PA 6344 SEMINAR IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT MANAGEMENT

Spring 2006

Dr. Doug Watson

Douglas.watson@utdallas.edu
Phone: 972-883-4907
Office: Green Hall 2.531
Thursday 7-9:45 PM

Introduction

Local governments in the United States play an important role in our democratic
system. Since they are not mentioned in the United States Constitution, they are
creations of state governments and can only do what state law authorizes them to do
either through charters or general law. They are responsible for the provision of varied
services directly to citizens, such as land use planning, law enforcement, water and sewer
services, and recreation. Local governments are also the place in our democratic system
where citizens have the most direct contact with elected and appointed officials on
numerous issues. For these and other reasons, local government managers operate in a
complex legal and political environment.

There is no single established way for local governments to organize to carry out
their duties. Most states allow cities and counties to choose by referendum one of several
alternate forms of government spelled out in state law. However, by practice, there are
now two dominant forms of local governments- the mayor-council and the council-
manager. There are numerous variations on these two forms, however. Both are
organizational arrangements that allow for the political and managerial functions of local
government to take place.

Within this legal and political environment, the services provided by local
governments must be delivered to the citizens of a city or county. Both the method and
quality of service delivery are usually determined by managers who are hired by elected
officials. The management of cities and counties has become increasingly professional
over the past several decades. How the professional staff delivers services to the public
within the political environment in which it works will be the topic of much discussion in
this course.

In this course, we will examine the questions of structure of local government, the
roles of key elected and appointed officials, and numerous issues that face local
government managers today. Officials who are involved in local government policy and
management will be in class to share with you their experiences and expertise.
 Course Requirements- Individual Work

Active Participation- This course is a seminar and depends on your active

participation in class. That means that you have to read the assignments carefully and
come to class prepared to share your opinions and insights with other class members.
Attendance is very important since the class meets only once per week. If you know you
will not be able to attend, please let me know in advance via e-mail or telephone. More
than two absences may affect your final grade.

Journal Articles- You will be required to find two journal articles from peer-
reviewed academic journals, such as Public Administration Review, State and Local
Government Review, Public Performance Review, or Review of Public Personnel
Administration on topics we are discussing. Summarize the main points of the journal
article in approximately three pages, be prepared to present your report to the class, and
turn in the article and the summary. One will be due in the first five weeks of the course,
and the second during the next five weeks of the course.

Attendance at Local Governing Body Meeting- You are required to attend one
meeting of a local government governing body and to write an analysis of your
experience. You should provide a brief summary of the agenda items, the nature and
tone of the discussion, the decisions made, and the votes on the major items. You should
identify the key participants, the roles they played in the meeting, and the way they
interacted. Was there apparent conflict among the elected officials? Was there any
citizen involvement in the meeting and, if so, what was the nature of it? How did the
professionals (city manager, city attorney, department heads) perform at the meeting?
Did you perceive them to be competent and knowledgeable? The paper should be
approximately 5-7 pages, typed and double-spaced. Please attach newspaper clippings of
the meeting, a copy of the agenda, and any other pertinent information.

An alternative to the attendance at a local governing body meeting is to shadow a

city manager for at least one morning or one afternoon. If you are interested in this
option, please let me know and I will make arrangements with a city manager in the
Metroplex for you. You will have to write a brief paper explaining the kind of issues that
the city manager dealt with while you were with him or her, as well as your impressions
of the approach the city manager took to addressing the issues that he or she faced during
the day.

In the News- Local government issues are given extensive coverage in the
newspaper and other media every day. Over the course of the semester, please bring to
class at least five articles from the print media that relate to an important issue in local
government management. When you present your news article, discuss how it relates to
the course readings. Preferably, please find articles that deal with elected officials, city
managers, or department heads facing tough issues or questioning.

Course Project- You will be responsible for researching and writing a case study
on a project or problem that one of the local governments has faced or is facing currently.
It can involve a political problem that has been faced by a local government administrator
or can be written about a major infrastructure project or social program that addresses
community needs. You should interview the people involved in the situation and
research documents or media reports on it. Remember that your case study is an
objective report and should not advocate one position or the other if there are opposing
factions. The case study will be written in three segments over the semester and the final
paper of approximately 15 pages will be turned in on the date shown on the class
schedule below. I will ask different students to tell the class about their research after the
three due dates. The following segments must be turned in on the dates shown on the
syllabus.

