KNEWTON KNOTES

GMAT Quantitative
STRATEGIES AND APPROACHES
First steps

Timing strategies

Always be doing something! Once youve read the problem (20-25 seconds),
choose an approach and dive in! Some first steps that open up many questions are:
- Set up an equation

- Factor/FOIL

- Set up a system and solve

with substitution

- Apply exponent rules

Aim to spend 2 minutes per questionless on easier questions, a little more

on harder ones.
If youve spent 3 minutes on a question, re-evaluate: Are you within 30 seconds
of a solution?
- If you are, continue and solve quickly.
- If you arent, use the work youve done to make an educated guess and move on.
NEVER leave questions unanswered at the end of the exam.

- Apply angle properties and look

for right triangles

- Test Cases

Data Sufficiency
Strategies

Problem Solving

Approaches

Testing Cases This strategy is especially useful on number properties/

inequalities/absolute value questions.
- When Testing Cases on Data
Sufficiency, use the constraints
to try to find conflicting answers
to the question in the prompt.
- Only test numbers that satisfy
the constraints in the prompt.
Dont Solve Dont solve equations
or do calculations if you dont have to!
- A single-variable linear equation
is enough to find the value of the
variable.
- A system of independent linear
equations with as many equations
as variables is enough to find the
value of any variable.

Strategies

Always know what you need to

determine before turning to the
statements.
Always consider the statements
separately before combining.
Remember that No can be sufficient:
If you have enough information to
answer No to the question in the
prompt, that is sufficient information,
and the answer cannot be E.
Memorize the answer choices!
- Statement 1 alone
- Statement 2 alone
- Both statements combined
- Each statement alone
- Not even both combined

PIN If you see variables in the answer

choices and in terms of in the prompt,
you can use PIN.
Procedure:
1. Choose number(s).
2. Solve problem with chosen number(s).
Find numerical answer.
3. Test all five answer choices. If multiple
answer choices return same value as
prompt, plug in new number(s) and repeat.
Plugging in the Answer Choices If the
answer choices are numbers that can be
substituted for a value in the question, and
are steadily increasing or decreasing round
numbers, you can plug them into
the prompt.
Start with B or D, then try the other
this method can allow you to solve by
testing only two answer choices instead
of all five.

Testing Cases On any Number

Properties question, you can Test Cases.
Test any number that fits the conditions
in the prompt!
Look for clue phrases:
- could be true
- must be true
- could be false
- must be false
Choice-driven questions If you must
look at the answer choices to solve
(Which of the following-type questions),
start with E and work upwards.

Approaches
Always be sure you know what you
are solving for (dont solve for x when
the answer is 3x).
Note that there is no extra information in
Problem Solving questionsyou will need
to use every piece of information provided!

ALGEBRA
Inequalities

Exponents and roots

If you multiply or divide an inequality by

a negative number, you must flip the sign.
NEVER multiply or divide an inequality
by a variable if you dont know its sign.

Operation words
sum is result of adding numbers
difference is result of subtracting numbers
product is result of multiplying numbers
quotient is result of dividing numbers

Exponent rules:
(ab) n = (a n)(b n)
(a m)(a n) = a (m+ n)
(a m) n = a (mn)
(a b) = (a c)
b=c
ab
ac = a (b c)
1
Negative exponents: a n = an
Roots:
Negative bases: Negative numbers raised
to odd powers stay negative ((-3)3 = -27),
but negative numbers raised to even
powers are positive ((-3)4 = 81).
1
n

Fractional exponents: a =

Roots: If -1 < x < 1, x is farther from 0

1
than x 2 is, and closer to 0 than x 2 is.
Even powers have both positive and
negative solutions (x2 = 4 x = 2),
but x is defined to be positive (4 = 2).

xy-plane
Distance formula: d = (x2 x1)2 + (y2 y1)2
Lines
Slope formula:
Perpendicular lines have negative
reciprocal slopes.
Parallel lines have the same slope.
Equation of a line: y = mx + b, where
m is slope and b is y-intercept.

STATISTICS AND FORMULAS

COMMON HIGHER
POWERS
Common
Squares

Powers of 2

12 = 1

21 = 2

22 = 4

22 = 4

32 = 9

23 = 8

4 = 16

2 = 16

52 = 25

25 = 32

6 = 36

26 = 64

72 = 49

27 = 128

82 = 64

28 = 256

92 = 81

29 = 512

102 = 100

210 = 1,024

112 = 121

Powers of 3

= 0.5 = 50%

= 0.2 = 20%

0.33 33.3%

= 0.4 = 40%

0.66 66.6%

= 0.6 = 60%

0.16 16.6%

= 0.8 = 80%

0.33 33.3%

= 0.125 = 12.5%

= 0.5 = 50%

= 0.25 = 25%

31 = 3

132 = 169

32 = 9

14 = 196

33 = 27

0.66 66.6%

= 0.375 = 37.5%

152 = 225

34 = 81

0.83 83.3%

= 0.5 = 50%

162 = 256
172 = 289

Common
Cubes

182 = 324

13 = 1

= 0.25 = 25%

= 0.625 = 62.5%

192 = 361

23 = 8

= 0.5 = 50%

= 0.75 = 75%

202 = 400

33 = 27

252 = 625

43 = 64

302 = 900

53 = 125

= 0.75 = 75%

= 0.875 = 87.5%

MEAN: Average =
Weighted averages:
- using # of terms in each set:
- using % of total in each set:

122 = 144
2

DECIMAL/PERCENTAGE/FRACTION
EQUIVALENCIES:

MEDIAN: The number in the middle of a set, when the terms are put
in order. If there is an even number of terms in the set, the median is
the average of the two middle terms.
MODE: The number that appears most often in a set.
RANGE: The difference between the largest and smallest numbers in a set.
STANDARD DEVIATION: Measures how spread out the elements
in a set are. {51, 50, 51, 51, 52} has a lower standard deviation than
{2, 6, 24, 25, 34}.
INTEREST FORMULAS: For initial investment of P dollars at an annual
interest rate of r percent.
Simple interest: Amount of money in an account making simple
interest after t years: P + Prt
Compound interest: Amount of money in an account where interest
is compounded n times per year, after t years: P (1 + nr ) nt

Common formulas
Distance = speed time
Work = work rate time

Profit = revenue cost

Revenue = volume unit cost

Polynomials:
Factoring: x 2 + Cx + D = (x + a)(x + b)
means ab = D and (a + b) = C
FOIL: First, Outside, Inside, Last
(x + y)(x + y) = x2 + 2xy + y2
(x y)(x y) = x2 2xy + y2
Difference of squares:
(x + y)(x y) = x2 y2

Systems with too few equations

Look for ways to solve for the value of
an expression, or of a single variable.
Keep an eye out for dependent equations, especially on word problems.

