaker & put back into supply.
Set pycnometer in empty beaker (step 1), set clean sample in pycnometer,
press down top, Hg spills into beaker, brush Hg of pycnometer, & remove
from beaker.
Weight (beaker + Hg)
Bulk volume can

be estimated
either
volumetrically
(using electric
pycnometer or
volumeter) or
gravimetrically
as follows:
Electric pycnometer
Stevens porosimeter
82
41
PE 2090-505
ii) Saturating the rock with the fluid into which it is to be immersed

Weight of saturated sample in air, WSA = 22.5 g
Weight of saturated sample in water, WW = 12.6 g
PE 2090-505
83
iii) Dry sample immersed in Mercury Pycnometer

Weight of dry sample in air, WA = 20 g
Weight of pycnometer filled with mercury, W P = 350 g
Weight of pycnometer filled with mercury and sample, W P&S = 235.9 g
(density of Hg 13.546 g/cc)
We can calculate
Weight of dry sample + Weight of pycnometer with mercury, WA +W P = WA +
W P = 20 + 350 = 370 g
Weight of displaced mercury, W Hg = WA +W P W p&S = 370 235.9 = 134.1 g
Volume of displaced mercury VHg = 134.1/13.546 = 9.9 cm3
VB = 9.9 cm3 .
84
42
PE 2090-505
To determine porosity, measure 2 of 3 basic parameters:
1. Bulk volume (Vb)

2. Matrix volume (Vm)
Assume matrix (grain) density
Displacement method
Boyles Law
3. Pore volume (Vp)
PE 2090-505
85
Matrix (Vm)
1.
Assume rock density based on lithology and measure dry mass
Displacement methods
volumetric
gravimetric (see previous description)
Boyles Law:
p1 V1 = p2 V2
Ideal Gas Law: R = pV/nT; valid at low pressures and high

temperatures (e.g. lab conditions).
R is the Universal Gas Constant. The value and units of R are
determined by specification of the units of p,V, n, and T.
For example, R = 10.73 (psia*ft^3)/(lbmol*deg.R), and
R=8.314 (Pa*m^3)/(mol*K)
Boyles Law simply says pV is constant if nT is constant.
86
43
PE 2090-505
Known or assumed matrix density
Vm =
Mass of Dry Sample

Matrix Density
PE 2090-505
87
Known or assumed matrix density

Accurate only if matrix density is known and not
assumed
Core samples are often mixtures of several
components with varying matrix densities, so
density must be measured
88
44
PE 2090-505

basic parameters:
1. Bulk volume (Vb)
2. Matrix volume(Vm)
Assumed matrix (grain) density
Displacement method
Boyles Law
3. Pore volume (Vp)
PE 2090-505

89
Reduce sample to particle size

Measure matrix volume of particles by:
Volumetric method: submerge particles into a
liquid and observe change in liquid volume.
Archimedes method (gravimetric measurement):
measure change in weight of particles
submerged in liquid.
90
45
PE 2090-505
Given:
Bulk Volume, Vb = 9.9 cm3

Matrix Volume, Vma = 7.7 cm3
Note that you get total porosity.
PE 2090-505
91
The core sample from Example 1 was stripped of the paraffin

coat, crushed to grain size, and immersed in a container with
liquid. The volume of liquid displaced by the grains was 7.7 cm3.
Calculate the matrix volume and the core porosity. Is this
effective porosity or total porosity? (It is total porosity)
92
46
PE 2090-505

basic parameters:
1. Bulk volume (Vb)
Assumed matrix (grain) density
Displacement method
Boyles Law (Gas Expansion)
3. Pore volume (Vp)
PE 2090-505
93
Involves compression of gas into pores
Uses Boyles law
p 1 V1 = p 2 V 2
p1
p2
V1
V2
=
=
=
=
Pressure at initial conditions, psia

Pressure at final conditions, psia
Initial volume
Final volume
94
47
PE 2090-505
Initial conditions, with volumes of 2 cells

known
Place core in second cell, evacuate gas (air)

from second cell
Open valve
PE 2090-505
95
P1
Initial conditions
Core
V1
Cell 1
Valve
closed
With V1 known, record p 1