1. The first segment will be the introduction to the case study. It will include a
description of the local government, including size, location, form of
government, and the administrative and political key players. In the
introduction, you should describe the problem or situation that the local
government faced in sufficient detail that the reader understands your topic.

2. The second segment will be the telling of the story of your problem or project.
What alternatives were considered? Why was the path chosen by the local
government or the key players rather than an alternate option. What was the
outcome?

3. The third segment will include a discussion of the lessons learned and the
conclusion. What does this case teach public administrators? Why is it
important? What would you have done differently if you were the decision-
maker?

Course Requirements- Group Work

Short Summaries and Class Discussions- You will work as a member of a group
that will have assigned readings, as shown on the attached schedule. Your group will be
asked to present a concise summary of the key points of the assigned articles and your
group will lead the discussion in class on it. Group members will need to communicate
prior to the class on your individual roles in your shared responsibility for the
presentation. In addition, you will choose two of the six assigned articles to write a
several page summary that you will turn in as your individual work. Your group must
write at least one summary for each assigned article, so decide as a group which of the
articles that each of you will choose for your summaries.

Book Review- Your group will make a PowerPoint (PP) presentation on a book
that is assigned to your group. The PP should follow the format included in the syllabus
and should include a summary of the key points in the book and your critique of the
book. At the end of the presentation, conclude whether the book was worth reading and
give reasons for or against the value of reading it.
 Other Information

Class Speakers- We will have several local government elected officials and
appointed professionals to speak to the class this semester. Please be prepared to ask
questions of the speakers, specifically on topics that we are studying.

Examinations and Grading- There will be a final exam, as shown on the class
schedule. Your grade will be based on the following:

Individual work- Final exam 20 percent

Journal reviews 10 percent
Major paper 30 percent
Council meeting report 10 percent

Group work- Power Point presentation 15 percent

Readings summaries 10 percent
Discussion participation 5 percent

Policy on Scholastic Dishonesty- Students who violate University rules on

scholastic dishonesty are subject to disciplinary penalties, including the possibility of
failure in the course and/or dismissal from The University. Since such dishonesty harms
the individual, all students, and the integrity of The University, policies on scholastic
dishonesty will be strictly enforced.

UTD E-mail Account- Please ensure that your UTD e-mail account is activated
because I will send out messages concerning class on occasion. In addition, the MPA
program will send out all kinds of information on events, full-time jobs, and internship
opportunities.

Required Texts

Course packet available at Off Campus Books.

Douglas J. Watson and Wendy L. Hassett, eds. Local Government Management: Current
Issues and Best Practices

Course Schedule

Introduction
January 12

Module 1- Forms of local government

January 19, 26

Watson & Hassett (W&H), Chs. 4, 6

Svara, “Patterns of Conflict and Cooperation…”
 Gurwitt, “The Lure of the Strong Mayor”
Blodgett, “Beware the Lure of the Strong Mayor”
Montjoy & Watson, “Within Region Variation…”
Frederickson, et al., “The Changing Structure of American Cities…”
Ciglar, “Administration in the Modern American County”
Frederickson, et al., “Municipal Reform in Mayor-Council Cities: A Well
-Kept Secret”

Course Project, Installment 1 due on January26

Module 2- The role of elected officials

February 2, 9

W&H, Ch. 3, 7
Newell, “Enhancing the Governing Body’s Effectiveness”
Svara, “Redefining Leadership…”
Wheeland, “A Profile of a Facilitative Mayor:…”
Watson & Hassett, “Conflict Comes to Daphne”

Class Speaker: Mayor Pat Evans, Plano (February 2)

Group 1 Book Review- February 9

Module 3- The role of professional managers

February 16, 23, March 2

W & H, Chs. 1, 2, 5
Watson and Hassett, “Long-Serving City Managers: …” PAR 63-1
Watson and Hassett, “Career Paths of City Managers…” PAR 64-2
Watson and Watson, “Career Path to be Determined: Frank Vargas”
Hassett, “Career Advancement Choices of Female Managers…”

Class Speakers: City Manager Karen Daly, Greenville (February 16)

City Manager Bill Keffler, Richardson (February 23)

