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Metal ions in aqueous solution exist as aqua ions, where water molecules act as ligands,
and coordinate to the metal ion via the oxygen donor atoms as shown for the [Al(H2O)6]3+
hexaaqua ion below:
Figure 1. The aluminum(III) hexaaqua ion, present in aqueous solution and in many salts
such as [Al(H2O)6]Cl3, often written as AlCl3.6H2O.
Metal ions can have varying numbers of water molecules coordinated to them, ranging
from four for the very small Be(II) ion, up to 9 for the large La(III) ion. These are shown
in Figure 2.
Figure 2. The Be(II) and La(III) aqua ions, Be(II) generated using PM3, the La(III) is
from the CSD (Cambridge Structural Database)1, entry number SUDDAW. As shown, the
geometry around the La3+ is a tricapped trigonal prism, a common geometry for ninecoordinate species with unidentate ligands.
In the solid state, the H-atoms of the coordinated waters are almost always H-bonded to
other waters, or anions such as nitrate of perchlorate. In aqueous solution, this H-bonding
structures the water molecules around the aqua ion into what is called the outer-sphere
of solvating water molecules, while the water molecules coordinated directly to the metal
ion are referred to as the inner-sphere waters. This is illustrated for the Al(III) aqua ion
below, where each H-atom from an inner-sphere water has a water molecule H-bonded to
it, giving twelve water molecules in the outer-sphere:
Figure 3. The Al(III) aqua ion showing the six inner-sphere waters (colored green) and
twelve outer-sphere waters H-bonded to the inner-sphere.
A point of interest is that water can exist also as a bridging ligand, as in numerous
complexes such as those shown below:
Figure 4. Bridging waters as found in a) the [Li2(H2O)6]2+ cation (CSD = CELGUV) and
b) the [Na2(H2O)10]2+ cation (CSD = ECEPIL).
Metal aquo ions can act as Brnsted acids, which means that they can act as proton
donors. Thus, an aqua ion such as [Fe(H2O)6]3+ is a fairly strong acid, and has2 a pKa of
2.2. This means that the equilibrium constant for the following equilibrium has a value of
102.2.
[Fe(H2O)6]3+(aq)
[Fe(H2O)5OH]2+(aq)
H+(aq)
[1]
Thus, if one dissolves a ferric salt, such as FeCl3.6H2O in water, a fairly acidic solution of
pH about 2 will result. In fact, the orange color of such solutions is due to the presence of
the [Fe(H2O)5OH]2+ ion, and the [Fe(H2O)6]3+ cation is actually a very pale lilac color. The
latter color can be seen in salts such as Fe(NO3)3.9 H2O, which contains the [Fe(H2O)6]3+
cation.
Metal aqua ions display varying pKa values that are dependent on size, charge, and
electronegativity.
1) The smaller the metal ion, the more acidic it will be. Thus, we have for the group 2
metal ions the following pKa values (note that ionic radii3 increase down a group):
Metal ion:
Be2+
Mg2+
Ca2+
Sr2+
Ba2+
0.27
5.6
0.74
11.4
1.00
12.7
1.18
13.2
1.36
13.4
2) The higher the charge on metal ions of about the same size, the more acidic will the
metal ion be:
Metal ion:
Na+
Ca2+
La3+
Th4+
1.02
14.1
1.00
12.7
1.03
8.5
0.94
3.2
3) Electronegativity. The closer a metal is to Au in the periodic table, the higher will its
electronegativity be. Electronegativity tends to override the first two factors in controlling
the acidity of metal aqua ions, and metal ions of higher electronegativity will be much
more acidic than metal ions of similar size and charge of low electronegativity.
Thus, one sees that Pb2+ will have a high electronegativity of 1.9, while the similarly
sized and charged Sr2+ will have a low electronegativity, and consequently much lower
acidity. Similar results are observed for the pairs of metal ions Na+ and Ag+, Y3+ and Tl3+,
and Ca2+ and Hg2+ (these results can be rationalized by referring to the above periodic
table in Figure 5):
Metal ion:
Sr2+
Pb2+
Na+
Ag+
1.19
13.2
1.18
8.0
1.02
14.1
1.15
12.00
Metal ion:
Y3+
Tl3+
Ca2+
Hg2+
0.90
7.7
0.89
0.6
1.00
12.7
1.02
3.4
One finds that metal ions are 50% hydrolyzed at the pH that corresponds to their pKa.