NUMBERS AND ARITHMETIC

Percent of translations:
10
10% of x: ( 100
)x
n% of x: ( n )x
100
Combinatorics:
General method: Draw blanks, fill in #
of possibilities, multiply together.
Always begin with the blank with the
most restrictions.
Combinations (order doesnt matter):
- Number of ways to choose k items
n!
from a set of n: k!(n k)!
- Number of ways to choose 2 items
from a set of n: n( n2 1)
- Number of ways to choose 1 item
from a set of n: n
Permutations (order matters):
- Number of ways to arrange k items
n!
from a set of n: (n k)!
Factorials: n! = n (n 1) (n 2) ...
3 21
Common factorials
- 0! = 1! = 1
- 4! = 24
- 2! = 2
- 5! = 120
- 3! = 6
- 6! = 720

KNEWTON KNOTES

GMAT Quantitative
NUMBER PROPERTIES
Multiplication/division:
- Pos (/) Neg = Neg (/) Pos = Neg
(different signs gives a negative result)
- Pos (/) Pos = Pos (same sign gives
a positive result)
- Neg (/) Neg = Pos (same sign gives
a positive result)

Properties of 0:
0 =0 n=0
n
n+0=n0=n
n0 = 1
0 is even.
0 is neither positive nor negative.
Properties of 1:
n 1 = n = n1 = n
1
1n = 1

Absolute value:
Absolute value of a number is always
greater than or equal to zero.
Equation with absolute value is really
two equations: |x| = n x = n or x = n.

Odd and even integers:

Addition/subtraction:
- Odd + Even = Odd
- Even + Even = Even
- Odd + Odd = Even
Multiplication:
- Odd Even = Even
- Even Even = Even
- Odd Odd = Odd

Inequalities with absolute value:

| x| < n

n < x < n

| x| > n

x < n OR n < x

Place value: Know the names of thousands

through thousandths place.
tenths
hundredths
thousandths

Positive and negative integers:

Addition/subtraction:
- Pos + Pos = Pos
- Neg + Neg = Neg
- Pos Neg = Pos
- Neg Pos = Neg

1,234.567
thousands
hundreds
tens
ones

Factors, multiples, divisibility:

In a list of n consecutive integers, exactly
one will be a multiple of n.
The sum or difference of two multiples of
a number is also a multiple of that number.
All of the following phrases are equivalent:
- a is evenly divisible by b
- b evenly divides a
- b divides a with no remainder
- b is a factor of a
- a is a multiple of b
Divisibility rules:
- 3: digits add to a multiple of
3 (87 is divisible by 3 because
8 + 7 = 15 and 15 = 5 3)
- 4: last 2 digits alone are divisible
by 4 (24 4 = 6, so 124 and 3,524
are divisible by 4)
- 5: last digit is 5 or 0
- 6: divisible by 2 AND 3
- 9: digits add to a multiple of 9
60
- 12: divisible by 3 AND 4
Use factor trees to find all the 12
prime factors of a number.
2
6
2

Prime numbers:
A prime number is any number that
only has 2 factors: itself and 1.
1 is not prime.
2 is the only even prime.
Prime numbers to know: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11,
13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47.
Integers:
Integers are whole numbers, including
negative whole numbers.
0 is an integer.
Use Venn diagrams to organize information
in sets problems.

B
x

A
A

B=x+y+z
B=y

The ratio of a to b can be written as

or a : b.
Direct and inverse proportions:
If x and y are directly proportional,
then x = cy, where c is a constant.
If x and y are inversely proportional,
then xy = c, where c is a constant.

5
3

GEOMETRY
Geometry shortcuts

Quadrilaterals

On xy-plane problems, if you have any one of these,

you can find any of the other 4:
- Any linear equation containing both x and y
- Slope-intercept form of a line
- 2 points on a line
- The intercepts of a line
- The slope and one point on a line

60

60

ISOSCELES

EQUILATERAL

CIRCLE

arc length
circumference

sector area
circle area

sector
r

INSCRIBED and CENTRAL ANGLES

central angle
360

Inscribed angle has half the measure

of central angle with same endpoints.

Angles

Similar triangles: If two triangles have all the

same angles, their side lengths will all be in
the same ratio to one another, and vice versa.

z
|x y| < z < (x + y)

Complementary angles add to 90.

c

TRIANGLE INEQUALITY

Right triangle: One 90 angle, across from

the longest side (hypotenuse).

b
RIGHT TRIANGLE

Pythagorean theorem: a2 + b2 = c2
Special right triangles:

45

, 2x)

- Pythagorean triples: 3-4-5, 6-8-10, 9-12-15,

30-40-50, 5-12-13, 10-24-26, 8-15-17

FULL ROTATION
a+b+c+d+e = 360

Parallel lines with transversals:

- Big angles (y) all equal
- Small angles (x) all equal
- Big + Small = 180

3D shapes

e
d

x
2

PARALLEL LINES with TRANSVERSALS

y
y

x
x

y
y

CYLINDER

b
c
h

Cylinder: volume of cylinder = r 2 h

surface area of cylinder = Bases + Lateral Area = 2 r 2 + 2 rh .

- 45-45-90 (with side lengths x, x, x2 )

y =

Angles that make a full rotation around a point add to 360.

Supplementary angles add to 180.

Triangle Inequality: Any side must be shorter

than the sum of the other two sides, and longer
than the difference of the other two sides.

- 30-60-90 (with side lengths x,

w
RECTANGLE

A tangent and a radius make a 90 angle.

Full angle of a circle is 360.
Radius: any line from the center
to the edge of the circle
Diameter = 2r
Circumference = 2r
Area of a circle = r 2
Sector and arc:

Isosceles triangles: Two equal angles,

with sides opposite those angles also equal.

Circles

60

Equilateral triangle: All sides equal,

all angles equal to 60.

Combined figures are always combinations of familiar shapes. Find their areas
and perimeters by combining the areas and perimeters of these familiar shapes.