Groups 2 and 3 Book Reviews- March 2

Course Project, Installment 2 due on March 2

Spring Break- March 9

Module 4- Community politics

March 16-23

Sharp, “Political Participation in Cities”

 Pinderhughes, “Urban Racial and Ethnic Politics”
Hassett and Watson, “Brunswick: Feeling the Wrath”

Class Speaker: Councilman Jim Shepherd, Richardson

Module 5- Finance and Budgeting

March 30

W&H, Chs. 8, 9, 30

Module 6- Personnel & Labor Relations

April 6

W&H, Chs. 15, 17

Hartman, Homer, and Reff, “Human Resource Management Legal Issues”

Class Speaker: La Shon Ross, HR Director, Plano

Module 7- Community Planning

April 13

Newell, “Promoting the Community’s Future”

Wikstrom, “The City in the Regional Context”

Class Speaker: Frank Turner, Executive Director, Plano

Group 4 Book Review

Module 8- Economic Development

April 20

Bingham, “Economic Development Policies”

Rubin, “Shoot at Everything that Flies, Claim Everything that Falls”

Group 5 Book Review

Course Project, Installment 3 and Complete Paper due on April 20

Final Exam- April 27

 Module 1 Assignments
January 19-26

Watson & Hassett (W&H), Ch. 4 Group 1

Watson & Hassett (W&H), Ch. 6 Group 2

Svara, “Patterns of Conflict and Cooperation…” Group 3

Gurwitt, “The Lure of the Strong Mayor” Group 4

Blodgett, “Beware the Lure of the Strong Mayor” Group 5

Montjoy & Watson, “Within Region Variation…” Group 1

Frederickson, et al., “The Changing Structure of American Cities…” Group 2

Frederickson, et al., “Municipal Reform in Mayor-Council Cities: Group 3

A Well -Kept Secret”

Ciglar, “Administration in the Modern American County” Group 4

Module 2 Assignments
February 2-9

W&H, Ch. 3 Group 5

W&H, Ch. 7 Group 1

Newell, “Enhancing the Governing Body’s Effectiveness” Group 2

Svara, “Redefining Leadership…” Group 3

Wheeland, “A Profile of a Facilitative Mayor:…” Group 4

Watson & Hassett, “Conflict Comes to Daphne” Group 5

 Module 3 Assignments
February 16-23, March 2

W&H, Chapter 1 Group 1

W&H, Chapter 2 Group 2

W&H, Chapter 5 Group 3

Watson & Hassett, “Long-serving…” Group 4

Watson & Hassett, “Career Paths…” Group 5

Watson & Watson, “Career Path to be Determined…” Group 1

Hassett, “Career Advancement Choices of Female Managers…” Group 2

Module 4 Assignments
March 23

Sharp, “Political Participation in Cities” Group 3

Pinderhughes, “Urban Racial and Ethnic Politics” Group 4

Hassett & Watson, “Brunswick: Feeling the Wrath” Group 5

Module 5 Assignments
March 30

W&H, Ch. 8 Group 1

W&H, Ch. 9 Group 2
W&H, Ch. 30 Group 3

Module 6 Assignments
April 6

W&H, Ch. 15 Group 4

W&H, Ch 17 Group 5
Hartman, Homer, and Reff, “H-R-M- Legal Issues” Group 1
 Module 7 Assignments
April 13

Newell, “Promoting the Community’s Future” Group 2

Wikstrom, “The City in the Regional Context” Group 3

Module 8 Assignments
April 20

Bingham, “Economic Development Policies” Group 4

Rubin, “Shoot at Everything That Flies, …” Group 5

Book Reviews:

Group 1 Kurson, Leadership: Rudolph W. Guiliani

Group 2 Nalbandian, Professionalism in Local Government…

Group 3 Lazenby, Playing with Fire

Group 4 Rusk, Cities Without Suburbs

Group 5 Peterson, City Limits

 Information on Manuscript Formatting

Papers should follow the style guidelines in the Chicago Manual of Style, 14th edition.
Papers should be no less than 15 pages nor longer than 20 pages, including the endnotes,
reference list, tables, figures, charts, and appendices. The page-size guideline is based on
the U.S. standard 8.5x11 inch paper. All material should be 12-point type, double-spaced
on one side of the page with margins of one inch. Please do not use the autoformat
feature in your word processing program and do not embed endnotes.