This can be summarized as a species distribution diagram as shown below:
Figure 6. Species distribution diagram for Cu(II) in aqueous solution. Other solution
species such as [Cu(OH)2]2+ have been ignored in calculating the diagram. Note that the
concentrations of Cu2+ and Cu(OH)+ are equal at a pH equal to the pKa of 6.5.
Solubilities of metal hydroxides.
If one leaves an orange solution of a ferric salt to stand, after a while it will clear, and an
orange precipitate of Fe(OH)3(s) will form. The extent to which Fe3+ can exist in solution
as a function of pH can be calculated from the solubility product, Kso. For Fe(OH)3, the
expression for Kso is given by:
Kso
[Fe3+] [OH-]3
10-39
[2]
One thus finds that the maximum concentration of Fe3+ in solution is controlled by pH.
Note that we need [OH-] in expression 2, which is obtained from the pH from equation 3.
pKw
pH
pOH
14
[3]
Thus, if the pH is 2, then pOH = 12, and so on. pOH is related to [OH-] in the same way
as pH is related to [H+].
pH
-log [H+]
[4]
pOH
-log [OH-]
[5]
2 Al(OH)3(s) =
Al2O3(s)
3 H2O(g)
[6]
The formation of ceramics involves such firing of hydrated metal salts in a kiln, with
waters of hydration being driven off. The oxides tend to be less soluble than the freshly
precipitated hydroxides, and on standing many hydroxides lose water, and age. Thus,
aged precipitates of hydroxides can be much less soluble than freshly precipitated
hydroxides. Fresh CaO is quite water soluble, but old samples can be highly insoluble.
Amphoteric behavior.
When one looks at the periodic table, one finds that at the very left, metal oxides are
basic. That means that if they are dissolved in water, they give basic solutions:
Na2O (s)
+ H2O (l)
[7]
On the right hand side, metal oxides dissolve to give acidic solutions, as with sulfur
trioxide:
SO3(s)
H2O (l)
2H+ (aq)
+ SO42- (aq)
[8]
There is a transitional area where the metals can display both basic and acidic behavior.
This is called amphoteric benhavior. Thus, Al(III) can display both acidic properties and
basic properties:
Acidic:
[Al(H2O)6]3+
Basic:
[Al(OH)4]-
[Al(H2O)5(OH)]+(aq)
[Al(OH)3] (aq)
H+ (aq)
OH- (aq)
[9]
[10]
At low pH Al(III) is acidic, while at high pH it is basic. The range of existence of the
species [Al3+], [Al(OH)2+], and [Al(OH)4-] is shown in the species distribution diagram
below:
Figure 8. Species distribution diagram for Al(III) showing the distribution of [Al3+],
[Al(OH)2+], and [Al(OH)4-] as a function of pH.
Metal ions that are amphoteric in the periodic table are highlighted in red below:
Be(II)
B(III)
Mg(II)
Al(III)
Si
Cl
Zn(II)
Ga(III)
Ge
As
Se
Br
Cd(II)
In(III)
Sn (II)
Sb
Te
Hg(II)
Tl(III)
Pb(II)
Bi(III)
Po
The species formed at high pH are, for example, the tetrahedral ions [Be(OH)4]2-,
[Zn(OH)4]2-, [Al(OH)4]-, and [Ga(OH)4]-.
Ligands.
A ligand is a molecule or ion that has a donor atom that can donate a pair of electrons to a
metal ion to form what is called a complex. Thus, in the complex [Co(NH3)5Cl]Cl2, the
NH3 and Cl- (only the one inside the brackets) are ligands. In NH3, the N is the donor
atom. The two chlorides outside the brackets are not acting as ligands here, since they are
not bonded to the Co. The [Co(NH3)5Cl]2+ is a complex cation, and the two Cl- ions
outside the brackets are only counter-ions. Some examples of ligands are:
Monodentate ligands (only one donor atom):
Neutral: NH3, H2O, P(C6H5)3, CO, C6H5N (pyridine), C4H8O (THF, tetrahydrofuran)
Anionic: OH-, CN-, F-, Cl-, Br-, I-, CH3COO- (acetate), SCN- (thiocyanate).