Where p 1
= pressure at initial conditions,
V1
= Volume of cell 1
Evacuate
Cell 2
Place cleaned, dried core sample in cell 2

Evacuate cell 2
Open valve
96
48
PE 2090-505
Final conditions
P1
P2
Core
Valve
open
Cell 1
PE 2090-505
Cell 2
With V1 known, record p 1

p1
= pressure at initial conditions
V1
= Volume of cell 1
Place cleaned, dried core sample in cell 2
Evacuate cell 2
Open valve
97
Vf = Volume of Cell 1 + Volume of Cell 2 Matrix Volume of Core
Vt = Volume of Cell 1 + Volume of Cell 2
Vm = Vt - Vf
This method assumes that the core becomes saturated with the gas. Incomplete
saturation would lead to an overestimate of the matrix volume.
98
49
PE 2090-505
Displacement method - Very accurate when

core sample is crushed without destroying
individual matrix grains
Gas expansion method - Very accurate,
especially for samples with low porosities
Neither method requires a prior knowledge of core properties
PE 2090-505
99

Volume of the core chamber, VCC = 15 cc
Core bulk volume, VB = 9.9 cc
Volume of the air (first reading) = 6.970 cc
Volume of the air (second reading) = 0.03 cc
Volume of the air (third reading) = 0.0 cc
Total reading, VTA = 6.97+0.03 = 7 cc
100
50
PE 2090-505

basic parameters:
1. Bulk volume (Vb)
3. Pore volume (Vp)
PE 2090-505
101
Pore volume determination (Effective)

1. Gravimetric (Archimedes)
Vp = Wsat - Wdry
fluid
2.
Boyles Law:p1 V1 = p2
V2 (Gas expansion)
102
51
PE 2090-505
Measures the difference between the weight of

a core sample saturated with a single fluid and
the dry weight of the core
Pore volume,
V
sat
dry
Vp
W sa
wdry
f
=
=
=
=
Pore volume, cm 3
Weight of core saturated with fluid, g
Weight of dry core, g
Density of saturated fluid, gm/cm 3
Method follows Archimedes Principle: A body wholly or

partially immersed in a fluid is buoyed up with a force equal
to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.
PE 2090-505
103
Using the gravimetric method with the following data, calculate

the pore and bulk volumes and the porosity. Is this porosity
total or effective?
Dry weight of sample, W dry = 427.3 g
Weight of sample saturated with water, W sat = 448.6 g
Density of water ( f ) = 1.0 g/cm3
Weight of saturated sample submerged in water, W sub = 269.6 g
104
52
PE 2090-505
PE 2090-505
105
Saturation (Archimedes) method

Accurate in better quality rocks if effective pore
spaces can be completely saturated
In poorer quality rocks, difficult to completely
saturate sample
Saturating fluid may react with minerals in the
core (e.g., swelling clays)
T his method is more difficult to apply to core samples that require a jacket or rubber sleeve such
as an unconsolidated sandstone. The jacket creates experimental problems, reducing its accuracy.
T his method cannot be used for determining porosity under confining stress, whereas the gas
expansion (Boyles law) method can be conducted at multiple values of confining stress.
106
53
PE 2090-505
Pore volume determination (Effective)

1. Gravimetric (Archimedes)
Vp = Wsat - Wdry
fluid
2.
Boyles Law:
p1 V1 = p 2 V2
(Gas expansion)
PE 2090-505
107
Initial conditions
P1
Core
V1
Cell 1
Valve
closed
Cell 2
The core plug is placed in a Hassler sleeve, making the volume of Cell 2 equal to the bulk
volume.
This method is a continuation of the measurement of the matrix volume and uses Boyles law.
The experiment is set up differently to measure pore volume.
Boyles law:
Initial cell conditions: measure V1 in Cell 1
Put core in Hassler sleeve, evacuate
108
54
PE 2090-505
Final conditions
P1
P2
Core
Cell 1
Valve
open
Cell 2
PE 2090-505
109
110
55
PE 2090-505
Very accurate for both high-quality (high ) and low-quality