Triangles

base height
2
Angles in any triangle add to 180.

w
s

Rectangles:
Opposite sides equal
All angles 90
Area of a rectangle = w

On rectangle/right triangle geometry problems, if you

have any 2 of these, you can find any of the other 3:
- Length of rectangle (a)
- Width of rectangle (b)
c
a
- Length of diagonal (c)
- Area of rectangle
b
- Perimeter of rectangle
Area of a triangle =

Squares:
All sides equal
All angles 90
Area of a square = s2

60
x
45

SPECIAL RIGHT TRIANGLES

2x
30

Rectangular solid: volume of box = wh

surface area of box = 2w + 2wh + 2h.

BOX

CUBE
s

Cube: volume of cube = s 3

surface area of cube = 6s 2

Check us out at www.knewton.com/gmat

s
s

h
w

Knewton Knotes

GMAT Sentence Correction

SC APPROACH - MOST/ALL OF SENTENCE UNDERLINED
If most or all of the sentence is underlined, there are probably several errors among the answer
choices. Likely, at least one answer choice contains a modifier or structure error.
1) Read through the entire sentence for meaning.
2) Use clues to determine which rule(s) may
have been violated. If you find an error in
the original, eliminate A.
Note: awkwardness alone is NOT ENOUGH
to eliminate an answer choice. The choice
must violate a grammatical rule.
3) Read through choice B, and, by using the
clues you have already found and by noting
the differences between A and B, determine
the type of error youre looking for. If you
spot an error, eliminate B.

4) Repeat the process for choices C-E.

Continue to use differences between options
to spot potential errors.
5) If more than one choice still remains, plug
each underlined portion back into the original
sentence; choose the option that clearly and
unambiguously expresses the intended
meaning of the sentence.
6) In a 50/50 guessing situation, favor the
more concise option - the one without
extra pronouns or prepositional phrases.

sUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
RULE: Clauses must each contain a subject-verb pair. A verb must agree with its subject
in number.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS in which the main subject-verb pair does not agree.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS in which a subject-verb pair in an adjective clause or other dependent clause does not agree.
RULE: The GMAT injects filler between a subject-verb pair. Ignore this filler.
The subject of a sentence will never be inside of a prepositional phrase.
-- If the subject is plural, the GMAT often puts a singular noun next to the verb to make
the error more difficult to identify. With singular subjects, the GMAT often puts a plural
noun next to the verb.

prep. phrase
adjective clause
trick plural noun
88 WRONG: The start of the races that will be run by the best athletes are at 6 pm.
99 RIGHT: The start of the races that will be run by the best athletes is at 6 pm.
RULE: The GMAT uses particularly tricky nouns as subjects. Unusual nouns rules:
Collective nouns refer to a group as a unit, and, on the GMAT, they are almost always
singular. Ex: Team, jury, committee, company, cluster, group
Indefinite Pronouns fall into three categories:
-- Singular: each, every, anyone, everyone, nobody
- Plural: both, few
-- Depends on the noun to which it refers: all, some, most, majority
Compound Subjects connected by and are almost always plural.
Noun Clauses beginning with what (what the doctors have found is startling)
are usually singular.
Gerunds, nouns that end in ing (collecting cards is my favorite hobby), are singular.
Inverted Sentences disguise agreement by placing the verb after the subject. When
a verb is preceded only by modifiers (prepositional phrase, participial phrase, etc.),
the subject must come after the verb, and the verb must agree with its subject.

prep. phrase
relative clause
88 WRONG: In my closet, which is in the front hall, is all of my toys.
99 RIGHT: In my closet, which is in the front hall, are all of my toys.
SUMMARY: When you see THESE CLUES, check for S-V agreement:
Answer choices differ by the use of singular/plural verb.
Sentences are full of adjective clauses and prepositional phrases.
Unusual nouns are used as subjects.

PRONOUNS
RULE: Every pronoun must have a specific antecedent. The GMAT doesnt often use
gendered pronouns, so look specifically for it/its/they/them/their.
RULE: Every pronoun must agree in number with its antecedent.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS that contain a pronoun but do not contain a noun that agrees in
number for the pronoun to logically replace.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS that do not CLEARLY use a pronoun to refer to one, specific noun.
RULE: When the subject of a dependent clause is a pronoun, this pronouns antecedent
should be the subject of the main clause. When a sentence contains two independent
clauses and the subject of the second clause is a pronoun, this pronouns antecedent
should be the subject of the first clause.
88 WRONG: Because it was robbed last month, the door to the house is locked.
(it is the subject of the dependent clause, so it must be illogically referring to door.)
SUMMARY: When you see THESE CLUES, look for pronoun-antecedent agreement:
EVERY TIME you see a pronoun, find its antecedent
Unusual nouns (especially collective nouns): the GMAT uses the same unusual nouns
to test S-V and P-A agreement

Check us out at www.knewton.com/gmat

SC APPROACH - ONLY A FEW WORDS UNDERLINED

If only a few words are underlined, the question is likely testing one very specific rule.
1. Read the entire sentence to determine what
role the underlined portion plays. The under lined portion may connect two clauses, be
part of an idiomatic expression, etc. Use
clues to determine what the error may be.
2. If youre having trouble figuring out what is
being tested, use the differences between the
answer choices to guide you; for example,

if one choice uses as but another uses than,

look for a correctly formed comparison.
3. Choose the option that uses the correct word
or phrase in the context of the sentence.
4. If youre down to two options and one contains
an extra pronoun or awkward prepositional
phrase, opt for concision and clarity.