Bidentate chelate ligands
O
H2N
NH2
ethylene diamine
(en)
O
O-
O
oxalate
(ox)
2,2'-bipyridyl
(bipy)
1,10-phenanthroline
(phen)
N
H
NH2
O
N
H
O-
iminodiacetate (IDA)
N
terpyridyl (terpy)
N
H
N
H
NH2
N
H
O-
N
H
ethylenediaminediacetate (EDDA)
O
-
O-
O-
O
O
EDTA
ethylene diamine
tetraacetic acid
O-
O-
O-
O
O
DTPA
diethylene triamine
pentaacetic acid
[11]
We have already discussed OH-, which is a ligand. The pKa for a metal ion is related to
its log K1(OH-) value by:
pKw
pKa
log K1(OH-)
[12]
Thus, with pKw = 14.0, if we have pKa for Fe3+(aq), then log K1(OH-) for Fe3+ is 14.0 2.2
= 11.8. Note that because K1 values are usually quite large, they are normally expressed
as logarithms, i.e. log K1. The subscript 1 denotes that one ligand has been added to
form a complex ML. Formation constants that refer to the addition of more than one
ligand can be stepwise, or cumulative. Stepwise constants are indicated by log Kn values,
where n can have values 1,2,3,.. The cumulative constants are indicated by values,
such that n = K1 x K2 x K3 x.. Kn, or log n = log K1 + log K2 + log K3 +.. log Kn. This is
illustrated by the log Kn and log n values for the Ni(II)/ammonia system. (Note: Waters
coordinated to the Ni(II) as in e.g. [Ni(H2O)6]2+ have been left off for simplicity.
Equilibrium
log Kn
log n
2.73
2.73
(= log K1)
2.16
4.89
1.83
6.72
(= log K1 +
log K2 + log K3)
etc.
1.21
7.93
1.03
8.96
0.09
9.05
1025.5 =
Since the equilibrium in solution will be: [Fe(EDTA)] [Fe3+] + [EDTA], the
concentration of [Fe3+] must equal [EDTA]. Thus, if the concentrations of the latter
species are put equal to x, we have:
1025.5 =
[Fe(EDTA)-x ]/ x2
Ca2+
10.6
La3+
Th4+
15.4
23.2
The effect of size is complicated by the fact that EDTA is hexadentate, and if a metal ion
becomes too small, its complex will be destabilized. Thus, we have for the group 2 M2+
cations:
Metal ion:
Ionic radius():
Log K1(EDTA):
Be2+
0.27
9.7
Mg2+
0.74
8.8
Ca2+
1.00
10.6
Sr2+
1.19
8.7
Ba2+
1.36
7.9
What we see here is that Be2+ and Mg2+ are a little too small to accommodate EDTA
adequately, but that after Ca2+, increasing size starts to affect the strength of the metalligand bonds adversely.
The effect of electronegativity is one again that metal ions of higher electronegativity
have higher log K1(EDTA) values than metal ions of similar size and charge, but low
electronegativity:
Metal ions:
Ionic radius():
Electronegativity:
Log K1(EDTA):
Sr2+
1.18
1.0
8.7
Pb2+
1.19
1.9
18.0
Na+
1.02
0.9
1.9
Ag+
1.15
1.9
7.2
NH2
H2N
en
H2N
2
4.89
en
10.55
N
H
3
6.72
dien
14.0
NH2
4
7.93
trien
17.4
H2N
dien
N
H
N
H
tetren
N
H
N
H
5
6
8.96 9.05
tetren penten
19.16
N
H
NH2
trien
NH2
H2N
H2N
NH2
NH2
penten
One sees that as the number of chelate rings in the polyamine increases, its stability
relative to the ammonia complex increases steadily. This stabilization is known as the
chelate effect. EDTA is a chelating ligand, which owes most of the stability of its
complexes to the chelate effect. The chelate effect is an entropy effect, i.e. most of the
observed stabilization derives from probability. In a solution of a metal complex such as
[Ni(NH3)6]2+ at equilibrium, there is a rapid exchange of NH3 molecules and H2O
molecules:
fast
2+
[Ni(NH3)6] + H2O
[Ni(NH3)5H2O]2+ + NH3
Thus, when an ammonia ligand falls off the Ni(II) complex, it drifts away in solution, and
so there is a lower probability of it being re-attached. However, when one of the amine
groups of, say, penten becomes detached, it cannot move away, and so is readily reattached.