An abstract of no more than 150 words should appear on a separate page, preceding the
first page of the manuscript. The abstract should include the central question addressed
by the article and the author’s findings and conclusions.

Article Title and Section Headings

The guidelines for article titles and section headings are as follows (please do not
underline):

Article title and principal subheads: 14-point roman type, title case, bold, and set on a line
separate from the text.
Secondary subheads: 12-point roman type, title case, bold, and set on a line separate from
the text.
Sub-subheads (run-in subheads): 12-point roman type, title case, bold and italic, run-in at
the beginning of a paragraph, and followed by a period.

Numbers
Numerals or words: Spell out only single-digit numbers (1–9) and use numerals for all
others. Use numerals for percentages and spell out percent (for instance, 9 percent).
Centuries should be spelled out and lowercased.
Decimal fractions: In the text, when a quantity equals less than 1.00, a zero appears
before the decimal. (for example, 0.25). If the quantity is always less than 1.00, as in
probabilities, correlation coefficients, and the like, a zero is typically omitted before the
decimal point (p < .05, R = .10)

Quotations
Quoted matter that runs six or more typed lines or that involves two or more paragraphs
should be set off as a block quotation; the quotation should start a new line, be set
without quotation marks, and be set in 11-point type. Shorter quotations are run into the
text and enclosed in quotation marks. Be sure to include page number(s) where quotation
appeared.

Quotation marks should be used to set off a word of unusual meaning or an unfamiliar,
excessively slangy, or coined word the first time it is used. Quotation marks are
unnecessary thereafter. Commonly known facts and proverbial, biblical, and well-known
literary expressions do not need to be enclosed in quotation marks.

Capitalization
When in doubt, do not capitalize. Only acronyms, such as FEMA, should appear in all
capital letters (after one spelled-out use). Civil, military, religious, and professional titles
and titles of nobility are capitalized only when they immediately precede a personal name
and are thus used as part of the name. Article and section titles of any kind should be
capitalized in title case.

Italics
Italicize names of books, newspapers, and journals; please do not underline them.
Italicize the names of plaintiff and defendant in the citation of legal cases. Italics are used
for isolated words and phrases in a foreign language if they are likely to be unfamiliar to
readers. Foreign words or phrases familiar to most readers and listed in Merriam-
Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 11th edition (for example, laissez faire) are not
italicized if used in an English context. Italicize a word on its first occurrence; thereafter
they are best set in roman. Italics may be used for emphasis and on the first occurrence.

Citing Works within the Text

To cite the works you used in developing your article, use the author-date system. For
each work to which you refer, supply the author’s last (family) name, date of publication
of the work cited, and a page number(s) if needed. There should be a reference list entry
for every text citation. (**Please note, no punctuation is used between author name and
date). For example: (Smith 1993, 24) or (Jones 1992, 37–40).

If you refer to an author in the text, the publication date and page numbers are a sufficient
reference. For example: As Johnson argues (1994, 17)…

If a work has more than three authors, use the name of the first author followed by et al.
For example: (Davidson et al. 1990, 27)

If you cite more than one work by the same author produced in the same year, distinguish
among the works with an alphabetical identifier after the date. For example: (Lowi
1985a, 13; Lowi 1985b, 18).

Assign letters to the dates of each work according to the alphabetical order of the titles of
the works. For example: If you cite The City and Urban Policy by Smith and both were
published in 1987, cite The City as (Smith 1987a) and Urban Policy as (Smith 1987b).

If you cite an electronic source, include the author’s last name (or file name if author’s
name is not available [for example, cgos.html]) and the date of publication or last
revision (or date accessed if publication date is not available).

Notes
Please DO NOT use footnotes. Use endnotes to elaborate or comment on material in the
text and place them at the end of the text under the subhead “Notes.” Notes should not be
created by use of the footnote or endnote feature of the word processor. Endnote
reference numbers in the text are set as superscript numbers—use the superscript feature
under “Fonts” to insert endnote numbers. In the notes themselves, the numbers are full
size (12-point roman type) and followed by a period.

References
Prepare a list of all the works you cite in the text and arrange them alphabetically by
author’s last name (please include only the works that are cited in the text). If you cite
more than one work by the same author, a 3-em dash replaces the name after the first
appearance and the entries are arranged by the year of publication in ascending order
(earliest to latest). If you cite more than one work by the same author published in the
same year, arrange them alphabetically by title and distinguish them by putting an a, b, c,
and so forth, following the year of publication. Titles and subtitles of books and articles
in the references are capitalized headline style. Please include author’s full given name,
instead of using initials.