MODIFIERS
RULE: An adjective or a phrase or clause that acts as an adjective must describe a noun.
Adjectival modifiers follow strict placement rules.
RULE: An adverb or a phrase or clause that acts as an adverb can describe a verb, adjective, or another adverb. The placement of adverbial modifiers is often somewhat flexible.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS in which adjectival modifiers DO NOT describe a specific noun.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS in which the placement of the modifier is incorrect.
Adjective Clauses begin with relative pronouns: which, that, who, whose, whom.
RULE: An adjective clause must describe the noun or noun idea immediately before it.
When no new subject is introduced, the verb in the clause must agree with the noun
described by the clause. If a noun + prepositional phrase makes up a noun idea, the
clause can describe either the noun before the prepositional phrase or the object of the
preopositional phrase. The verb in the clause must agree with the logically modified noun.
99 RIGHT: The books on the desk, which was the most expensive item in the furniture
store, are open. (which logically refers to the noun desk.)
99 RIGHT: The books on the desk, which include a history textbook and a fiction novel,
are open. (which logically refers to the noun idea the books on the desk.)
ELIMINATE OPTIONS in which the adjective clause refers to an abstract idea.
88 WRONG: Taylor broke her leg, which kept her from competing in the race.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS in which the adjective clause does not describe the noun or noun
idea immediately before it.
Participial Phrases begin with present participles (-ing words) or past participles (usually ed)
words. They must describe a logical noun.
RULE: A participial phrases at the beginning of a sentence must modify the first noun after the comma.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS in which the first noun after the comma is not the noun described
by the phrase.
88 WRONG: Wanting to finish its project by Monday, the teams meetings were on Saturday
and Sunday. (The team wanted to finish the project, not the meetings.)
99 RIGHT: Wanting to finish its project by Monday, the team held meetings on Saturday
and Sunday. (The team is correctly modified by the participial phrase.)
Note: A pronoun inside of a modifying phrase (seen above) must refer to the noun being modified.

RULE: A participial phrase that is set off by a comma, but is not at the beginning of a sentence, is more flexible with its placement, as long as it is clear what is being modified. If the
participial phrase is not set off by a comma, it must describe the noun before it.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS in which the participial phrase within the sentence does not clearly
describe the specific noun it should logically describe.
88 WRONG: The manager hired the new employee, excited for the future of the company.
(Unclear as to who is excited, the manager or the employee.)
99 RIGHT: The manager hired the new employee, who was excited for the future of the
company. (Relative clause clarifies that the employee is being modified.)
99 RIGHT: The manager hired the new employee, believing that the candidates prior work
experiences were valuable. (Logically, the participle must describe the manager.)
Summative modifiers begin with a or an and a noun that re-names or summarizes
the gist of the previous clause. Summative modifiers often fix other modifier errors because
they dont need to describe a specific noun.
88 WRONG: The researchers hypothesized that the old method is flawed, which is likely
to cause a great deal of controversy.
99 RIGHT: The researchers hypothesized that the old method is flawed, a proposal that
is likely to cause a great deal of controversy.
Prepositional Phrases begin with a preposition (of, to, for, in, with, etc.) and end with a
noun. They can be adjectival or adverbial.
RULE: A prepositional phrase that describes a noun follows the same rules as a participial
phrase (see above).
RULE: When a prepositional phrase describes actions, its placement in the sentence
is flexible, as long it is clear what it describes.
99 RIGHT: Until last week, the professor had never missed a day of work.
99 RIGHT: The professor had never missed a day of work until last week.
99 RIGHT: The professor had, until last week, never missed a day of work.
SUMMARY: When you see THESE CLUES, look for logical modification:
The words which and that are at the beginnings of clauses
A describing phrase is at the beginning of a sentence
Sentences that have a lot underlined and jumble the order of phrases and clauses

Knewton Knotes

GMAT Sentence Correction

Parallelism/Comparisons
RULE: Ideas within the same clause must be connected correctly. Connected items
include those in lists, those linked by correlative conjunctions, and those in comparisons.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS that do not form correlative conjunctions correctly. When items are
linked by correlative conjunctions, eliminate options that do not pair the first word in the
construction with the correct FANBOYS conjunction.
MEMORIZE THE CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS:
Eitheror

Betweenand

Not onlybut also

Neithernor

At onceand

Just asso

Bothand

Notbut

Whetheror

88 WRONG: In the final round, the judges had to choose between the smartest compet itor or the most attractive one.
99 RIGHT: In the final round the judges had to choose between the smartest competitor
and the most attractive one.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS that do not properly separate items in a list using a conjunction.
88 WRONG: The new employee impressed the boss, a man named Jim, made an
impression on the CEO.
99 RIGHT: The new employee impressed the boss, a man named Jim, and made an
impression on the CEO.
RULE: Items connected by and must be the same part of speech. The word and is a
huge clue that items are in a list. Look to the word or phrase after the and, and match
it to an earlier word or phrase that is the same part of speech. If no such word or phrase
exists, then the option does not contain a parallel list. Make sure the list does in fact connect items that play the same role in the sentence.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS that do not link items that are the same part of speech when
a sentence contains a list, a pair of correlative conjunctions, or a comparison.
88 WRONG: The exam testing natural intelligence and that one has work ethic will be
given tomorrow. (The item after and is a that clause there must be another
that clause earlier)

99 RIGHT: The exam testing natural intelligence and work ethic will be given tomorrow.
88 WRONG: The television program neither impressed viewers nor critics.
(impressed and critics are not the same part of speech)
99 RIGHT: The television program impressed neither viewers nor critics.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS that do not form comparisons correctly. Commonly used comparison terms are:
MEMORIZE THE COMPARISON FORMATIONS:
asas
more/less/greater/higherthan
like/unlike (must compare two nouns)
88 WRONG: The new SUV uses gas more quickly as the small sedan does.
99 RIGHT: The new SUV uses gas more quickly than the small sedan does.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS that do not form logical comparisons.
RULE: In comparisons, that can be used to replace a singular item compared, and
thosecan replace a plural item. A possessive can be used if the item belonging to the
possessive is the other item compared.
88 WRONG: The couches in the living room are smaller than that in the den. (that is
singular, but it refers to the plural noun couches)
99 RIGHT: The couches in the living room are smaller than those in the den.
88 WRONG: Unlike the head chef, whose dishes are always healthy, the assistant chefs
are quite unhealthy. (the implied assistant chefs dishes are being compared to the
head chef)
99 RIGHT: Unlike the head chefs dishes, which are always healthy, the assistant chefs
are quite unhealthy.
SUMMARY: When you see THESE CLUES, check for parallelism:
The word and
Any correlative conjunction pair
Comparison words: as, than, unlike, like

sentence structure

VERB TENSE

RULE: An independent clause contains the main subject-verb pair; a sentence is incomplete without at least one independent clause.

RULE: Events that take place at the same time should be in the same verb tense. When
there is a time shift in a sentence, the verb tenses used should correctly reflect this shift.

ELIMINATE OPTIONS that are fragments because all clauses are dependent or because
they contain a clause in which a subjects verb is stolen by an adjective clause.
88 WRONG: The companys business proposal is not ready because the manager, who

has not yet edited it.
99 RIGHT: The companys business proposal is not ready because the manager has

not yet edited it.