Chelating ligands are widely used for complexing metal ions, and EDTA and DTPA
above are manufactured in large quantities for complexing metal ions in a wide range of
applications ranging from food preservation to medical applications.
Macrocycles and the Macrocyclic effect:
In 1967, Charles Pedersen, working at DuPont, discovered the crown ethers. These are
cyclic polyethers, as shown below for 18-crown-6, 15-crown-5, and 12-crown-4:
O
O
O
O
O
18-crown-6
H 3C
15-crown-5
O
O
12-crown-4
O
O
CH3
pentaglyme
Pedersen found that 18-crown-6 complexed K+ quite strongly, which was interesting,
because alkali metal ions show little affinity for most ligands. Also of great interest was
that it complexed K+ selectively compared to the other alkali metal ions. This can be
illustrated with the log K1 values for alkali metal ions with 18-crown-6, plotted as a
function of metal ion radius in Figure 10. It should be noted that, whereas 18-crown-6
forms quite stable complexes with K+ in water, the non-cyclic analog pentaglyme above
does not.
Figure 10. Variation of log K1 for alkali metal ions with 18-crown-6 as a function of ionic
radius.
What was particularly interesting was the structure of the K+ complex of 18-crown-6. It
showed that the K+ fitted almost exactly into the cavity of the crown ether, as shown in
Figure 11.
complex with the chelate ring present in crown ethers, illustrated below, where it is seen
that the lone pairs on the O-donors focus on a point some 2.8 away, which corresponds
to the size of K+.
H3C O
O CH3
2.8
K+
Nitrogen-donor macrocycles:
The N-donor macrocycles complex well with metal ions with more covalent metal to
ligand bonding, such as Cu(II) and Co(III). As with the crown ethers, the N-donor
macrocycle cyclam (= cyclic amine) below forms complexes that are
thermodynamically more stable, i.e. have a larger log K1 value, than the non-cyclic
analog 2,3,2-tet.
H
Cu
H
28.0
Cu
N
cyclam
log K1 Cu(II):
2,3,2-tet
23.2
Figure 12. Structure of a) the Cu(II) (CSD = HAFSUC) and b) the Cd(II) (CSD =
UGOWOC) complexes of cyclam. It is seen that the small Cu(II) ion lies in the cavity of
cyclam, but the large Cd(II) lies above the plane of the ligand.
More Macrocycles - Cryptands:
In 1974 Jean-Marie Lehn developed the cryptands. These are bicyclic macrocycles, as
compared to the crown ethers and ligands such as cyclam, which are monocyclic.
N
O
O
O
O
O
O
cryptand-222
N
O
O
cryptand-221
The cryptands form complexes of much higher stability than crown ethers. This can be
seen in the following series:
O
O
O
NH
NH2
H2N
6.7
6.2
HN
O
O
O
O
O
12.4
6.7
What one notices here is that the large Pb(II) ion (ionic radius = 1.19 ) is able to benefit
from the high levels of preorganization of cryptand-222, whereas the small Cu(II) ion
(ionic radius = 0.57 ) is not able to bond ot all the donor atoms of the cryptand, and so
does not show a complex of enhance stability. The structure of the Ba(II) complex of
cryptand-222 is shown in Figure 13 below.
Figure 13. Structure of the Ba(II) complex of cryptand-222 shown a) looking down the
C3 axis, and b) viewed from the side.