(low ) core samples
Should use low-molecular-weight inert gases (e.g., helium)
Measures effective (connected) pore volume

The gas expansion method (Boyles law method) is probably the preferred
method for measurement of core porosity, except for samples that are not
perfect right cylinders or ones with large surface vugs or chips. The method
is preferable for poorly consolidated samples that require a rubber sleeve or
jacket.
One advantage of the method is that it is accurate and reasonably fast.
Another important feature is that the measurement can be made at confining
pressures approximating reservoir stress conditions.
PE 2090-505
111
SUMMARY
basic parameters:
1. Bulk volume
2. Matrix volume
3. Pore volume
112
56
PE 2090-505

Allow direct measurement of reservoir properties

Used to correlate indirect measurements, such as
wireline/LWD (Logging-While-Drilling) logs
Used to test compatibility of injection fluids
Used to predict borehole stability
Used to estimate probability of formation failure
and sand production
Cores from the reservoir allow direct measurements of important reservoir
properties. It is important to gather cores from a representative part of the
reservoir, as reservoir properties vary horizontally and vertically. If a reservoir is
known to be highly heterogeneous, many core samples will be required to
describe the reservoir accurately.
PE 2090-505
113
SOME KEY FORMULAS
Porosity
= =
Vp
Vb
V b V ma
Vb
V =V +V
V = (V )
V = (1 )(V )
m = ( )(V )
b
114
57
PE 2090-505
POROSITY DETERMINATION
FROM LOGS
PE 2090-505
115
Wireline logs or
know as well logging
or formation
evaluation (Sonic
travel time), where
electronic & nuclear
tools are lowered to
bottom of the well &
pulled slowly back
up the hole
116
58
PE 2090-505
T his figure illustrates the

basic setup of the logging
process. A wireline truck
with a spool of logging
cable is setup so that the
sonde (measuring
equipment) can be lowered
into the wellbore. T he
logging tools measure
different properties, such
as spontaneous potential
(SP) and formation
Re sistivity, as the sonde is
brought to the surface. The
information is processed
by a computer in the
logging vehicle, and is
interpreted by an engineer
or geologist.
Well Log
SP
Resistiv ity
PE 2090-505
117
POROSITY DETERMINATION BY LOGGING

An engineer or geologist
can interpret the log
readings to reach certain
conclusions about the
formation. For example,
-a decrease in
radioactivity from the
gamma ray log could
indicate the presence of a
sandstone formation.
-An increase in resistivity
may indicate the presence
of hydrocarbons.
-And, an increase in a
porosity log might
indicate that the
formation has porosity
and is permeable.
Increasing Increasing Increasing

radioactivity resistivity porosity
Shale
Oil sand
Shale
Gamma
ray
Resisitivity Porosity
118
59
PE 2090-505
3 Main Log Types

Bulk density
Sonic (acoustic)
Compensated neutron
These logs do not measure porosity directly. To

accurately calculate porosity, the analyst must
know:
Formation lithology
Fluid in pores of sampled reservoir volume
PE 2090-505
119
Uses radioactive source to generate gamma

rays
Gamma ray collides with electrons in
formation, losing energy
Detector measures intensity of back-scattered
gamma rays, which is related to electron density
of the formation
Electron density is a measure of bulk density
120
60
PE 2090-505
Bulk density, b, is dependent upon:

Lithology
Porosity
Density and saturation of fluids in pores
Saturation is fraction of pore volume occupied by a
particular fluid (intensive)
PE 2090-505
121
0
6
6
GR
API
CALIX
IN
CALIY
IN
200
16
RHOB
G/C3
-0.25
3
DRHO
G/C3
0.25
16
4100
4200
122
61
PE 2090-505