RULE: Use the past perfect and present perfect tenses correctly; the GMAT commonly
tests these tenses.
The Past Perfect tense, or had + past participle, can only be used when the verb in
this tense took place in the far past, before another event in the more recent past.
The Present Perfect tense, or has/have + past participle, describes an event that
began at a point in the past and may continue. The word since is a great clue that
a sentence may need the present perfect.

RULE: Clauses must be connected correctly. Two independent clauses must be connected
using a semicolon or using a comma + coordinating conjunction (coordinating conjunctions are FANBOYS words: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So).
Ways to correctly connect clauses:
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE + COMMA + FANBOYS + INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE + SEMICOLON + INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
DEPENDENT CLAUSE + COMMA + INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE + COMMA + DEPENDENT CLAUSE
(Sometimes there is no comma when the dependent clause comes second)
ELIMINATE OPTIONS that use a comma only or a coordinating conjunction only to connect clauses that are independent.
88 WRONG: This winter has been unusually cold and last summer was unusually hot.
99 RIGHT: This winter has been unusually cold, and last summer was unusually hot.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS that contain an incomplete clause on one side of a semicolon or a
comma + FANBOYS construction.
88 WRONG: New computers have been purchased for the entire office; although most
employees can use only the old system.
99 RIGHT: New computers have been purchased for the entire office; however, most
employees can use only the old system.
SUMMARY: When you see THESE CLUES, make sure that clauses are connected correctly:
Comma + FANBOYS or (;)
Some options contain adjective clauses while others do not

ELIMINATE OPTIONS that use different verb tenses to describe two events that take
place during the same time period. The word when links events that take place at the
same time, and verbs that are linked in lists or by correlative conjunctions must typically
be in the same tense.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS that use the past perfect when the event in this tense did not
come before another past tense event.
88 WRONG: By the time the movie had started, we were waiting in line for an hour.
(Logically, we waited before the movie started.)
99 RIGHT: By the time the movie started, we had been waiting in line for an hour.

ELIMINATE OPTIONS that use the present perfect to describe an event that took place
at a specific point in time; events in the present perfect span a non-specific period of time
that began in the past.
88 WRONG: In 1960, the family has moved to Canada. (The action happened at a
specific point in history.)
99 RIGHT: In 1960, the family moved to Canada.
SUMMARY: When you see THESE CLUES, look for tense agreement:
Prepositional phrases that describe a time: since 1960, or in 1960 for example.
Had/Has/Have + past participle

Wordy and Awkward Constructions

RULE: When youre choosing between options that do not contain concrete violations
of grammatical rules, choose options that do not contain the following:
being

having been

preposition + the + -ing of

extra or unnecessary pronouns

88 Awkward: With the finishing of the construction of the building, the architects went
out to celebrate it.

Check us out at www.knewton.com/gmat

99 Better: Because they finished the construction of the building, the architects went
out to celebrate.

Knewton Knotes

GMAT Reading Comprehension

RC BASICS
1. RC tests your ability to locate, under stand and paraphrase ideas in a passage.

3. Four passages appear on every test,

each with 3-4 questions.

2. Passages: 250-400 words. The passage

appears on the left; questions, one at
a time, on the right.

4. Bring no prior knowledge to this section;

all the information that is needed to
answer the questions is contained in
or implied by the passage.

KNEWTON STRATEGIES
Spend 2-3 minutes actively reading and
MAPping the passage, and 4 to 5 minutes
answering the questions. An entire passage
should take 6-8 minutes.
Read the entire passage only once, and

then re-visit sections of the passage as
the questions dictate.
Read actively: focus on the main idea

and structure, not on complex details.

Dont spend time re-reading a complex

idea or sentence; most details in a pas-
sage will not be tested, and if a confus-
ing detail is tested, revisit and decipher
as needed.
Passages often include lists, long
sentences, complex and convoluted
phrasing, or scientific or academic
jargon. Take note of where these

Passage Categories/Additional Reading

Points of View

The Ideas That Matter:

BUSINESS: Wall Street Journal, New York

Passages with more than one POV: keep

track of who agrees with which theory.

Take note of the conventional wisdom (Many say, most agree). Note comparisons
or similarities between two ideas (Unlike, Alternatively, Another proposed solution).

Times, Economist, Businessweek, US News

and World Report
Science: New Scientist, Science, Popular

Science, Wired
Humanities: New Yorker, Atlantic Monthly,

New Republic

Use MAPS to Understand the Passage

MAIN IDEA: What is being said. Often called

the primary concern

ATTITUDE: How it is said. The feeling or
opinion of the author, often called the tone
PURPOSE: Why its being said. Purpose is

Keep in mind: the author may have a differ ent POV than do the sources in the passage.

PAY ATTENTION TO:

DONT WORRY ABOUT:

Passages rarely use the first-person; POV

must be spotted through context.

Relative numbers or dates

(before 1920)

Specific numbers or dates

(On July 14, 1882)

Use tone words:

-- Negative Words: unfortunately, prob-
lematic, failure, complicating, short comings, unrealistic, unresolved, etc.
-- Positive Words: practical, fortunately,
thoughtful, clever, set a new standard,
useful, effective, successful, etc.

Unknown words or terms that are

repeated or defined in the passage

Unknown words or terms that appear

only once

Conflicting opinions, and why they conflict

Determining which opinion is right

or which provides better reasoning

Problems and their proposed solutions

Whether a given solution seems

effective or logical

Divisions between entities (While all

corporations must only industries
with strict hierarchies will profit from)

Lists of entities (Corporations, public

utilities, consumer agencies and political organizations all)

Policies, theories or processes and

the authors opinion about them

Complex details of an economic policy,

theory, or scientific process

Any proper names and what they

believe (According to Harris,)

Committing names or theories

to memory.

usually expressed as a verb on the GMAT,

defend, compare, or illustrate

-- Words of Emphasis: Important, Signifi-

cant, Best, etc.

STRUCTURE: How the passage is organized.

-- Words of Continuity or Causation:

Moreover, Because, Therefore, Thus, etc.

Briefly note a description of each paragraph.

Write down as much or as little as is
needed in order to understand the main
ideas and structure of the passage.

-- Words of Contrast: However, Although,

Despite, etc.

READING COMPREHENSION QUESTION TYPES

Global Purpose Questions
Refer to the entire passage; info should
come from your MAPS.
Main Idea Questions: Choose the answer
that describes the entire passage. Avoid
choices that refer to one detail of the
passage and neglect bigger issues.