Examples of some of the more common reference list entries are as follows:

Book, single author:

Goodsell, Charles T. 1994. The Case for Bureaucracy: A Public Administration Polemic.
3d ed. Chatham, NJ: Chatham House.

Book, multiple authors: (only the first author’s name is inverted)

Keehley, Patricia, Steven Medlin, Laura Longmire, and Sue A. MacBride. 1997.
Benchmarking for Best Practices in the Public Sector: Achieving Performance
Breakthroughs in Federal, State, and Local Agencies. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Book, edited:
Halachmi, Arie, and Geert Bouckaert, eds. 1995. The Enduring Challenges in Public
Management: Surviving and Excelling in a Changing World. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-
Bass.

Chapter or selection in an edited book: (Please note: no quotation marks around

chapter title. Please include page numbers.)
Ingraham, Patricia W., and David H. Rosenbloom. 1992. The State of Merit in the
Federal Government. In Agenda for Excellence: Public Service in America, edited by
Patricia W. Ingraham and Donald F. Kettl, 274 - 96. Chatham, NJ: Chatham House.

Journal Article: (Please note: no quotation marks around article title)

Roberts, Alasdair. 1995. Civic Discovery as Rhetorical Strategy. Journal of Policy
Analysis and Management 14(2): 291 - 307. ("14" is the volume number, "2" is the issue
number, and "291 - 307" is the page range. If possible, please use issue number and not
month.)
Newspaper Article: (please note: page numbers are best omitted, section number or
name may be included)
Walker, Robert. 1995. Reality Strikes Mission to Planet Earth. Space News, August 28 -
September 3, A1.

Non- English Titles:

Title of works in languages other than English are treated the same as English titles
except that capitalization follows the conventions of the language of the work. An
English translation should be provided for all titles (book titles, journal titles, journal
article titles, newspapers, etc.). The translation should follow the title, enclosed in
brackets without italics or quotation marks, and only the first word (of title and subtitle)
and proper nouns and adjectives are capitalized.

Mayntz, Renate, and Fritz W. Scharpf. 1973. Planungsorganisation: die Diskussion um

die Reform von Regierung und Verwaltung des Bundes (Planning organization: A debate
on the reform of government and administration of Germany). München: Piper.

Papers Presented at Meetings, Conferences, etc.: (Please include month and days, as
well as the city and state)
Baker, George. 1999. Distortion, Noise, and Incentive Provision with Imperfect
Performance Measures. Paper presented at the National Academy of Sciences conference
on Devising Incentives to Promote Human Capital, December 17 - 18, Irvine, California.

Public Documents/Reports and Documents:

U.S. House. 1993. Committee of the Budget. Omnibus Budget and Reconciliation Act of
1993: Report on the Budget. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Report
no. 103-111.

Hearings:
U.S. House. 1994. Committee on Public Works and Transportation. 1993 Empowerment
Zone and Enterprise Community Program: Hearing before the Subcommittee on
Economic Development. 103rd Cong., 2nd sess. February 7.

Court Decisions/Legal Cases:

The names of legal cases are italicized when mentioned in the text and the abbreviation v.
should also be italicized. These should be cited in the text and are NOT listed separately
in the reference list. Examples of citations in running text follow:
In 1941, Bridges v. California (314 U.S. 252)
United States v. Katzwallader (183 F.2d 210 [1950])

Electronic Sources (please see section 17.15 for a listing of specific examples of
source types):
Electronic Books:
Full facts of publication should be noted, including author’s last and first name, date of
publication, title, chapters or other titled parts of a boo, edition, multivolume works, etc.
(if applicable), a URL or address, including the path or directories necessary to access the
document. Since some books are published in printed and electronic forms, always cite
the source consulted.

Burka, L.P. 1993. A Hypertext History of Multi-User Dimensions. MUD History.

http://www.utopia.com/talent/lpb/muddex/essay.