Compensated Density log: metal tool lowered in

hole with radiation source that emits gamma
rays, which bombard the formations that the tool
passes. Detector in the logging tool measures
deflected gamma rays which reflect concentration
of electrons in rock.
electrons in rock gamma ray returning
b
electrons in rock gamma ray returning
b
PE 2090-505
123
To minimize the inf luence of the mud

column, the source and detector, mounted
on a skid, are shielded.
The openings of the shields are applied
against the wall of the borehole by means of
a centering arm.
The f orce exerted is substantial, and the
skid has a plow shaped leading edge.
Theref ore, it is able to cut through sof t mud
cakes usually encountered at medium and
shallow depths.
Some mud cake may remain, however, and
is seen by the tool as part of the
f ormation. This must be accounted f or.
A correction is needed when the contact
between the skid and the f ormations is not
perf ect (due to mud cake or roughness of
the borehole wall).
In unf avorable cases, this correction can be
f airly large. If only one detector is used,
the correction is not easy to determine, as it
depends on the thickness, the weight, and
even the composition of the mud cake or
mud interposed between the skid and
f ormation.
Using two detectors, a correction can be
made f or unf avorable conditions.
Mud cake
(
m c + hm c)
Formation (
b)
Long spacing
detector
Short spacing
detector
Source
124
62
PE 2090-505
b = ma (1 ) + f
Matrix
Measures electron density of a formation
Strong function of formation bulk density
Fluids in
flushed zone
Matrix bulk density varies w ith lithology

Sandstone 2.65 g/cc
Lim estone 2.71 g/cc
Dolom ite 2.87 g/cc
PE 2090-505
125
The bulk density log is a pad device. This means that the
log must be in constant contact with the borehole wall.
This is accomplished through the use of a caliper arm on
the back side of the density de vice.
ma
b
When the pad loses contact with the formation e ither
through washouts, the bulk de nsity reading is affected.
The re ading from the density log is always too low in the
ma
f
pre sence of washout.
This re sults in a calculated porosity that is much too
high, because the density log is reading in essence the
porosity of the washout or the gap between the porosity,
f
mf xo
h
xo
pad, and the borehole wall.
Although density logs are compensated for the presence
of mudcake, this compensation is often inadequate to
account for all of the e ffects of borehole breakouts, and
washouts
We usually assume the fluid density ( f) is betw een 1.0 and 1.1. If gas is
present, the actual f w ill be < 1.0 and the calculated porosity w ill be too high.
Porosity equation
Fluid density equation
+ (1 S
mf
h
is the mud filtrate density, g/cc

is the hydrocarbon density, g/cc
Sxo
is the saturation of the flush/zone, decimal
126
63
PE 2090-505

g b
( ) is estimated from fluid density as:: =

g f
Imp ortant densities:
f fluid (salty mud) density

w fresh water mud density
ss sandstone density
ls limestone density
dodolomite density
Hgmercury density
1.1
1.0
2.65
2.71
2.87
13.54
g/cc
g/cc
g/cc
g/cc
g/cc
g/cc
Example:
Example Calculate the porosity of s ands tone with a bulk
density ( b) = 2.16 g/cc
Solution:
PE 2090-505
127
Working equation (hydrocarbon zone)
b = S xo mf + (1 S xo ) hc
+ V sh sh + (1 Vsh ) ma
Sxo mf =
(1 - Sxo) hc =
Vsh sh =
1 - - Vsh =
Recorded parameter (bulk volume)

Mud filtrate component
Hydrocarbon component
Shale component
Matrix component
128
64
PE 2090-505
If minimal shale, Vsh 0
If hc mf f, then
b = f - (1 - ) ma
= d =
ma b
ma f
d = Porosity from density log, fraction

ma = Density of formation matrix, g/cm 3
b = Bulk density from log measurement, g/cm 3
f = Density of fluid in rock pores, g/cm 3
hc = Density of hydrocarbons in rock pores, g/cm 3
mf = Density of mud filtrate, g/cm 3
sh = Density of shale, g/cm 3
Vsh = Volume of shale, fraction
Sxo = Mud filtrate saturation in zone invaded by mud filtrate, fraction
PE 2090-505
001) BON AN ZA 1
GRC
0
150
SPC
-160 MV
40
ACAL
6
16
129
ILDC
0.2
200
SNC
0.2
200
RHOC
1.95
2.95
CNLLC
0.45
-0.15
DT
150 us/f 50
MLLCF
0.2
200
10700
10800
10900
130
65
PE 2090-505
Logging tool emits high energy neutrons into formation
Neutrons collide with nuclei of formations atoms
Neutrons lose energy (velocity) with each collision