Some ask why the author included

a certain detail; these questions are
almost always used either to exemplify
one of the authors points or to provide
a counterargument.
Re-read the entire paragraph in which
the detail is included.

Primary Purpose Questions: Use the lead Difficult inference questions combine
several details; you may need to re verb in the answer choices to eliminate
read all relevant sections that refer to
incorrect answer choices.
the topic at hand.
-- e.g.: if purpose is positive, eliminate
answers that say dispute or recomArgument/Application Questions
mend against.
Ask you to understand an argument
and to strengthen, weaken, or apply
Detail Questions
it to a specific case.
Ask you to locate, understand and para phrase a specific detail from the passage. Ask you to apply passage ideas to
hypothetical situations not described
Use your MAPS to locate the relevant
in the passage.
section, and then re-read.
Do not overextend the analogy; the
Take the time to understand context
correct answer will not require a large
when answering detail questions; read
logical leap.
the sentence before and after the sen-
Often require you to determine a rule,
tence referred to in the question.
restriction or category described in the
Avoid answer choices that distort details passage.
from the passage or create paraphrases
-- e.g. If a passage states that Sungs
that exaggerate claims from the passage.
1972 study claims that when invest-
Inference Questions
ments surpass personal savings, eco-
nomic recessions are likely, a question
Ask you to determine which answer
might ask for a situation most likely to
choice is most strongly implied, but
engender an economic recession; the
is not explicitly stated, by the passage.
correct answer would provide these
Do not stray from passage logic; an
exact required conditions.
inference must be true according to
Note: On EXCEPT questions, begin with the
the passage.
answer choices and find the corresponding
Avoid extreme answer choices or answer section of the passage, one by one, eliminating
choices that could be true according to them as you go. Watch out for distorted details
the passage but are not definitely true.
and extreme answer choices.

READING IN REGULAR LIFE

READING ON THE GMAT

Every sentence is important.

Many sentences are unimportant.

We stop to look up unknown words.

Gather the meaning of words through

context.

We compare what were learning while

reading to what we already know.

Bring NO outside information to bear on

the passage.

We take time to stop, reread, and

unravel complex details.

Skim complex details and descriptions,

and only return to them if they are asked
about.

We know who wrote what were reading

and can take that into account while
reading.

Determine the authors purpose, tone

and perspective without knowing who
he or she is.

We trust the author to present points

clearly, because it is his or her responsibility to be understood.

Actively MAP the purpose and structure

of the passage to understand the overall
ideas.

WRONG ANSWER CHOICES

Some types of incorrect answer choices appear many times on the Reading Comprehension section:

STANDARD WACs

DIFFICULT WACs

Too Broad
in Scope

Goes beyond subject

of passage

Incorrect
Comparisons

Erroneously compares
two entities

Too Narrow
in Scope

Addresses overly
specific subject

Distorted Detail

Uses passage
wording incorrectly

Opposite

States reversal
of correct fact

Could be True

Possibly true but

not inferable

Extreme

Overshoots answer/
extreme language

Irrelevant Topic

Addresses new
subject erroneously

Many answer choices pull eye-catching

details from the wrong section of the passage; use your MAPS to eliminate these
answers immediately.

Knewton Knotes

GMAT Reading Comprehension

Common wisdom in finance for the last three decades states that small commercial banks have little
influence on the status of a national economy. 1 Fiscal policy is usually written to favor large commercial banks, based on the assumption that large banks play a critical role in most aspects of national
economic health, including consumer lending rates, government interest rates, home mortgage rates,
and the extension of credit. 2 However, evidence has recently emerged suggesting that some small
commercial banks outperform their larger counterparts, especially during unusual economic periods.
3 Perhaps the best example of this is 4 during recessions, when some small commercial banks,
which have limited assets and thus more stringent credit requirements, incur a far smaller debt burden
than do dangerously over-leveraged large banks. Although no research has proven definitively that
small commercial banks are more active providers of loans and credit during recessions than are large
commercial banks, some economists 5 are claiming that small banks step into leading roles when
necessary to keep national economies afloat.
Thus, an alternative view has emerged, claiming that small commercial banks are a necessary hedge
against depressions. 6 First, 7 small banks tend to be restricted to a single locale; bankers are more
likely to know their clientele personally and to provide emergency small-business assistance without
bureaucratic delays. Small banks also pump money back into local communities at times when their
residents face high levels of unemployment and malaise. Lastly, small banks must always ensure adequate reserves of capital in preparation for a bank run, which inherently limits their ability to acquire
heavy risk.

It can be inferred

commercial banks

from the passage that proponents of the alternative view about small
would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements?

The conflicting definitions of small bank disguise the limited economic role played by
such institutions. 3
Small, local banks are more likely than are large commercial banks to support legislation
that offers aid to small businesses. 4
Some geographic and financial limitations on small commercial banks become advantageous
during economic recessions. 5
Fiscal policy should be overhauled to favor

the economic needs of small commercial banks.

Economic recessions would be avoided 7 if only a larger number of commercial bank

employees knew their clientele personally 8 .

However, 8 such claims about the role played by small banks are based primarily on economic
theory sometimes lacking solid empirical support. The issue is complicated by the fact that 9 policy
makers utilize conflicting definitions of a small bank. The US Federal Reserve, for example, 10 states
that any domestically chartered bank not among the 25 largest nationwide can be considered a small
bank- this group includes federal banks that are far larger than the local, personal banks cited by
economists.

MENTAL NOTES

PHYSICAL NOTES

(Inner monologue while reading the passage)

(Sample scratch work of notes about the passage)

The common wisdom is almost always going to be contradicted at some point

in the passage.

Lists of entities are rarely important on their own; skim them and go back only if asked.

The word of contrast at the beginning of this sentence indicates a reversal of

the conventional wisdom.

Take note of examples that support certain points in the passage. Some will be
explicitly highlighted with the word example or exemplify.

This sentence starts with a contrast word, and states the notable point of view
of some economists. This sentence plays the role of the thesis of this passage.

The word of continuity in this sentence indicates that the second paragraph is
a continuation and extension of the first.

The words first and lastly indicate an enumerated list of reasons; thus, the second
paragraph provides evidentiary examples to illustrate and expand upon claim made in
the first sentence.

The third paragraph has a final reversal, indicated by a word of contrast.

A complication is likely to introduce a new fact not yet described.