Electronic Journals:
Follow the example for the printed form of a journal article and add the URL (address) at
the end of the citation.
Online Newspapers, News Services and other News Sites:
These are identical to their print counterparts, with the addition of a URL.
Informally Published Electronic Material:
Include as much of the following information as can be determined: author of the content,
title of the page, title or owner of the site, and the URL. When there is no clear indication
of authorship, title, publisher, or date, it is still necessary to include the URL and what the
source is (descriptive phrases may be used). If a site ceases to exist before publication,
include such information parenthetically at the end of the citation.

Using Power Point for Presentations*

PRESENTER
The presenter is the most important element of any presentation. A good public speaker
can give an effective presentation without the use of the other visual aids or handouts.
Good presenters have a few things in common.
• They know the material
• They know the room
o Location of light switches
o How the podium is set up and if it can be changed
o Location of power cords (avoid tripping)
o Location of whiteboards, chalkboards, flip charts, etc…
• They are comfortable with their choice of media
• They make good eye contact with the audience
• They project the right image (appearance, dress, etc…)
• They can “work” the room
o Eye contact with many audience members
o Move comfortable from one area to another
o Don’t neglect any section of the room
• They can project their voice
 • They focus on the message not the media
• Prior Proper Practice Prevents Poor Performance

MEDIA
Is PowerPoint the Tool of Choice?
Not every presentation is enhanced with PowerPoint. In some cases
PowerPoint detracts from the objective or from the quality of the
presentation.

Will your objective be better met through some other media?

PowerPoint is great if you need to…

• Enhance a presentation with charts or other graphics

• Disseminate information
• Organize information and stay on point
PowerPoint is not great if you…

• Are simply complying with social norms

• Are using it as a crutch

Common Problems

One of the most common mistakes when using PowerPoint is for the
presenter to rely on the software instead of their own presentation skills.
PowerPoint is a tool that can be very effective if wielded correctly. If it is
used improperly the result is the same as trying to use a hammer to saw a
board, you may complete the task but the end result isn’t very good.

Common Mistakes

• Reading the material from the slides instead of using the

bullets as talking points
• Slides that are difficult to read or lack contrast
 • Too much information on a single slide

Using PowerPoint to Organize Your Presentation

Most presentations, like many other forms of communication, should be
broken into three parts, the introduction, the body and the conclusion.

The introduction could include a Title slide and an Agenda slide. The
conclusion could contain a Review slide and a final Title slide. The body of
the presentation will use multiple slide types, and should have new each
section introduced with a Title slide.

Title Slides
Title slides should be used to introduce the presentation as well as to
introduce sections within the presentation. Backgrounds and formatting
should be consistent on Title slides throughout the presentation. In order to
differentiate between them, Title slides should have different backgrounds
and formatting than Content slides.
Content Slides
Content slides are used to help the presenter dispense information. This can
be done through bullet points, graphics, flow charts, tables, audio and video.
As with Title slides, Content slides should have consistent backgrounds and
formatting.
VIP Slides
If the content of a particular slide is especially vital to the presentation, that
slide could be differentiated from the other slides through backgrounds
and/or formatting.

Animations and Transitions

Animations and slide transitions should be used to control the dissemination
of information and/or to add emphasis to certain information. Adding
sounds to animations and/or slide transitions is not recommended in most
cases. Sounds tend to detract more than emphasize.

Readability
A common mistake among presenters is to create presentations that are
pleasing to their individual eye, but may be difficult for others to read.
Readability is affected by contrast between text and backgrounds, font types,
font styles, font formatting, and font shadows. A presentation should be
easy to read from any position in the room and by all of the participants.

Backgrounds
Background colors are of particularly importance when improving
readability of slides. Background colors should be considered as they
contrast with the text and also as the blend in with the environment. The
objective with backgrounds is for them to go unnoticed so that the text will
pop out. If the venue is dark, using a dark color for the background allows it
to blend into the environment, in turn making the text easier to see. The
converse is also true; a bright room requires a light colored background to
achieve the best levels of readability.
Contrast
Higher levels of readability are achieved by creating contrast. Contrast can
be created between the background and the text or by adding text shadows.
Often it is best to provide contrasting colors using both methods.

Font Types/Styles
Fonts come primarily in two styles, serif and sans serif. Serif fonts have
small finishing strokes, called serifs, which help direct the eye as it moves
from character to another. On extremely small fonts and extremely large
fonts, the serifs can become distracting instead of helpful. As a rule of
thumb use serif fonts for average sized text and use sans serif fonts for larger
and smaller fonts.
Examples
Serif fonts: Times New Roman, Elephant, Courier New
Sans Serif fonts: Arial, Verdana, Tahoma

Other Font Styles

Script fonts are difficult to read, use them sparingly.