The most energy is lost when colliding with a
hydrogen atom nucleus
Neutrons are slowed sufficiently to be captured by

nuclei
Capturing nuclei become excited and emit gamma

rays
PE 2090-505

131
Depending on type of logging tool either gamma

rays or non-captured neutrons are recorded
Log records porosity based on neutrons
captured by formation
If hydrogen is in pore space, porosity is related to
the ratio of neutrons emitted to those counted as
captured
Neutron log reports porosity, calibrated
assuming calcite matrix and fresh water in
pores, if these assumptions are invalid we must
correct the neutron porosity value
132
66
PE 2090-505
Theoretical equation N = S xo Nmf + (1 S xo ) Nhc
+ Vsh sh + (1 Vsh ) Nma
N
Sxo Nmf
(1 - Sxo ) Nhc
Vsh Nsh
(1 - - Vsh ) Nhc
where
=
=
=
=
=
Recorded parameter
Mud filtrate portion
Hydrocarbon portion
Shale portion
Matrix portion
N
Nma
Nhc
Nmf
Vsh
Sxo
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
T rue porosity of rock

Porosity from neutron log measurement, fraction
Porosity of matrix fraction
Porosity of formation saturated with hydrocarbon fluid, fraction
Porosity saturated with mud filtrate, fraction
Volume of shale, fraction
Mud filtrate saturation in zone invaded by mud filtrate, fraction
PE 2090-505
001) BONANZA 1
GRC
0
150
SPC
-160 MV
40
ACAL
6
16
133

CNLLC=Captured neutron log limestone calibrated
ILDC
0.2
200
SNC
0.2
200
RHOC
1.95
2.95
CNLLC
0.45
-0.15
DT
150 us/f 50
MLLCF
0.2
200
10700
10800
Uses a radioactive source to bombard the

formation with neutrons
For a given formation, amount of
hydrogen in the formation (I.e. hydrogen
index) impacts the number of neutrons
that reach the receiver
10900
A large hydrogen index implies a large

liquid-filled porosity (oil or water). The
hydrogen index is calibrated to limestone
porosity. If the lithology is sandstone or
dolomite, the following chart can be used
to correct the porosity.
134
67
PE 2090-505
ACOUSTIC (SONIC) LOG
Upper
transmitter
R1
R2
R3
R4
Lower
transmitter
PE 2090-505
Tool usually consists of one sound transmitter

(above) and two receivers (below)
Sound is generated, travels through formation
Elapsed time between sound wave at receiver

1 vs receiver 2 is dependent upon density of
medium through which the sound traveled
Sonic tools are usually borehole compensated (B HC), which

substantially reduces spurious effects at hole size changes as well as
errors due to sonde tilt.
As shown in the f igure, the B HC system uses two transmitters, one
above and one below a pair of sonic receivers.
When one of the transmitters is pulsed, the sound wave enters the
formation, travels along the wellbore and triggers both of the receivers;
the time elapsed between the sound reaching each receiver is recorded.
The speed of sound in the sonic sonde and mud is less than that in
the f ormations. Accordingly, the f irst arrivals of sound energy the
receivers corresponds to the sound-travel paths in the f ormation
near the borehole wall.
The BHC transmitters are pulsed alternately, and the delta t readings
are averaged. In this way, the tool is compensated for tilt.
If the travel time for the matrix is known, then porosity can be
calculated.
135
T his figure illustrates sonic log

response to an acoustic wave
transmitted through a compacted
formation.
The time, To , at which the
acoustic wave was initiated at the
transmitter, is shown for
re fe rence.
T he first arrival at the receiver is
the compressional wave. The
Rayleigh wave, traveling at a
slower rate, arrives later and is
superimposed on the compressional
wave. Following the Rayleigh
waves are the slower mud waves,
transmitted through the mud
column and the tool.
The fle xibility of boreholecompe nsated (BHC) e quipment
pe rmits the recording of acoustic
logs other than delta t. The se
include the Amplitude Log for
fracture de tection, Cement Bond
Log, and Variable De nsity Log.
Compressional
waves
Rayleigh
waves
Mud waves
E3
E1
E2
T0
50
sec
136
68
PE 2090-505
Table: Commonly used travel time