M: Small banks- important for an

economy?
A: Even-handed, sees both sides
P: Present alternative view
about small c. banks
S: P 1- Big banks more important?
Maybe not
P2-Small banks might be
better, esp. in recession

10 This is an implicit comparison, as opposed to many explicit comparisons made in this

passage (small vs. big banks, common wisdom vs. new theory). The Federal Reserve

uses one definition, and those that subscribe to the alternative view use another.

P3-Not enough evidence,

definition problems

HOW TO READ A QUESTION

(Question stems and wrong answer choices contain valuable clues)
1

The word inferred means that the correct answer will not be explicitly stated,
but must be true according to the passage.

The proponents of the alternative view are discussed in the second paragraph,
as per the MAP.

This choice states the opposite of what the proponents of the alternative view
believe: that the economic role played by small banks is large, not limited.

Legislation that offers aid to small businesses is an irrelevant topic. It is similar, but
not equivalent to emergency small-business assistance without bureaucratic delays.

This choice paraphrases the second paragraph and is correct. Small banks are local
(a geographical limitation) and must keep adequate reserves (a financial limitation) and
these qualities help in a recession economy .

This choice is extreme; the words overhauled and favor are unsupported by the passage.

The word avoided is extreme here; although small banks may be a necessary hedge
against depression, the personal connection may not, in itself, help economies avoid
recessions.

This use of direct passage wording is intended to trap test-takers. Notice that the
correct answer primarily paraphrases the passage and does not quote directly.

Check us out at www.knewton.com/gmat

Knewton Knotes

GMAT Critical Reasoning

CRITICAL REASONING APPROACH
1. Read the question stem to determine
question type. Doing so tells you what
youll be asked to do.

2. Identify the conclusion of the argument

and the evidence presented in the
argument.

3. Identify any assumptions clearly present

in the argument.

4. Make a categorical pre-phrase to deter-

mine the qualities of a correct answer.

DEFINITION OF TERM
Argument Two to five sentences that
lay out a set of logical premises and
usually draw a conclusion based on
these premises.
Premises The claims upon which a
conclusion is based; these consist of
evidence and assumptions.

Assumption Unstated, but necessary,

premises of an argument. Assumptions
often bridge a gap in reasoning between
evidence and conclusions. Every GMAT
argument contains multiple assumptions.
Inference A logical conclusion that
must be true based on the premises of
an argument but is not explicitly stated
in an argument.

Conclusions Opinions, predictions,

recommendations, or general principles
that are drawn based on the premises of
an argument. Conclusions can be found
anywhere in an argument. Conclusion keywords: thus, therefore, so, due to this,
for this reason, will result in, should, this
change will/would, apparently, clearly.

Entity A noun used in an argument; a

person, place, group, rate, rise in profit, etc.
Evidence Statements that are explicitly
stated in an argument. Evidence is used
to draw a conclusion in an argument.
Evidence keywords: because, given that,
since, due to the fact that, in the past
year, last month.

CRITICAL REASONING QUESTION TYPES

The three most common CR question types (constituting over 60% of all test questions, on average) require test-takers to identify the evidence,
conclusion, and assumptions provided in an argument.
WEAKEN (~30% of all CR questions)
Many CR questions ask test-takers to weaken an argument, or to find evidence that
undermines a prediction or recommendation made in the argument. Weaken questions
are the most common CR question type. Test-takers can weaken an argument by:
-- Invalidating an assumption on which the conclusion depends.
-- Identifying an additional piece of evidence that makes the conclusion itself less
likely to be valid.
-- Remembering that the correct answer does not have to invalidate or disprove the
argument to be an effective weakener.
-- Keeping in mind that there are several ways to weaken a causal argument (an argument
which concludes that a certain cause has a certain effect. (X Y):
Identify an alternative cause for the observed effect (Z Y)
Suggest reverse causation; that the effect in fact caused the proposed
cause (Y X)
Strengthen the chance that the cause and effect are correlated but not causally
related (X and Y, not X Y)
Negate the existence of the cause or effect (~X, ~Y)
STRENGTHEN (~20%)
Many CR questions ask test-takers to strengthen an argument, or to find evidence
that supports a prediction or recommendation made in the argument. A strengthener
does not have to prove the argument; it simply must make the conclusion more
likely to be valid. A strengthener may provide a detail that is directly relevant to the
situation described in the argument or a general principle that applies to the argument.
ASSUMPTION (~15%)
Some CR questions ask test-takers to identify an assumption upon which an argu-
ment depends. Assumptions either:
1. Fill a logical gap in the argument: If you have trouble coming up with assumptions,
try creating a sentence that links the evidence with the conclusion.
2. Negate a potential argument weakener: An answer choice may introduce and
immediately refute a piece of additional evidence that, if true, would weaken the
argument. Refuting a weakener shows that the original argument continues to
be valid.
The Negation Test can be used to identify or check the answer on Assumption questions
(see next page for Negation Test strategy).
INFERENCE (~10%)
-- Some CR questions ask test-takers to infer a statement based on a series of pieces
of evidence in an argument.
-- On Inference questions, the correct answer must be true. Wrong answers are either
entirely false or could be, but are not necessarily, true according to the argument.
-- There are two ways to form a valid inference:
Paraphrase: In a long, complicated inference question, the correct answer
will often paraphrase one idea in the prompt.
Logical Bridge: Most inference questions ask test-takers to connect two
pieces of evidence in the argument.

DETERMINING RELEVANT INFORMATION (~8%)