Typewriter fonts are easy to read, but are not
aesthetically pleasing.

Text
Often a presentation will be given in a large room. Large rooms can create
problems for readability. Many people have poor vision, which creates the
same issues with readability. There are a few simple rules that will help the
readability of your presentation.

Arrangement
People often get make the mistake of putting too much information on a
slide. Remember that PowerPoint is a presentation tool; it is not a tool for
making handouts. Put detailed information in handouts; put talking points
on slides.

Simple Rules:
• Left align key points (bullets)
• No more than six bullets per slide
• No more than seven words per bullet

Font Formatting
Simple Rules:
• Font sizes should be as large as possible
• Bold formatting is easier to read in most font styles
• Italicized text is difficult to read
• When choosing between making the font bold or increasing the
font size, choose bold
• Text shadows create contrast making text easier to read and should
be used when possible

Source is Greg Carpenter, “Enhancing Presentations with PowerPoint.”

Common Mistakes in Punctuation

Quotation Marks
Rule 1. Periods and commas always go inside quotation marks, even inside single
quotes.

Example: Svara argued, “Facilitative mayors are effective communicators.”

Example: In addition to discussing an organization’s “ethical culture,” the

authors also discussed that culture’s impact on employees.

Example: Goodsell wrote, “Weber argued, ‘Bureaucracies work best.’”

Rule 2. If a question is in quotation marks, the question mark should be inside the
quotation marks. However, if the question is outside the quote, then the question mark
follows the quotation marks.

Example: Britt asked, “Should it be on my bookshelf?”

Example: Do you agree with the saying, “All’s fair in love and war”? In this
example, the question is outside the quotation.

Rule 3. Use single quotation marks for quotes within quotes. Note that the period goes
inside all quote marks.

Example: Sue argued, “The ‘moral manager’ is superior to the ‘immoral

manager.’”

Rule 4. Incorporate a short quotation (less than 40 words) into the text, and enclose the
quotation with double quotation marks. Place the citation at the end of the quotation and
follow it with a period.

Example: Kranz wrote, “Spaceflight will never tolerate carelessness, incapacity,

and neglect” (2000, 46).

Example: One author concluded that “the Apollo 1 crew of three men died
needlessly” because of the pressure on the engineers to perform (Kranz 2000, 46).

Rule 5. Display a quotation of 40 or more words in a single spaced, indented block style
and eliminate the quotation marks.

Example:

Spaceflight will never tolerate carelessness, incapacity, and

neglect. Somewhere, somehow, we screwed up. It could have been in
design, build, or test. Whatever it was, we should have caught it.

We were too gung-ho about the schedule and we locked out all of
the problems we saw each day in our work. Every element of the program
 was in trouble and so were we. The simulators were not working, Mission
Control was behind in virtually every area, and the flight and test
procedures changed daily. Nothing we did had any shelf life. Not one of
us stood up and said, “Dammit, stop!”

I don’t know what Thompson’s committee will find as the cause,

but I know what I find. We are the cause! We were not ready! We did not
do our job! We were rolling the dice, hoping that things would come
together by launch day, when in our hearts we knew it would take a
miracle (Kranz 2000, 46).

Who vs. Which vs. That

Rule 1. Who refers to people. That and which refer to groups or things.

Example: Svara is the one who described facilitative leadership.

Example: He belongs to the organization that represents the interests of graduate

students.

Rule 2. That introduces essential clauses while which introduces nonessential clauses.
Essential clauses do not have commas surrounding them while nonessential clauses do
contain commas.

Example: I do not agree with editorials that promote inequality.

Example: The editorial arguing for inequality, which appeared in Sunday’s paper,
was based on faulty reasoning.

In this example, the editorial is already identified. Therefore, which begins a

nonessential clause.

Rule 3. If that has already been used in the sentence, use which to introduce the essential
clause that follows.

Example: That is a decision which the Apollo 1 engineers had to live with the rest
of their lives.

Sources: The Blue Book of Grammar and Punctuation and the Publication Manual of the
American Psychological Association.