Mineral Matrix
tma ( s/ft)
Sandstone
55.5
Limestone
47.5
Dolomite
43.5
Anhydrite
50.0
Salt
67.0
Casing
57.0
Fluid
190
PE 2090-505
137
Working equation
tL = S xo t mf + (1 S xo ) t hc
+ Vsh tsh + (1 Vsh ) tma
t L
Recorded parameter, travel time read from log
Sxo t mf
M ud filtrate portion
(1 - Sxo) t hc
Hydrocarbon portion
Vsh t sh
Shale portion
(1 - - Vsh) t ma
M atrix portion
138
69
PE 2090-505
Sonic (Acoustic) log: measures shortest time

required for a sound wave to travel vertically
through one foot of formation adjacent to
wellbore & this can then be related to (if the
lithology (i.e. rock type) is known)
Logging tool has transmitter which emits 1530 pulses/sec & 2 or 3 receivers located in
tool 4 to 5 below transmitter. This can be
written according to Wyllie as:
s = =
tL t ma
t f t ma
where:
s = Porosity calculated from sonic log reading, fraction
tlog = formation time from well log (s/ft).
tma = matrix travel time.
tf = fluid travel time.
PE 2090-505
139
A sandstone section showed an average tlog =

70 s/ft. Find the porosity of this section using
Wyllies Eqn.
t log = t ma (1 ) + t f ( )
Solution:
140
70
PE 2090-505
GR
API
200
140
DT
USFT
40
CALIX
IN
16
30
SPHI
%
10
4100
4200
Caliper
PE 2090-505
141
The response can be written as follows:

The sonic log measures the
compressional arrival. There are
several more sophisticated sonic logs
that couple a different type of log and a
more sophisticated processing
algorithm to determine both the shear
wave arrival and the compressional
wave arrival. Using both the shear and
compressional times, the log analyst
can determine rock properties such as
Poissons ratio, Youngs modulus, and
bulk modulus. These values are very
important when designing hydraulic
fracture treatments or when trying to
determine when a well may start to
produce sand.
tlog = t ma (1 ) + t f
t log t ma
t f t ma
Sonic log - measures the slowness of a compressional wave to

travel in the formation. where t is travel time (slowness)
tlog = log reading, sec/ft
tma = the matrix travel time, sec/ft
tf = the fluid travel time, sec/ft
= porosity
Matrix travel time (tma) is a function of lithology
t ma =
55.5 sec/ft sandstone
t ma =
47.5 sec/ft limestone
t ma =
43.5 sec/ft dolomite
142
71
PE 2090-505
001) BONANZA 1
GRC
0
150
SPC
-160 MV
40
ACAL
6
16
ILDC
0.2
200
SNC
0.2
200
RHOC
1.95
2.95
CNLLC
0.45
-0.15
DT
150 us/f 50
MLLCF
0.2
200
10700
10800
10900
PE 2090-505
143
Unconsolidated formations
Naturally fractured formations
Hydrocarbons (especially gas)
Rugose salt sections
144
72
PE 2090-505
The three porosity logs:

Respond differently to different matrix compositions
Respond differently to presence of gas or light oils
Combinations of logs can:

Imply composition of matrix
Indicate the type of hydrocarbon in pores
PE 2090-505
145
Density - is too high
Neutron - is too low
Sonic - is not significantly affected by gas
Remember that the density log, the neutron log, and the sonic logs do not measure porosity. Rather,
porosity is calculated from measurements such as electron density, hydrogen index and sonic travel
time. The calculated density porosity is too high only because in the calculation we typically dont
account for the fluid density change. In other words, we assume the fluid density is 1 (or completely
liquid filled) even though with gas that value is lower, which causes the calculated porosity to be too
high.
T he neutron porosity is too low because the hydrogen index or the hydrogen density of gas is lower;
therefore, the liquid-filled porosity is what the neutron log sees. So when gas is present, that value is
lower than the actual porosity.
And finally, the sonic log is not significantly affected by gas because it reads very near the wellbore
and small gas saturations do not impact the overall travel time significantly.
146
73
PE 2090-505
Openhole logging tools are the most common method of

determining porosity:
Less expensive than coring and may be less risk of sticking the tool
in the hole
Coring may not be practical in unconsolidated formations or in
formations with high secondary porosity such as vugs or natural
fractures.
If porosity measurements are very important, both coring

and logging programs may be conducted so the log-based
porosity calculations can be used to be calibrated to the
core-based porosity measurements.
PE 2090-505
147
Influence Of Clay-Mineral Distribution

On Effective Porosity
Dispersed Clay
Pore-filling
Pore-lining
Pore-bridging
Clay
Minerals
Detrital Quartz
Grains
e
e
Clay Lamination
Structural Clay
(Rock Fragm ents,
Rip-Up Clasts,
Clay-Replaced Grains)
ee
148
74
PE 2090-505
Petrophysical
Core Pore
Core Lithofacies
analyses of
Plugs Types
core samples
are used to
identify
reservoir flow
units and nonflow units.
T he results
are used to
calibrate well
logs, after
which well
logs can be
used to map
flow units
throughout a
field.
Petrophysical
Data
vs k Capillary
Pressure
Gamma Ray Flow

Log
Units
5
4
3
1
149
75

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PE 2090-505

Introduction To Petroleum Engineering

Dr. Hassan Alkandari

Introduction To Petroleum Engineering

Introduction To Petroleum Engineering

Note different use of

Dr. Hassan Alkandari

Introduction To Petroleum Engineering

Porosity: The fraction of the bulk

Dr. Hassan Alkandari

Introduction To Petroleum Engineering

Water often exists

Oil and/or gas

Dr. Hassan Alkandari

Introduction To Petroleum Engineering

concepts of rock matrix and porosity

Dr. Hassan Alkandari

Introduction To Petroleum Engineering

Rocks under high

Dr. Hassan Alkandari

Introduction To Petroleum Engineering

Igne ous rocks are formed from

Dr. Hassan Alkandari

Se dimentary rocks are

Me tamorphic rocks are formed

Introduction To Petroleum Engineering

Dr. Hassan Alkandari

Introduction To Petroleum Engineering

Comparison of Compositions of Clastic

Dr. Hassan Alkandari

Introduction To Petroleum Engineering

Grain-Size Classification for Clastic Sediments

Commonly, phi-sizes are used

Dr. Hassan Alkandari

Introduction To Petroleum Engineering

Average Detrital Mineral Composition

Dr. Hassan Alkandari

Introduction To Petroleum Engineering

Dr. Hassan Alkandari

Introduction To Petroleum Engineering

FOUR MAJOR COMPONENTS OF

Dr. Hassan Alkandari

Introduction To Petroleum Engineering

FOUR COMPONENTS OF SANDSTONE

Note different use of matrix

Dr. Hassan Alkandari

Introduction To Petroleum Engineering

Dr. Hassan Alkandari

Introduction To Petroleum Engineering

Classification of porosity depending on origin:

Inte rr-granular porosity

Dr. Hassan Alkandari

Introduction To Petroleum Engineering

Classification of porosity depending on origin:

Inte rr-granular porosity

Dr. Hassan Alkandari

Introduction To Petroleum Engineering

Classification of porosity depending on origin:

Dr. Hassan Alkandari

Introduction To Petroleum Engineering

Developed by geologic processes after

Grain dissolution in sandstones or carbonates

Vugs and solution cavities in carbonates

Fracture development in some sandstones, shales,