-- Some questions ask test-takers to determine which answer choice provides relevant
information with which to evaluate the conclusion of an argument.
-- The answer choices in this question type sometimes assume unusual forms;
for example, they may be questions or may begin with the word whether,
as in Whether the new strategy will cost more than the previous one did.
-- Locate the key feature that connects the evidence and the conclusion of an argument
to locate the correct answer.
EXPLAINING OBSERVED EVENTS/PARADOX (~8%)
Some CR questions present an observation and then ask test-takers to identify the
piece of evidence that would best explain it. In a Paradox question, the observed event
seems to conflict with the evidence. That is, the evidence leads away from the conclusion.
To resolve a paradox, the answer will be either a connecting piece of evidence or
a piece of evidence that explains both evidence and conclusion.
ROLE OF STATEMENT (~5%)
At times, a CR question will include two boldfaced statements and ask test-takers to
identify the role that the statements play in the argument. Identify the conclusion of
the argument and any evidence provided to support it, as well as any counterarguments.
In most cases, the statements are either evidence or conclusions.
FLAW (<5%)
Flaw questions ask test-takers to identify a logical flaw. Common Flaws include:
-- Unrepresentative samples
-- Confusing correlation and causation
-- Overlooked possibilities
-- Confusing sets and their members
-- Confusing necessity and sufficiency
METHOD OF REASONING/PARALLEL REASONING (<5%)
On rare occasions, test-takers will be asked to explicitly describe how an argument is
constructed, or to find an analogous situation that uses the same logical construction
as the original.
If you get stuck...
1) Take Your Time
Critical Reasoning prompts contain logical traps and demand close reading. CR ques tions often take far longer than SC or RC questions do - two and half minutes or more
is not too long for a tough CR question.
2) Draw a Diagram
Some students find it helpful to draw diagrams of the argument, using letters or
pictures to represent entities and their relationships. Doing so can help untangle
complicated arguments.
3) Eliminate Wrong Answers for a Reason
When stuck between two answer choices, identify the exact reason why either answer
choice is incorrect. Look for distortions and shifts in terms, irrelevant comparisons,
extreme language, and other common traps.

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Knewton Knotes

GMAT Critical Reasoning

KNEWTON CR STRATEGIES
Use the Negation Test

Paraphrase

Create a Categorical Prephrase

Notice Multiple Points of View

Negating a valid assumption will

invalidate an argument. Negate
each answer choice in turn: if
negating an answer choice invali-
dates the argument, that answer
choice is correct.

Critical reasoning questions often use

overly complex or convoluted language
just to confuse test-takers.

A categorical prephrase is a general

expectation of the logical features a
correct answer must contain.

Translate complicated arguments into

simpler language as much as possible,
and make mental abbreviations of long
entities.

Some prephrases can be specific (If the

alarm didnt deter criminals, it would not
make the neighborhood safer.) but most
are abstract definitions of the missing
piece of the argument (I need something
that would lead to a safer neighborhood.)

Some CR arguments express a point

of view other than that of the author.
Take notice of who is citing each piece
of evidence or drawing the conclusion
in an argument.

The Negation Test can be used on

Assumption questions, but not on
Strengthen questions.

Many arguments and answer choices

contain double and triple negatives.
Translate these into simpler sentences.

Categorical prephrases are useful for

weaken, strengthen and assumption
question types.

WRONG ANSWER CHOICES

COMMON CR LOGICAL PATTERNS

Opposite - Answer choices that have

the opposite effect of the correct
answer, including strengthen answers
on weaken questions and vice versa.

Distorted Details - Answer choices

that repeat argument wording, but
introduce errors, including false or
irrelevant comparisons, chronological
-- if one answer is the opposite of another, errors, or references to the wrong
group or idea
chances are good that one of them is

correct.
Scope Errors - Answer choices that
are too specific or too broad to address
the issue at hand, or that slightly shift
the focus of the question away from
what is being asked
Extreme Errors - Answer choices that
overstate claims, often through the use
of extreme language (only, never, must,
cannot, all) when there are no matching
claims in the argument.

-- Extreme answer choices are almost

never correct on Assumption Ques-
tions, but extreme terms can be found
in the correct answer of many Which
of the following, if true... questions.

Role of Statement questions often

express two opposing arguments
simultaneously in one CR stem.

Could be true - Answer choices that

could possibly be true according to the
argument but, that cannot be inferred
as definitely true.

-- Some wrong answer choices are

factually accurate, but if an answer
choice is not directly supported by
the prompt, it is wrong.
Irrelevant Topic - Answer choices that
refer to subjects that are tangentially
related to the topic of the argument but
are irrelevant to the question at hand.
Irrelevant Comparisons and Distinctions Answer choices that compare entities in
a way that does not address the argument
correctly. (this includes comparing a quantity
to the average when such a comparison
does not have an effect on the argument.)

Comparisons
--Many critical reasoning arguments
and answer choices use complex
comparisons.
--Make sure that both the entities and
the criterion on which the entities
are being compared are clear and
consistent.
Causation or Correlation
-- CR arguments often cite one or two
pieces of correlated factual evidence
and draw a causal conclusion.
-- Test-takers are often asked to either
strengthen or weaken this causal
conclusion with additional evidence.
Similar Conditions do not imply Similar
Results

-- Many CR arguments draw conclusions

about one situation based on the results
of another situation.

-- In these cases, never assume that

the similar conditions necessarily
imply similar results; the correct
answer often explains how the sit-
uations are less similar than is implied
in the argument.
-- The citation of a similar situation in
an answer choice is usually incorrect.
Absolute vs. Relative Quantities/
Groups vs. Members of Groups

-- Some arguments confuse absolute

and relative quantities, or confuse
percentages with real numbers.
--Arguments may state that because
a number of groups is rising, the
number of total members within those
groups is also rising. This is not nec-
essarily true, and the correct answer
may point out the fact that this only
occurs if the num ber of members per
group decreases.

SAMPLE QUESTION STEMS

WEAKEN
PARADOX
Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens (undermines, calls into question) Which of the following, if true, most helps to explain this surprising finding?
the argument presented above?
ROLE OF STATEMENT
STRENGTHEN
In the argument given, the two portions in boldface play which of the following roles?
Which of the following, if true, would provide the most support for (strengthen, provides
FLAW
the strongest grounds for, etc.) the lawmakers prediction?
The economists argument is flawed because it fails to consider
INFER CONCLUSION
This argument is most vulnerable to the objection that it fails to
Which of the following must be true on the basis of the statements presented above?
Which of the following can properly be inferred regarding tax rates from the statement
above?
DETERMINING RELEVANT INFO
In evaluating the argument, it would be most useful to determine (or most important
to know)
ASSUMPTION
Which of the following is an assumption made in drawing the conclusion above?
EXPLAINING OBSERVED EVENTS
Which of the following hypotheses best accounts for the finding of the experiment?

METHOD OF ARGUMENT
The researcher replies to the CEOs argument by
BLANK STEMS (~5%)
Some arguments have no question stem, but end with a blank. These tend to be either
explain events/paradox questions (However, these facts do not prove that the virus
causes infection, because ______ ) or infer conclusion questions (Thus, it can be
expected that __________).
EXCEPT STEMS
Any of the following, if true, would strengthen the managers conclusion EXCEPT

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